41 GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION Alabama enjoys an abundant supply of ground water that, if managed wisely, will help fulfill our need for clean water indefinitely. As citizens, we should be aware of potential threats to our ground water supplies and help to protect those supplies from contamination. Contaminated ground water may be unfit for certain uses and may become harmful to humans, animals, vegetation, and property. Treatment of contaminated ground water is usually expensive, and sometimes a contaminated water supply must be abandoned and a new supply located. Preventing contamination before it occurs is the best solution. Because ground water contamination can have such serious consequences, many citizens, as well as local, state, and federal agencies, are taking action to protect ground water resources. Installation of liner in hazardous waste storage pit.
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GROUND WATERCONTAMINATION
Alabama enjoys an abundantsupply of ground water that, ifmanaged wisely, will help fulfill ourneed for clean water indefinitely. Ascitizens, we should be aware ofpotential threats to our ground watersupplies and help to protect thosesupplies from contamination.Contaminated ground water may beunfit for certain uses and maybecome harmful to humans, animals,vegetation, and property. Treatment
of contaminated ground water isusually expensive, and sometimes acontaminated water supply must beabandoned and a new supply located.Preventing contamination before itoccurs is the best solution. Becauseground water contamination can havesuch serious consequences, manycitizens, as well as local, state, andfederal agencies, are taking action toprotect ground water resources.
Installation of liner in hazardous waste storage pit.
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POTENTIAL CONTAMINANT SOURCES
Common sources of anthro-pogenic contaminants include septictanks and privies; undergroundstorage tanks; areas where fertilizer,pesticides, or herbicides are used orstored; landfills; and unauthorizeddump sites. A more complete list ofpotential sources of ground watercontamination is shown in Table 1.
The most common sources ofground water contaminationnationwide are underground storage
tanks (UST ’s), septic systems,pesticides, and nitrates. The AlabamaDepartment of EnvironmentalManagement (ADEM) considersUST’s and failing septic systems tobe the most serious threats to groundwater in Alabama, because they areso numerous. Other sources ofpotential ground water contaminationinclude unauthorized hazardouswaste disposal sites, old landfills,unauthorized dumps, and abandonedwells.
Common products which can contaminate ground water
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Ground water contaminationoccurs when ground water comes incontact with naturally occurringcontaminants or with contaminantsintroduced into the environment byanthropogenic activities. Naturallyoccurring substances found locally insoil and rocks that can affect groundwater include lead, iron, manganese,
Applied correctly, pesticides and fertilizer have minimalimpact on ground water quality.
aluminum, selenium, and arsenic, aswell as petroleum, microorganisms,and brine (salty water).Contaminants associated with humanactivity most commonly includebacteria, petroleum products, naturaland synthetic organic compounds,fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, andmetals.
One gallon of gasoline can rendermore than one million gallons ofwater unfit to drink!
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Table 1. Potential Sources of Ground Water Contamination(Based upon lists compiled by EPA and ADEM)
and pesticides spreading/spraying5. Truck terminals6. Fuel oil distributors/storage7. Oil pipelines8. Auto repair shops9. Body shops10. Rustproofers11. Auto chemical suppliers/
UST’s are commonly used atservice stations, refineries, and otherindustrial sites where gasoline, fueloil, and other chemicals are used. Ifthese tanks develop leaks, groundwater supplies can be seriouslycontaminated. Between 5 million and6 million UST’s exist nationwide.About 17,000 inventoried UST’s arecurrently in use in Alabama at about6,000 locations. To date, soil orground water has been contaminated
by leaking UST’s at about 9,000 sitesin Alabama. Cleanups have beencompleted at about 75 percent ofthese sites. Cleanup is continuing atapproximately 1500 more locations.Sometimes owners cannot be foundor do not have the money to cleanup these sites. EPA and ADEM arerequiring new UST systems to meetstandards that should sharply reducethe incidence of new leaks and aid indetecting leaks quickly when they dooccur.
Leaking underground storage tanks have causedmore than 90 percent of soil and watercontamination in Alabama, but 75 percent ofknown releases have been cleaned up.
Testing an underground storage tank for leaks.
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Leaking underground storage tanks are the leading cause ofground water contamination in Alabama. Underground storage tanks
must meet standards to prevent and detect leaks and spills.
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SEPTIC SYSTEMS
Septic systems are the mostcommon on-site domestic wastedisposal systems in use. It isestimated that more than 670,000active septic systems exist inAlabama, along with an unknownnumber of older, abandonedsystems. More than 20,000 newsystems are permitted annually. Ifproperly installed, used, andmaintained, septic systems pose nothreat to water quality; however, theAlabama Department of PublicHealth estimates that as many as 25percent of all septic systems inAlabama could be failing. Everyseptic system that malfunctions is apotential source of ground watercontamination and can haveconsequences that extend beyondthe boundaries of the owner’sproperty.
Properly functioning septicsystems are a simple and effectiveway to manage household waste. Thewaste first enters a tank where solid
materials settle out and are digestedby bacteria. The solids must beperiodically cleaned from the tank toprevent blockage of field lines andsubsequent overflow. Liquid wastepasses from the septic tank into thefield lines, where it percolates downthrough the soil. Breakdown of thesewastes is accomplished before thewastes reach the water table bybacterial action in the septic systemand the soil and by the filtering effectof the soil. Introducing hazardoushousehold wastes, including oil,powerful cleaners, and othersubstances into the septic systemmay kill the bacteria in the septicsystem and impair the system’sefficiency. Septic systems do not workwell in some parts of the state, suchas the coastal areas because soilconditions there are unfavorable. Toprovide adequate filtering of liquidwastes, septic systems require a fairlythick and moderately permeableunsaturated zone. In some locations,soils may be thin and the underlying
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rock, for the most part, impermeable.Near the coast, the sandy soils maybe too permeable to properly filterout contaminants or the water tablemay be too near the land surface toallow for proper operation. If a septicsystem ceases to function correctly,contaminated wastewater may enter
the shallow aquifer, which couldthreaten the homeowner’s own well.If contaminated wastewater from amalfunctioning septic systemsaturates soils this could also resultin a surface discharge that could bea health hazard and would not beallowable under state law.
If a septic tank is well designed and functioning properly, contaminants areremoved before reaching the water table.
