Groundwater Contamination (NXPowerLite)

7/30/2019 Groundwater Contamination (NXPowerLite)

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A need for joined up

thinking: Groundwater

management in rural Uganda

Carolyn RobertsUniversity of Gloucestershire, UK

Association of AmericanGeographers AGM, San Francisco,

USA, April 2007


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Uganda

Lake Victoria

Location


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Key influences on waterpolicy and management in

UgandaEconomic fragility and high levels of

indebtedness

Rapid population growth in rural and urbanareas, leading to inability to meet basic needs

Post-colonial political instability and ethnictensions, leading to infrastructural collapse in the

1970s and 80s Low levels of literacy (


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Agenda 21 summary

Water resources must be planned and managed in anintegral and holistic way to prevent shortage of water,or pollution of water sources, from impedingdevelopment. Satisfaction of basic human needs and

preservation of ecosystems must be the priorities; afterthese, water users should be charged appropriately.

By the year 2000 all states should have national actionprogrammes for water management, based on

catchment basins or sub-basins, and efficient water-use programmes. These could include integration ofwater resource with land use planning and otherdevelopment and conservation activities, demandmanagement through pricing or regulation.


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Water-related MillenniumDevelopment Goals forUganda100% rural population to have access to

safe and adequate water and sanitation(latrines) by 2015

Access is defined as a safe source within1.5 km

Reductions in water-related diseases suchas diarrhoea

Some progress (World Bank, 2002) butprobably currently lagging behind targets on

both water supplies and sanitation


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UNESCO Water Supply and SanitationSector Assessment, 2000

Urbanwater

supply

Ruralwater

supply

Urbansanitation

Ruralsanitation

Population000s

(A.D. 2000)

3,083 18,695 3,083 18,695

Pop with houseconnection/

public sewer

204 229 220 28

Pop with Public

Waterpoint/non-sewer sanitation

1,341 2,763 1,834 10,274

PopulationServed

2,200 8,600 2,960 13,460

% Population

served

72 46 96 72


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Ugandas physical

environment

24,000 sq km highaltitude (1000m+)equatorial territory, in

the Nile Basin 17% open water with

lakes and swamps

Granitic basement

Lateritic Fe/Al soils,clay loams

Monsoonal climate

Tropicalforest/savannah

mosaic


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Ugandas human

background Population c. 25 m

Growth rate 3.1% /a

50% population

under 15 Mean family size

5.5-6 children

Life expectancy atbirth c.M46, F51 yrs

GDP $310 /hd

Inflation 6%

154th in worldranking of economic

indicators


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Approx. 80% rural population


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Large villages and small towns


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Water availability in Uganda

Uganda apparently has a

large volume of availablewater per head

Mean water use in Africais 47l/hd/day

UNEP estimate 25

African countries,including Uganda, willexperience waterscarcity or stress in thenext 20-30 years, mainlybecause of populationgrowth

Climate change willincrease uncertainty

Distribution and quality

problems also influencescarcity


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Ugandan policies on water

1990 Water and Sanitation Programme began forrural towns (500-50,000 people)

1992 UNCED (Integrated Water ResourceManagement)

1994 Uganda Water Action Plan

1995 Uganda Water Statute 1996 Uganda (Draft) Water Policy

1998 Regulations for the control of water resources,water and sewerage and waste water discharges

Uganda Wetlands Conservation Strategy 1999-2000 Africas Water Vision (U.N.)

2000 Uganda Rural Water and SanitationInvestment Plan and Strategy

2001 Nile Basin Strategic Action Programme


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Current emphases inUgandan water policy Rational use of water, in an integrated way

Decentralisation of responsibility for implementationfrom the Ministry of Water, Lands and EnvironmentsWater Development Department to District Offices

Full cost recovery with some cross-subsidisation ofsafe water services for poor people

Full stakeholder involvement (Mobilisation Officers)

NGO/aid agency and private sector involvement

Accountability

Safe storage, treatment and disposal of waste,according to the Polluter Pays principle

Technical training at local level

Increasing emphasis on privatisation


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Key areas for research

Comparison of supply management situationin 2001-6 with the late 1960s

Environmental footprints of settlements

Environmental impacts of water

management strategiesEconomic and social costs and benefits of

water supply arrangements

Sustainability criteria for water supplies indeveloping areas (Loucks and Gladwell,1999)

Field investigation conducted by UoG and

NTCK staff and students


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Gilbert Whites Drawers of

Water, 1972

Drawers of

Water, 2004


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Kamuli

Iganga

Kaliro

Case

studyvillages


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Alternative supplies ofwater in rural areas

Household connected to mains supply,pumped from river, reservoir or borehole

Public or private standpipe with tapBorehole with handpump

Well

Spring or protected springRiver, lake or swamp

Puddle


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High tech pumped supply fromsmall reservoir: Kamuli

Cost andmaintenance issues


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Metered mains householdsupply: Kamuli

Take up is very low;most residentscontinue to usealternative sources

Mean daily use inKamuli in c. 1968 bytap holders was86l/hd/day (Iganga85l/hd/d)

Rural use was c 13-16l/hd/day

Borehole supplies arealso preferred by local

people on qualitygrounds


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Public or private pumped

supplies to standpipes,Iganga

Colonial system,

disused

Diesel-pumped borehole,

with taps


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Borehole andhand pumps

Frequently funded fromforeign aid programmes


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Protected spring

Open well

Protectedsprings and

wells areuniversal


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Surface and groundwaterquality parameters

pH

Conductivity

Nitrate

Nitrite

Ammonia

Phosphate

Iron

Chloride

E. Coli (partialcoverage)

Q i i i h


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Questionnaire with users,undertaken at the source using

NTCK student interpretersGender Indirect estimates of relative wealth (e.g.

shoes, bicycle, clothes?)