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Contamination from a malfunctioning septic system. This household isin danger from a contaminated water supply.
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PESTICIDESPesticides are common ground
water contaminants. About 3.8million pounds of solid pesticides and450,000 gallons of liquid pesticidesare applied in Alabama each year tokill insects, rodents, mold, andweeds. Some pesticides are nowprohibited by EPA because theywere contaminating surface andground water. Others are beingstudied tod e t e r m i n ehow their useshould berestricted.
Mostm o d e r np e s t i c i d e swhen usedp r o p e r l yd e g r a d enaturally withtime andgenerally do not pose long termcontamination problems. Therefore,contamination of aquifers bypesticides travelling long distancesis unlikely. Instead, pesticidecontamination of shallow aquifersthrough direct runoff and infiltration,and contamination through
abandoned or improperly sealedwells and sinkholes are more likely.
The presence of trace quantitiesof pesticides in drinking water is notuncommon, but instances whereconcentrations exceed permittedlevels are rare. Nationwide, about 10percent of public water supply wellscontain detectable amounts of
pesticides, butless than 1p e r c e n tc o n t a i nq u a n t i t i e ssufficient toconstitute apublic healthrisk. Wherethis occurs thewater must betreated tor e m o v econtaminats
before being provided to the public.One quarter of the private wells andsprings tested by ADEM havecontained detectable quantities ofpesticides. Three percent of theprivate wells and 6 percent of thesprings had concentrations thatexceeded drinking water standardsor health advisory limits.
Agricultural Spraying UtilizingAerial Application
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NITRATES
Nitrates, chemical compoundscommonly used as fertilizer, can bea significant threat to ground waterquality. On-site residential septictanks can also be a source ofnitrates. Nitrates, unlike mostagricultural and lawn chemicals, donot chemically degrade with time. Ifmore nitrate compounds are appliedthan can be absorbed by plant rootsystems, they are likely tocontaminate shallow ground water.Nitrate in drinking water can causehealth problems in small children,notably a type of anemia calledmethemoglobinemia, or blue babydisease. About 1percent of publicdrinking waterwells in the UnitedStates exceede s t a b l i s h e dlevels of nitrates for public drinkingwater supplies. Nitrate contaminationhas caused the abandonment ofmore ground water suppliesnationwide than toxic wastes. Morethan 42 billion pounds of fertilizer isused annually in the United States.
Unsafe levels of nitrates havebeen found in some private wells inAlabama, although the extent of theproblem is difficult to determine.Agricultural areas characterized bylarge amounts of rainfall and sandy,permeable soils, such as thesouthern part of Alabama’s CoastalPlain, tend to be more vulnerable tonitrate contamination.
Concentrations of nitrate will alsovary with the season and rainfall. Thedetection of nitrate above 3.0milligrams per liter (mg/L) usuallyindicates that nitrate from
anthropogenic sources is enteringthe ground water. In a studyconducted on 158 residential wellsin Houston County, about 5 percentof the wells contained nitrateconcentrations between 5 mg/L and10 mg/L. Less than 1 percent of thesamples showed nitrate levels
Nitrate contamination has caused theabandonment of more ground water
supplies nationwide than toxic wastes.
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exceeding the drinking waterstandard of 10 mg/L. In a GenevaCounty study no samples had nitrateconcentrations exceeding 5 mg/L. Asimilar study conducted in theTennessee Valley region of the stateshowed approximately 20 percent ofthe samples to contain between 5 and10 mg/L of nitrate; only 1 percentshowed nitrate levels at or above 10mg/L. The Alabama Department ofPublic Health recently tested 479wells throughout the state for nitrate.Three of these wells exhibited unsafelevels of nitrate, but one of these was
located between two chicken houseswhich could be a source of nitrates.The other two were old and shallowwells, the kind most susceptible tocontamination. The other 476 wells(more than 99 percent of the total)contained levels of nitrate lower than10 mg/L.
Some midwestern states withheavy agricultural production havemore serious problems with nitratesin ground water than Alabama. Thisdifference might be explained bydiffering soil types and agriculturalpractices.
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LAND DISPOSAL
People have used the land todispose of unwanted materials andgarbage since the beginning ofcivilization. We have learned muchabout early cultures by studyingartifacts found in their garbageheaps. As knowledge grew of howdiseases are spread, the practice ofburying waste began, especiallyorganic, degradable waste, whichcontains or supports the growth ofpathogens (microorganisms thatcause disease). These materials aresometimes referred to as putresciblewaste.
While the burial of these materialseliminated a pathway for the spreadof disease, it meant that they wereplaced close to or sometimes withinthe water table, creating sources ofground water contamination. Rainfallinfiltrates the layers of waste, creatingcontaminated leachate that canpose a threat to surface waters aswell as ground water. Today, ourcountry is having to deal with soil andground water contamination causedby land disposal of industrial wasteas well as wastes typically sent to
An authorized non-hazardous waste landfill
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sanitary landfills. Sanitary landfillscontinue to be the receptacles forresidues of acidic or caustichousehold cleaners, batteries,leftover paint, and common enginecleaning products containingsolvents.
The federal Resource Con-servation and Recovery Act, RCRA,now requires protective liners inlandfills, leachate collection systems,and monitoring of area ground water.This is true for landfills used fordisposal of hazardous waste andnon-hazardous waste fromresidential sources. Industrial andcommercial waste sent to landfills
may contain much moreconcentrated sources of toxicmaterials. Toxic materials that may beconcentrated in industrial andcommercial waste include metals,and solvents used for dry cleaningand degreasing such as tetra-chloroethylene and trichloroethylene.
Because suitable landfill locationsare becoming increasingly difficult tofind, and no one wants a landfilllocated next to his or her property,landfill space is at a premium. Manycommunities have begun aggressiverecycling efforts to conserve landfillspace so it will last longer.
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TRASHING THE LANDSCAPEIn many rural
areas, dead enddirt roads ands i n k h o l e sc o m m o n l ybecome disposalsites for garbageand other wastematerials. Theseplaces areeyesores, posing a threat to groundand surface water quality andpromoting the spread of diseasethrough the growth of insect or rodentpopulations that can transmitdisease. Organisms such as thesewhich carry disease-causingpathogens are called vectors.
H a z a r d o u smaterials, deadanimals, and evenh o u s e h o l dgarbage placed inu n c o n t r o l l e ddumps wheresurface water haseasy access to theunderlying aquifer
can quickly contaminate that aquifer.Limestone aquifers with sinkholesare particularly susceptible tocontamination in this way, but allshallow aquifers can be seriouslydamaged by unregulated dumping.
Sinkholes like this one are thoughtlessly used for dumping trash, withunsafe and expensive consequences for ground water supplies.
Our country is having to dealwith soil and ground watercontamination caused byland disposal of industrialwaste as well as wastestypically sent to sanitarylandfills.
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There are state laws andregulations which prohibit illegaldumping. If you find an illegaldisposal site, you should contact theSolid Waste Branch of the AlabamaDepartment of EnvironmentalManagement.
The subsurface environment hasbeen used for centuries to disposeof liquid wastes such as householdwash waters and sewage. This wascommonly done through constructionof underground catchment basinscalled cesspools. These structuresallowed liquid wastes to graduallydischarge to the surrounding soilsand ground water. Today, in areaswhere there are no sanitary sewersor central treatment systems forhomes to connect to, septic tanksand drainage fields are used.
As our civilization has developed,new types of liquid wastes, such asthose from manufacturingoperations, had to be disposed of.Most of the time, liquid wastes weredischarged to surface streams. If astream or river was not available, thesubsurface was again used. Wasteswere sometimes pumped underpressure into surrounding soils, rock,and ground water. Typically, thesewastes were given little or notreatment.
Improper subsurface wastedisposal can contaminate groundwater and threaten both public andprivate drinking water wells. TheUnderground Injection Control(UIC) Program was developed underthe federal Safe Drinking Water Act(SDWA, 1974) to prevent con-tamination of underground sources
UNDERGROUND INJECTION
Improper subsurface waste disposalcan contaminate ground water and
threaten both public and privatedrinking water.
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of drinking water by improperdisposal of wastes throughunderground injection, or injectionwells.
In Alabama, subsurface disposalof household wastewater andsewage through septic tanks andfield lines is permitted through thecounty offices of the Alabama
Department of Public Health. TheAlabama Department ofEnvironmental Managementregulates any other type ofsubsurface liquid disposal throughthe UIC Program. This nationalregulatory program separates thedifferent types of undergroundinjection activities into five classes ofdisposal wells.
Shallow injection wells
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Class I – Wells used to dispose ofwastes below the deepest aquiferthat could be used as a source ofdrinking water. This type of well isno longer permitted in Alabama,and all existing wells have beenclosed.
Class II – Wells used to inject fluidsassociated with the production ofoil and natural gas. Injection occursbelow the deepest aquifer thatcould be used as a source ofdrinking water. This type of well isregulated by the State Oil and GasBoard.
Class III – Wells used to inject fluidsfor the solution mining of minerals.An example of this would beinjection of fresh water into naturallyoccurring underground deposits ofsalt. Salt can then be recoveredfrom the solution as a product.
Class IV – Wells that dispose ofhazardous or radioactive wastesinto or above an undergroundsource of drinking water. Thesewells are banned nationwide. If anoperating well of this type is found,it must be closed.
Class V – Wells not included in theother classes, that inject non-hazardous wastes into or above anaquifer that could be used as a
source of drinking water. UnderAlabama’s UIC program, permitsare required for these types ofwells. Regulations prohibit thesewells from contaminating groundwater above MaximumContaminant Levels, or drinkingwater standards.
Disposal of wastes through Class Vwells is a type of pollution source thathistorically has been poorly regulatedin our country, and which has led tomany instances of soil and groundwater contamination.
The decision to require permits forClass V wells in the state was madein 1983 when Alabama receivedapproval from EPA to implement theUIC program. The permitrequirement allows the review ofproposed activities prior to beginningoperation so that discharges can berequired to have treatment, if needed,or a permit could be denied if groundwater contamination could result.
There are about 300 permittedClass V wells in Alabama. Themajority of these wells are forfacilities such as car washes orlaundromats located in rural areaswhere there are no sanitary sewersthat could receive the wastewater. Inmost cases, a drainage field, such
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as would be used for householdwastewater disposal, is used todischarge wastewater, aftertreatment, beneath the surface tosoils. Another common activityrequiring a Class V UIC permit is thedischarge of treated ground waterfrom ground water corrective actionsystems. For example, contaminatedground water may be pumped to thesurface, treated to removecontaminants, and then put back intothe ground, thus improving the qualityof ground water at that location.
Substances such as oxygenreleasing compounds and nutrientsare sometimes injected to stimulateground water cleanup.
In many parts of the countryClass V wells are used to rechargeaquifers where water tables may bedeclining. They may also be used todrain storm water to prevent flooding.These types of uses are uncommonin Alabama. Class V wells are alsoused to discharge water from sometypes of heat pumps.
A Class V storm water drainage well in Colbert County. Onlya few of these types of wells are known to be in use in
Alabama.
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There may be more than 100,000active private water wells in Alabama.As public water supply systemscontinue to expand into areas thatpreviously depended on private waterwells as their water supply, more andmore of these wells have beenabandoned. In 1980, public watersystems in Alabama supplied 6 timesas much water as did privatedomestic wells; by 1990, the numberhad increased to 27 times as much.The total number of abandonedwater wells in Alabama is probably inthe tens of thousands.
Like sinkholes, abandoned wellsare directly linked to aquifers and canchannel harmful materials such assewage, pesticides, fertilizer, toxicchemicals, and bacteria from the landsurface into aquifers. Abandonedwells are not difficult to seal properly,but many remain open. Because oftheir large number and widedistribution, abandoned wells posea significant threat to local groundwater supplies.
Because Alabama is a mineral-rich state, widespread miningoperations exist, all of which use
boreholes. Boreholes penetratingshallow aquifers which have not beenproperly sealed could also becomeconduits for surface pollutants toenter the subsurface.
The Department of EnvironmentalManagement has developedguidelines for abandonment of waterwells and boreholes in Alabama.When a well is no longer useful, itshould not simply be left as an openhole. Any open well is a threat to theenvironment. A few years ago a smallchild became trapped in an openabandoned well, attracting nationalattention. If the well is a flowing well,millions of gallons of water can bewasted if the well is simply allowedto flow unchecked. If more than oneaquifer is penetrated by a well bore,waters from several aquifers maymix. If one aquifer is contaminatedthen contaminated water could flowfrom it into the well bore, and fromthere into other aquifers. For all thesereasons, it is important to properlyseal wells and boreholes when theyare no longer needed.