Distance travelled and mode of transportHousehold sizes (adults, children)

Frequency and volume of collections perhousehold, per day

Price of water

Views on water quality at source, and anyrequired treatment prior to consumption

Other water sources used, and reasons


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Payment for interviews


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3500

3550

3500

NATWANA

Kaliro

Station

600

200

200

200

300

300

400

400

500

500

KALIRO Residential area

Swamps

River

Minor road

Railway line (disused)

Contour (m)

Borehole

New borehole

New area for pipes

CONDUCTIVITY

600 S

500 S

400 S

300 S

200 S

0 1km

(Approx)

GroundwatercontaminationKaliro


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3650

3700

3750

3700

3700

3650

700

600

200

300

400

500

IGANGA

Built Up Area

Swamps

River

Minor Road

Major Road

Disused Railway Line

Contour (m) Borehole

CONDUCTIVITY

700 S

600 S

500 S

400 S

300 S

200 S

0 1km

(Approx)

Groundwater contamination,Iganga


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Water quality findings

Village/town impacts on groundwater quality

in Kamuli, Iganga and Kaliro are clear andapparently repeatable, year on year

Simple analytical technology is adequate

Comparison with official data suggestscomparable picture for nitrate, phosphate,ammonia, pH, conductivity, iron, chloride

Bacteriological data may not be required

Contamination is the result of lack ofsanitation, pit latrine seepage and detergentdisposal

Users frequently draw on contaminated

sources, in all settings


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Basic findings on water use

Typical consumption byborehole users inIganga, Kaliro andKamuli is c. 20l/hd/day

UK domestic

consumption isbetween 200 and 300l/hd/day

US domesticconsumption is c 400

l/hd/day Fetching water requires

about 5-10% typicalcalorific intake (Whiteet al)


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The safe water chain

Lack of sanitationand effective

drainage impedesprogress onsustainable supplies

Implementation is

problematic despitethe efforts ofmobilisation officers

Th i i i f


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The socio economic impact ofscarcity is as severe as in the

1960s For most rural Ugandanwomen in 2006 therhythm of the working

day is still made up of

walking, queuing andcarrying water


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Iganga: Diesel-driven pumpedborehole supplying standpipes

Water sellers

prices areapproximatelytwice that ofpersonallycarried supplies

Take up bywealthierresidents issignificant


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Policy Impact One

Rapid population growth leading to

inadequate facilitiesPolicy suggests that a new borehole/facility

is required

Maximum population within 1.5 km soughtBoreholes installed in urban/suburban areas

Local groundwater is contaminated from pitlatrines and other waste water

People abandon traditional sources and walkinto town to collect water from boreholes

Perception that water quality is good, noperceived need or no fuel for boiling

Increased risk of water-borne diseases


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Health and social wellbeingimpacts

Wh t h t P li


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What happens next: PolicyImpact TwoWater yields are relatively low per boreholeTypical use is only c. 20 l/hd/day

Women and children queue for hours

Borehole area is poorly maintained andleakage, spillage or animal trampling occurs

Stagnant water supports mosquitoes

People are infected with malaria whilst

queuing into the eveningPrivatised health care providers flourish

Inhabitants perceive higher levels ofhealthcare in urban areas, promoting rural-

urban migration


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Key findings

Villages and small towns have a significantenvironmental footprint on groundwater

Water quality may be estimated adequatelyby using simple determinands such asconductivity, reducing the need to wait forofficial assessments to become available

Water supply provision must be matched byinvestment in sanitation

Education is significant, but needs to bebased on appropriate scientific information


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Strategic targets are beingoverwhelmed by population growth


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The impact of privatisation?

Lack of technicalcapacity in localgovernment, plusissues of non-

compliance with centralpolicy by aid agencieshas promotedprivatisation

Some sources are

removed altogetherWater costs have risen

to approximately 10%of family income insampled villages


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Concepts of sustainability

Sustainable water resourcesystems are those designed and

managed to fully contribute to theobjectives of society, now and inthe future, while maintaining their

ecological, environmental, andhydrological integrity

Loucks and Gladwell, 1999


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Concepts of Sustainability

1. Engineering

2. Economics

3. Environment

4. Equity


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Concepts of sustainability

Resilience

Adaptive capacity

Vulnerability


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Acknowledgements Staff and students from

National Teachers College

Kaliro, Uganda Staff and students from

University of Gloucestershire

Ministry of Water, Lands and

Environment, Kampala,Uganda

Uganda Bureau of

Statistics

Busoga Trust

White G.F., Bradley D.J.,and White A.U. 1972Drawers of WaterUniversity of Chicago

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