Abandonment methods varydepending on the kind of well
ABANDONED WELLS AND BOREHOLES
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involved. For instance, a verydeep well, or a monitoring well neara hazardous waste disposal facility,requires more care in abandonmentthan does a 10-foot deep hand-dugprivate well. Wells in farming countrymust be cut off and sealed at least 4feet below the surface to preventdamage to farm equipment.
In general, proper wellabandonment involves three tasks.First, one must clean out any debrisor equipment that may partially block
the well bore and prevent a properseal. Second, remove the casing(if possible), also for the purpose ofensuring a tight seal. Third, fill the wellbore from bottom to top with material,such as cement bentonite (clay)grout, that will prevent mixing of waterfrom different aquifers and alsoprevent surface water from enteringthe aquifers. Anyone planning toabandon a well should contact theGround Water Branch of the AlabamaDepartment of EnvironmentalManagement for more detailedinstructions.
Water Well AbandonmentProcedure
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Ground water isprotected by laws atboth the federal andstate levels. TheU.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency(EPA) has beendesignated byCongress to be oneof the primaryfederal agenciesresponsible forground waterp r o t e c t i o n .C o n g r e s sauthorized EPA tocarry outrequirements offederal laws havingprovisions thatprotect ground water quality. Onesuch law is the Safe Drinking WaterAct, which requires that standards beset for maximum contaminant levelsin drinking water. This act alsoestablished the UndergroundInjection Control, WellheadProtection, and Source WaterProtection Programs, which inAlabama are administered by ADEM.Other important federal
environmentallaws include theR e s o u r c eConservationand RecoveryAct (RCRA) ,which regulatesdisposal of solidand hazardouswastes andestablished anational programfor the regulationof undergroundstorage tanks.T h eComprehensiveEnvironmentalR e s o u r c e ,Compensation,
and Liability Act (CERCLA) set upa Superfund and authorized thefederal government to clean upchemical spills or hazardoussubstance sites that threaten theenvironment. The FederalInsecticide, Fungicide, andRodenticide Act (FIFRA) allowsEPA to control the availability ofpotentially harmful pesticides. TheToxic Substances Control Act
GROUND WATER PROTECTIONIN ALABAMA
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(TSCA) authorizes EPA to controltoxic chemicals that could pose athreat to the public and contaminateground water. The Surface MiningControl and Reclamation Act(SMCRA) regulates mining activities,some of which can negatively impactground water.
In 1993 Alabama joined a pilotprogram with EPA to document theenvironmental programs in Alabamathat together make up a
Comprehensive State GroundWater Protection Program.Alabama’s Ground Water ProtectionProgram was one of the first in thenation to receive EPA endorsementand is the core of an evolving planfor statewide ground waterprotection. The program focuses onprevention and concentrates effortsin areas of the state determined tobe most vulnerable to ground watercontamination. Specific laws passedby the Alabama Legislature that
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address protection of groundwater include the Alabama WaterPollution Control Act, theHazardous Waste Managementand Minimization Act, theAlabama Underground StorageTank and Wellhead ProtectionAct, and an act which established theHazardous Substances CleanupFund. The goal of Alabama’sGround Water Protection Program,is the protection of ground water fordrinking water and other beneficialuses . This goal is found in theAlabama Water Pollution Control Act.
With the authority provided bythese state laws, EPA allows theState of Alabama to administer thenational environmental programs
previously discussed. ADEMadministers all of these programsexcept for those under FIFRA, whichare carried out by the AlabamaDepartment of Agriculture andIndustries. State and federal lawsdealing with ground water protectionare summarized in Tables 2 and 3.
A basic step in protectingAlabama’s ground water resourcesis to identify and assess areasaffected by contaminants. Severaldifferent agencies are involved inground water assessment inAlabama.
ADEM is presently conductingstudies designed to evaluate nitratesand pesticides in wells throughout the
Geologist analyzing a water sample
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Table 2. State Laws Affecting Ground Water ProtectionLaws Date SummaryAL Solid Wastes Disposal Act 1969 Regulates solid Waste collection and disposal and
landfill construction, authorizes local goverments to
provide necessary services
AL Water Pollution Control Act 1975 Authorizes programs to protect waters of the state,
including standards, permits, and compliance assurance
AL Water Well Standards Act 1975 Regulates construction and driller qualifications for potable
water wells
AL Hazardous Waste Management 1975 Regulates the transport, storage, treatment, disposal, and
& Minimization Act other management of hazardous wastes
AL Coastal Area Management Act 1975 Requires Coastal Consistency Determinations of any
permitting activity affecting coastal resources
AL Safe Drinking Water Act 1977 Authorizes programs for potable ground and surface
water supplies, systems, and distribution for public and
certain private sources, including standards, permits, and
compliance assurance
AL Environmental Management Act 1982 Consolidated various environmental agencies and
programs into the Department of Environmental
Management; provided for permits/license fees and
administrative penalties
AL Underground Storage Tank & 1988 Regulates the construction and operation of USTs and sets
& Wellhead Protection Act requirements for leak detection standards, corrective
actions, and financial responsibility
AL Underground Storage Tank Trust 1988 Provides a fee-supported fund for participating UST
Fund Act owners for corrective actions and for third-party claims
arising from leaking USTs
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Table 3. Federal Laws Affecting Ground Water ProtectionLaws Date SummaryFederal Insecticide, Fungicide, 1969
& Rodenticide Act 1988* Authorized EPA to control pesticides
Safe Drinking Water Act 1974 Authorized EPA to set standards for maximum contaminant
and Amendments (SDWA) 1986* levels in drinking water, regulates underground waste
1996* disposal, designates areas that rely on a single aquifer,
established the Wellhead Protection Program and the
Source Water Protection Program
Resource Conservation & 1976 Regulates storage, transport, treatment, and disposal of solid
& Recovery Act (RCRA) 1984* and hazardous waste to prevent gound water contamination
Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 1976 Authorized EPA to control toxic chemicals
1988*
Clean Water Act (CWA) 1977 Authorized EPA to make grants to the states for the
development of ground water protection (affects ground
water shown to have a connection to surface)
Surface Mining Control & Reclamation 1977 Regulates mining activity
Act (SMCRA)
Comprehensive Environmental Response 1980 Authorized federal government to clean up contamination
Compensation, & Liability Act (CERCLA) caused by chemical spills or hazardous waste sites that
could or do pose threats to the environment
Superfund Amendments & 1988 Authorized citizens to sue violators of Superfund and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) established community right-to-know programs (Title III)
state, and is also involved in several other detailed ground waterassessment projects in other areas of the state.
The Geological Survey of Alabama (GSA) has conducted an annual groundwater sampling program from wells and springs in Alabama for many years,testing for the presence of inorganic contaminants.
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state, and is also involved inseveral other detailed ground waterassessment projects in other areasof the state.
The Geological Survey ofAlabama (GSA) has conducted anannual ground water samplingprogram from wells and springs inAlabama for many years, testing forthe presence of inorganiccontaminants.
The GSA is also participating in anumber of other projects that involvedetailed ground water assessments,including several wellhead protectionprogram projects. The WellheadProtection and Source WaterAssessment Programs are designedto protect ground water used forpublic water supplies. WellheadProtection and Source WaterProtection projects emphasize theneed for managers of public watersupply systems to understand howground water reaches public watersupply wells. Public involvement isalso emphasized to preventcontamination of these wells.Wellhead and Source WaterAssessment projects begin withgeological and hydrologicalevaluation of the aquifers used forpublic water supplies. The goal of
these evaluations is to determinewhat land areas should be includedin protection programs for publicwater supplies. Potential sources ofcontaminants within the critical areasare then inventoried. A map of aWellhead Protection Area for a publicwater supply well in Prattville, AL isshown on the adjacent page. Finally,for a wellhead protection program,management plans are developed tohelp ensure that public watersupplies are kept safe.
Wellhead protection study. Pouringnontoxic dye for an aquifer time-of-
travel test (dye tracing).
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Map showing wellhead protection ares for a public watersupply well
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The U.S. Geological Survey(USGS) has conducted regionalaquifer studies that includedAlabama, and is currently conductinga national water quality survey, whichwill include detailed sampling ofseveral Alabama watersheds.
The Alabama Department ofPublic Health (ADPH) also plays animportant role in protecting the state’sground water by analyzing watersamples for bacterial contaminationto locate and eliminate potentialcontaminant sources. These are onlya few of the agencies and programsinvolved in assessing and protectingAlabama’s ground water resources.A more complete list is provided inTable 4.
The most effective way to protecta ground water supply is by isolatingit from potential contaminants. Oncean aquifer has becomecontaminated, cleanup is usually alengthy and expensive process. Anindustrial site in Butler Countycontaminated with PCB’s is one ofthe 12 identified superfund sites inAlabama. Work at this site has beenon going since the early 1980’s withthe total cost estimated at $25 millionfor full clean up. The total estimatedcost for cleaning up all 12 superfundsites in Alabama is $300 million.
The responsibility for protectingthe state’s ground water does notstop at the federal and state levelsbut extends to the local level and toevery citizen. Individuals can help
Water Supply Well in Butler County
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Alabama Department of Environmental Management (ADEM) (334) 271-7700
ADEM Water Division (334) 271-7823 Surface and Ground Water Protection Programs
ADEM Ground Water Branch (334) 270-5655
Hydrogeology Unit Hydrogeologic Support
UST Corrective Action Unit UST Trust Fund, Assessment, and Corrective Action Programs
UST Compliance Section UST Regulatory Compliance Program
Underground Injection Control Class I, III, and V UIC Wells
Wellhead Protection Program Protection of Public Water Supply Wells
ADEM Municipal Branch (334) 270-7810 NPDES Permitting, Municipal Land Application Projects, Engineering & Compliance
State Oil and Gas Board (205) 349-2852 Regulates the Oil and Gas Industry
Underground Injection Control Class II Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program
Alabama Department of Public Health
Environmental Health Services (334) 206-5673 On-Site Sewage Treatment
County Health Departments Local Listings On-Site Sewage Treatment
NPDES = National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (Surface Water Discharge Permitting)
UST = Underground Storage Tank
Table 4. Agencies with Ground Water Programs
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State Nonregulatory Agencies Wtih Ground Water Responsibilities
Geological Survey of Alabama
Hydrogeology Division (205) 349-2852 Wellhead Protection, Public Education/Outreach, Hydrogeological Research
Ground Water Section (205) 349-2852 Ground Water Resources, Ground Water Level Database
Water Information Section (205) 349-2852 Water Well Database
Environmental Geology (205) 349-2852 Environmental Health, Water Quality Database
Division
Alabama Department of Agriculture and Industries
(334) 242-2650 Pesticides
Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs
Recycling Program (334) 271-5651 Recycling
Water Resources Office (334) 242-5499 Water Use Database
Natural Resources and Conservation Department
Fisheries Program (334) 242-3465 Environmental Health
Wildlife Program (334) 242-3469 Environmental Health
Federal Agencies with Ground Water Programs
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
USEPA Region 4, Ground Water (404) 562-9329 Public Water Supplies, UST and UIC Regulation, and Wellhead
Protection and Drinking Water Branch
USEPA RCRA/CERCLA Hotline (800) 424-9346 Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Information
(202) 382-3000 Solid Waste and Hazardous Waste Information
USEPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline (800) 426-4791 Environmental Health Information
USEPA Region 4, WHP Coordinator (404) 562-9453 Wellhead Protection Regulation and Information
United States Department of Agricuture (USDA)
USDA Rural Development (202) 720-9589 Agricultural Contamination, Solid and Hazardous Waste,
Administration
USDA Natural Resources (334) 887-4506 Agricultural Contamination, Evnironmental Health
Conservation Service
United States Department of Commerce (USDC)
USDC National Oceanographic (704) 271-4800 Environmental Health, National Climatic Data Center
and Atmospheric Administration
United States Department of the Interior (USDI)
USDI Geological Survey (334) 832-7510 Water Resources, Water Research
Table 4. Agencies with Ground Water Programs
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Perdido Ground Water Contamination
The 15-acre Perdido Site, located in Baldwin County, was contaminatedas a result of a train derailment in 1965. Approximately 7,600 gallons ofthe toxic chemical benzene were spilled into drainage ditches and seepedinto the underlying aquifer. The contaminated area extends about 1,000yards from the derailment site. Contamination of nine private wells hasbeen confirmed. Baldwin County Health officials recommended thatresidents within a 1-mile radius of the derailment use alternate watersupplies, which have been provided. In 1988, EPA selected a plan toclean up the ground water that included extraction and treatment of theground water by a technology called air stripping. Water is pumped out ofthe aquifer using wells drilled for that purpose. After the benzene isremoved, the treated water is returned to the aquifer by specially designedinjection wells. Construction of the treatment facilities was completed in1992, and treatment will continue until the ground water contaminant levelsmeet the cleanup goals established by EPA. The treatment program showscontinuing progress in reducing ground water contamination at the PerdidoSite. The estimated cost for the cleanup at the Perdido Site is $2,900,000for capital investment plus $270,000 per year throughout the cleanupprocess.
safeguard ground water suppliesby responsible use of potentiallyharmful materials such as fertilizers,pesticides, and household products.Manufacturer’s information andcounty agents can aid in selectingand applying lawn and gardenchemicals that produce minimalimpact on ground water supplies.Individuals, farms, industry, and otheroperations may apply pollutionprevention methods througheducation, best management
practices, and safeguards to preventground water pollution.
Many common householdproducts contain hazardous or toxicsubstances that could contaminateground water. Some of theseproducts are listed in Table 5. Careshould be taken in disposing of thesematerials. because some of themcontain substances that are not easilyremoved from sewage and that maydamage or ruin septic systems.
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Table 5. Common Household Products and Some of their Hazardous Components
potassium bromide, seleniumPrinting Ink heavy metals, phenol-formaldehydeWood preservatives(creosote) pentachlorophenolsWood pressure treatment heavy metals, cyanideSwimming pool chlorine sodium hypochloriteLye or caustic soda sodium hypochloriteJewelry cleaners sodium cyanideFertilizers nitrate
(Modified from “Natural Resources Facts: Household Hazardous Wastes” Fact Sheet No. 88-3,Department of Natural Science, University of Rhode Island, August 1988)
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Above ground treatment units at Ciba Specialty Chemicals,McIntosh, Alabama.
Lessons learned from pastmistakes have led to better siting anddesign of facilities such as industrialwastewater treatment facilities andlandfills, which in the past have beensources of ground watercontamination. Shown below areabove ground treatment units whichhave replaced earthen treatmentponds. Other facilit ies such aslandfills are now designed toeffectively prevent ground watercontamination, using devices such asdouble liners and leachate-collectionsystems. Monitoring of ground wateris required of facilities having thepotential to adversely affect groundwater quality.
Several options are available tocommunities and city governments
desiring to protect ground waterresources. These include source-water assessment and wellheadprotection programs. A number ofcommunities have initiated wellheadprotection studies. These effortshelp to safeguard public groundwater supplies by evaluating the localaquifer system, identifying potentialsources of contamination, anddeveloping a wellhead protectionmanagement plan to protect groundwater supplies, as well as acontingency plan in casecontamination occurs. Publicparticipation in developing thewellhead protection plans isencouraged.
A landmark example of a groupof individuals organizing to protect
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Tuscumbia is a Ground WaterGuardian Community
and control the development oftheir water resources occurred in agroup of watersheds in southeastAlabama. The group first formed intoa local organization, which laterbecame a legislatively funded localagency called the Choctawhatchee,Pea and Yellow Rivers WatershedManagement Authority (CPYRWMA).The CPYRWMA is administeredlocally and focuses on the waterresources of the entire Alabamaportion of the Choctawhatchee Riverand Pea River watersheds inAlabama, an area including parts of10 counties.
Another good way for citizens toget involved in source waterprotection is the GroundwaterGuardian program, founded by theGroundwater Foundation. Thisvoluntary program encourages localgroups of citizens to organizecreative projects to protect theirground water. Madison County wasthe first community in Alabama toestablish a Groundwater Guardianprogram and also the first to host aGround Water Festival forelementary aged school children.
Other ways that localgovernments can protect groundwater quality are through regulating
land uses that could degrade waterquality in the recharge areas ofmunicipal wells; by supplying water,sewer, and waste disposal services;by monitoring water supplies forpossible contaminants; and byestablishing a collection and disposalschedule for hazardous householdwastes. Because many householdshave no safe place to dispose ofhazardous wastes, this lastsuggestion is potentially of greatimportance. A collection day forhazardous wastes, called anamnesty day, was held in the FlintCreek area and was very successful,resulting in the collection of
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thousands of pounds of unwantedand out-of-date chemicals.
It is important to emphasize thatground water should not beconsidered an isolated resource, butrather as an integral part of the totalf r e s h w a t e rresource. Ifsurface waterin the rechargearea of ana q u i f e rb e c o m e spolluted, theaquifer itselfmay becomep o l l u t e dt h r o u g hr e c h a r g e .M a n ycommunities,such asA u b u r n ,Birmingham,G a d s d e n ,M o b i l e ,Montgomery,Muscle Shoals,Talladega, andT u s c a l o o s adepend on surface water for part orall of their water supplies. The surface
water on which these communitiesdepend is, in the dry season, largelysupplied by ground water dischargeto streams. For these reasons, themost effective resource protectionprogram should be comprehensivein scope and not restricted to ground
water orsurface wateralone.
The verybest and mostcost effectiveway to ensureadequate longterm groundw a t e rprotection ist h r o u g he d u c a t i o n .P r o v i d i n gp l a n n e r s ,students, andthe generalpublic with aknowledge ofour groundwater is theb e s tguarantee that
all Alabamians will enjoy clean, safedrinking water for generations tocome.
Swift Creek Park, Autauga County
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GLOSSARY(Glossary terms used in the definitions of other glossary terms
are italicized where used.)
ADAI Alabama Department of Agricultureand Industries
ADEM Alabama Department ofEnvironmental Management.
ADPH Alabama Department of PublicHealth.
Artesian well An artesian well is drilled intoan aquifer that is under pressure (aconfined aquifer). If the pressure is highenough, water flows to the surface
.Aquifer Rock, soil, or sediment that contains
ground water and is capable of yieldingsignificant amounts of water to a well orspring.
Brine Salty water.
Calcite A mineral, the primary constituent oflimestone. The most common form ofcalcium carbonate (CaCO3).
CERCLA Comprehensive EnvironmentalResponse, Compensation, and LiabilityAct. Also called Superfund.
Concentration In chemistry, theconcentration of a substance is the decimalfraction or percentage of that substance ina mixture of two or more substances, perunit volume. Thus, if one part of salt is mixedwith nine parts of water, then the salt
concentration is 10 percent, or 0.1.
Confined aquifer An aquifer bounded aboveand below by confining units. A confinedaquifer is entirely filled with liquid and maybe under pressure.
Confining unit A confining unit is a rock,soil, or sediment unit that stores water, butdoes not transmit significant quantities ofwater.
Contaminant A substance which either byits presence or concentration makes waterunsuitable for a desired use. Somecontaminants occur naturally.
CSGWPP Comprehensive State GroundWater Protection Program.
Discharge In the context of ground water, themovement of water from the ground watersystem to the surface water system.
Dolomite A mineral (Ca,Mg(CO3)2) relatedto calcite and common in somelimestones.
PESTICIDESPesticides are common ground
water contaminants. About 3.8million pounds of solid pesticides and450,000 gallons of liquid pesticidesare applied in Alabama each year tokill insects, rodents, mold, andweeds. Some pesticides are nowprohibited by EPA because theywere contaminating surface and
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EPA United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.
Evaporation The conversion of a liquid to agas.
Evapotranspiration Evaporation plustranspiration.
Fall line The boundary between older, hard,igneous and metamorphic rocks and theyounger, soft sedimentary rocks of thecoastal plain. Marked by a break in slopeand waterfalls in rivers.
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, andRodenticide Act.
Formation A rock unit that has recognizablecharacteristics and that is thick andextensive enough to be mappable. Anaquifer is commonly a formation, part of aformation, or two or more formations.
Ground water Water in the saturated zonebelow the surface of the ground.
GSA Geological Survey of Alabama.
Hardness See hard water.
Hard water Hard water does not readilyproduce a lather with soap. Because itcontains substantial amounts of dissolvedcarbonate, hard water tends to form achalky white scale on hot water heaters andin tea kettles. The origin of the name isunknown, but it may have referred to the
“hard rocks” (limestone and dolomitemountains) from which hard water comesin southern Europe where the name wascoined.
Hydrogeologic province A region, typicallymuch larger than a county, defined by acertain kind or kinds of aquifers.Hydrogeologic provinces approximatelycorrespond to physiographic provinces,which are defined by characteristic kindsof rocks. For example, the Coastal Plainphysiographic province, with its gentlydipping sands, shales, and limestones,coincides with the Coastal Plainhydrogeologic province, with its evenlylayered sand and limestone aquifers.
Hydrogeology The scientific study of groundwater and rock, sediment, and soil units(aquifers) containing ground water.
Hydrologic cycle The circulation of waterfrom the oceans, through the atmosphereand back to the Earth’s surface, over theland surface and underground, andeventually back to the oceans.
Infiltration In soil science and hydrology, thedownward movement of water into soilduring and after a precipitation event.
Ingeous rock Rocks that solidified from ahot, liquid state.
Leachate See leaching. Liquidproduct of leaching.
Leaching Generally, any process inwhich a fluid selectively removesmaterial from a solid through whichit passes. Leaching commonlyrefers to the downward passage ofsurface water or rain water throughsoil, sediment, or landfill material,
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widespread.
NRCS Natural Resources ConservationService. Formerly the Soil ConservationService. Part of the U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
Overpumping Withdrawing more water froman aquifer than is replenished by recharge.
Pathogens Microorganisms which causedisease.
Permeability A measure of theinterconnectedness of a pore or fracturesystem, which determines the ability of arock unit to transmit fluids.
Physiography The genesis and nature ofland forms.
Point source pollution Pollution from aknown and well defined source. Forexample, a factory, waste treatment plant,or leaking underground storage tank.
Porosity The amount, usually represented aspercent, of open pore space in an aquifer.
PPM Parts per million. One ppm=1 unit of asubstance in 1,000,000 units of anothersubstance.
Public water system A system to providepiped water to the public for humanconsumption, if such system has at least15 service connections or regularly servesan average of at least 25 individuals atleast 60 days of the year.
Leachate See leaching. Liquid product ofleaching.
Leaching Generally, any process in which afluid selectively removes material from asolid through which it passes. Leachingcommonly refers to the downward passageof surface water or rain water through soil,sediment, or landfill material, and theresulting transport of dissolvedcontaminants into the ground watersystem.
Limestone A sedimentary rock composedchiefly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)particles made by marine animals andplants.
MCL Maximum contaminant level, themaximum permissible level in drinkingwater of a particular chemical, establishedby the EPA.
MGD Million gallons per day.
Metamorphic rock made by heating andsqueezing preexisting rocks so that newminerals replace the preexisting ones.
Microorganisms Organisms such asbacteria and viruses which are too smallto see with the human eye.
Nonpoint source pollution Pollution whosesources are diffuse, multiple, or
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RCRA Resource Conservation andRecovery Act.
Recharge Water that enters an aquifer fromthe surface or the process of aquiferreplenishment .
Recharge area That region in which anaquifer is exposed at the surface (perhapscovered by soil), so that water falling withinthe recharge area can penetrate into theaquifer.
Runoff That portion of precipitation that flowson or just beneath the land surface until itreaches a surface water body, enters theground, or evaporates.
Sand A sediment consisting of small rockparticles (62 micrometers to 2 millimetersin size). The most common mineral in sandis quartz (SiO2), which is the primaryingredient in glass.
Sandstone A rock consisting chiefly of sand-sized particles cemented together by somenatural cement (typically quartz, calciumcarbonate, or iron oxide).
Salt water intrusion The introduction into afreshwater aquifer of sea water orsubsurface brine. Usually caused byexcessive pumping of wells, which permitssalt water to flow into the aquifer laterally
or from below.
Saprolite A soft, earthy, decomposed rockformed in place by chemical weathering ofigneous and metamorphic rocks. Saproliteis commonly red or brown, and forms inwarm, humid climates.
SARA Superfund Amendments andReauthorization Act.
Saturated zone That region below the watertable in which all voids are filled with liquid.
Sedimentary rock A rock that consistschiefly either of small pieces of rockcemented together (e.g., sandstone) or ofcrystals that grew from water (rock salt).There are some odd earth materials thatare commonly considered sedimentaryrocks, such as coal. The other two kinds ofrock are igneous and metamorphic .
Shale A sedimentary rock consisting of verysmall fragments (less than 62 micrometers)that tend to be thin and flat. Shales are notgood aquifers because the holes betweenparticles are too small and because thechemical properties of many shaleminerals permit them to hold onto a largeamount of water. Shales generally formconfining units.
Sinkhole A hole caused by collapse of theland surface, commonly becauseunderlying limestone rock has dissolvedaway, forming a cavity.
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Soil Particulate matter, commonly containingsand, silt, clay, and organic material andhaving a definite layered structure, forminga layer a few inches or many of feet thickthat covers most of the earth.
Source Water Protection A programinitiated by the EPA in 1996 to protectpublic water supplies. Source waterassessment is required of each watersystem and involves delineating sourcewater protection areas, inventoryingsignificant contaminants in these areas,and determining the vulnerability of eachpublic water supply to contamination.Source water protection is voluntary andinvolves actions taken to protect drinkingwater supplies.
Spring A point or zone of natural dischargeof water from underground to the landsurface or to the bottom of a surface waterbody.
Strata Layers, specifically layers of rock, laiddown during a certain period of time, andcommonly possessing certain physical andpaleontological characteristics.
Superfund See CERCLA.
TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act.
Transpiration The passage of water vaporout of plant leaves through pores and intothe air.
UIC (Underground Injection Control) A
national environmental programauthorized by the federal Safe DrinkingWater Act to protect underground sourcesof drinking water.
Unconfined aquifer An aquifer consistingof an overlying unsaturated zone andunderlying saturated zone, separated by awater table.
Unsaturated zone That region of soil,sediment, or rock above the water tablecontaining both air and water in voidspaces.
USGS United States Geological Survey.
UST Underground Storage Tank.
Vectors Organisms carrying pathogens.
Water budget An estimate of the amount ofwater moving through each part of thehydrologic cycle for a given region.
Water table That surface within soil or rockbelow which all pore spaces are filled withwater and above which at least some ofthem contain air.
Waters of the State The Alabama WaterPollution Control Act defines this as allsurface or ground water in the state exceptwater entirely confined and retainedcompletely upon the property of a singleindividual, partnership or
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corporation unless the water is used ininterstate commerce.
Watershed A natural unit of land from whichthe surface water runoff subsurface, andground water drain to a common outlet.
Well A bored, drilled, or driven shaft or dughole. Wells range from a few feet to morethan 6 miles in depth, but most water wellsare between 100 and 2,000 feet in depth.
Wellhead protection area The surface and
subsurface area surrounding a publicwater supply well or well field that acommunity has taken steps to protect, andthrough which contaminants are likely tomove toward and reach such well or wellfield.
Wetland Land characterized by any of thefollowing: water loving plants, hydric soils,and flooding part or all of the year. Hydricsoils have distinctive characteristicsresulting from the common presence ofabundant moisture.
WHPP Wellhead Protection Program.
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FURTHER READING
American Institute of Professional Geologists,1984, Ground water issues and answers:American Institute of ProfessionalGeologists (7828 Vance Drive, Suite 103,Arvada CO 80003), 24 p. Good summarywith excellent illustrations.
Baker, R. M., and Mooty, W. S., 1993, Use ofwater in Alabama, 1990: Tuscaloosa,Geological Survey of Alabama, InformationSeries 59E, 49 p. Annual publicationcontaining basic facts about the use ofwater in Alabama.
Bock, Rosalie, 1990, The story of drinkingwater: American Water Works Association(6666 W. Quincy Ave., Denver CO 80235),16 p.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1990,Citizen’s guide to ground water protection:U. S. Environmental Protection Agency(Office of Water, Washington DC 20460),33 p.
Francis, B. M., 1994, Toxic substances in theenvironment: New York, John Wiley andSons, Inc., 360 p. Well written and aimedat the nonscientist.
Iowa Dept. of Natural Resources, 1989,Groundwater primer for Iowa issues: IowaDepartment of Natural Resources (WallaceState Office Building, Des Moines Iowa
50319), 23 p.
James, I. C., II, Kammerer, J. C., and Murray,C. R., 1994, How much water in a 12-ounce can? A perspective on water useinformation: U.S. Department of the Interior,Geological Survey, 20 p.
Moore, J. D., and Szabo, M. W., 1994,Alabama’s water resources: Tuscaloosa,Geological Survey of Alabama,Educational Series No. 5, 21 pages plusposter and student activity guide (by SylviaB. Moore, Polly Klutz, and George Pratt).
Moore, J. E., Zaporozec, Alexander, andMercer, J. W., 1995, Groundwater: aprimer: American Geological Institute(4220 King Street, Alexandria Virginia22302-1507), 53 p.
U. S. Department of the Interior, 1993, WaterDowsing: U.S. Department of the Interior,Geological Survey, 15 p.
U. S. Department of the Interior, 1994, TheHydrologic Cycle: U.S. Department of theInterior, Geological Survey, 7 p. Conciseand good summary.
U. S. Department of the Interior, Reprinted1999, Ground Water and Surface Waterand Surface Water a Single Resource, U.S. Department of the Interior, GeologicalSurvey, 78p.
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BY THE NUMBERS
696 Public Water Systems in Alabamaserve a population of approximately5.0 million.
499 systems (72%) utilize Ground Wa-ter as a Source.
16 Systems in Alabama utilize GroundWater along with Surface Water.
Approximately 1.98 million (40%) ofAlabama’s population are served byGround Water.
Figures based on 2001 data
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Ground Water GuardianThe Department was designated a Groundwater
Guardian Affiliate by the Groundwater Foundationin November 1997 and again in November 1998. TheGroundwater Guardian program is designed toempower local citizens and communities tovoluntarily protect their groundwater resources andgenerate local solutions that effectively address localgroundwater protection priorities.
In being named an affiliate, ADEM was honoredfor promoting the program in Alabama, assisting withthe first two Groundwater Festivals in the state, andfinancially supporting the Alabama CooperativeExtension Service workshops on groundwaterprotection.
