GROUP & GROUP DYNAMICS

Definitions

• In a layman’s view a number of people together at a given place and given time can be considered as a group.

• Group – “It refers to a collection of two or more interacting individuals with a stable pattern of relationships between them ;who share common goals and who perceive themselves as being a group”.

• Marvin Shaw ---- “A group is two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person”.

Crowd standing at the bus stop and waiting for bus

Crowd standing in a railway station /or in a cinema house …..

Do they constitute a group ???

Conditions to be satisfied to be called a group

• E.H. Schein prescribes three conditions –• 1.People must interact with one another• 2.They must be psychologically aware of one

another • 3.They should perceive themselves to be a

group.

• So in simple terms we can state that a group means ---

• A aggregation of a small number of persons• Who work for common goal • Develop a shared attitude • Are aware that they are a part of a group• They view or perceive themselves as such too.

• There are a number of qualities that distinguish groups from aggregates or crowds :

• Norms - implicit rules and expectations for group members to follow, e.g. saying thank you, shaking hands.

• Roles - implicit rules and expectations for specific members within the group, e.g. the oldest sibling, who may have additional responsibilities in the family.

• Relations - patterns of liking within the group, and also differences in prestige or status, e.g. leaders, popular people.

GROUP DYNAMICS

Group Dynamics

• In layman ‘s term dynamics means “force” .it refers to the forces operating in the organisation or in groups.

• Thus “the social process by which people interact face to face in small groups is called group dynamics ”

• Kurt lewin popularised the term group dynamics in 1930’s.

• “the father of group dynamics”.

• Group dynamics is the nature of process by which a group can be made to adopt a new idea or bring the change desired by management.

• Group dynamics is studied from the view points like -----

• The nature of groups• How they form• Their structure and processes• How they function and affect individuals,other

groups and the organisation

• Another view is that group dynamics are a set of techniques

• Which include role play,johari window,brainstorming ,buzz group,group therapy,sensitivity training etc.

• A third view is that group dynamics describes how a group should be organised and conducted.

Features of Group Dynamics

• Perception – Each person in a group looks at the group differently ,based on their own learning and background.

• Each person is aware of his relationship with other members of the group.

• Circumstances of persons play a big role on how they react to situations in a group .

• Motivation – People join groups because they believe that “Unity is strength”. They believe that group will help them in solving their problems.They seek help in their personal issues like pay rise ,welfare measure etc.

• Eg-joining a union .

• Group goals – Group goal is very essential component of forming a group. Goals are the targets towards which all the group input,activities,processes and output are directed.

• Group organisation – a group is like an organisation because –

• It has an structure and a set standard of relationship among members.

• A standardised behaviour• An heirarchy • A well organised communication process• Group works for the development of the whole

organisation.• Interdependency – Interdependency among

members is important to achieve goals.It turns into group strength as people start supporting each other and interact with each other

• Interactions – To be motivated ,interdependent and achieve group targets and goals there has to be interaction and communication .there has to mutual influence among members .

• Interaction differentiates a group from a mere collection/crowd of people.

Types of Groups

Types of Groups

• Two basic type of group –• 1. Formal Groups – Are those which are

defined by the organisation ‘s structure ,with designated work assignments and establishing tasks.

• Here the behaviours that should be engaged in are stipulated by and directed towards organisational goals.

Features of formal groups are :

• 1. Formal group are part of the organisational structure.

• 2.These are created deliberately and consciously by the management to perform the assigned duties.

• 3.The pattern of communication is defined and the rules are laid down to regulate the behaviour of group members.

• 3. These groups may be permanent fixtures in the form of top management

• Ie-Board of Directors or • Staff groups (who provide special services to

the organisation)• But at times these formal groups

may be constituted on a temporary basis for fulfilling certain specified objectives.On fulfillment of objectives these groups disappear.

Sub-classification of formal groups

• i). Command Groups – • Relatively permanent and specified by the

organisational chart.• Comprises of managers,supervisors and

subordinates who meet regularly to discuss general and specific ideas to improve product or services.

• In a typical organisation most employees work in such command groups.

• Eg—A manager and his supervisors reporting to him form one command group.The supervisors and the subordinates reporting to him form other command groups.

• Ii) Task forces -• These groups are also organisationally determined.• Temporary group representing the employees who

are working together to complete a job task or particular project.

• Task group boundaries are not limited to its immediate heirarchical superior .

• Iii) Committees – These are set up for some special projects.

• These can be permanent such as planning committee,or a budget committee

• Is an integral part of an organisational structure.

• It can also be a temporary group which is set up for a special purpose and is disbanded when the purpose is achieved.

• Eg- For electing the chairman or president of an organisation an committee is formed and this is dismanteled after the election.

“Growing” informal group

• Elton Mayo was very aware of the importance of informal groups and tried to organize them.

• He used the term natural group to refer to groups of 3-6 workers who ,through the normal interaction of the members ,developed high levels of intimacy and cohesiveness.

• Unless such natural groups were nourished and supported the normal process of interaction would be interfered with and the group would not develop.

• A natural group with a core of members who are held in high esteem by other workers could be “grown” into what Mayo called a family group of between 8 and 30 members.

• This process would naturally take between 6-12 months of continuous association and lead finally to the development of one ,large organized group ,consisting of a plant-wide network of family-group ,each with its natural groups.

INFORMAL GROUP

• Informal groups – Are alliances that are neither formally structured nor organisationally determined.

• These are natural formations in the work environment that appear due to some common interests of the organisation members such as –social interaction ,work assistance etc.

Features of informal groups

• 1.These groups are formed by the members of such groups by themselves rather than by the management .

• 2.These groups arise spontaneously because of social interaction.

• 3.These are based on common interests ,language,taste,caste,religion,backgroundetc.

• 4.Exists outside the formal authorities system and no rigid rules.

• 5.These groups have their own leaders ,followers ,group goals ,social roles and working patterns.Members trust and respect each other.

• 6.more flexible• 7.Concentrate on the human side or the

personal contact between the members.

Types of informal Groups

• Interest and Friendship Groups – • Interest group consists of people who may be

affiliated to a particular group to attain a specific objective

• Eg -employees who group together to pressurise the management for subsidised transport /canteen facilities etc constitute a interest group.

• A friendship group includes close friends or relations.

• These group arise because members know each other very well before joining the organisation and intial stages they recognise each other only.

• It can extend even beyond working situation.• Based on similarity in age, hobbies,political

views etc.

• ii) Cliques – Another informal group.• These groups consists of colleagues or those

who commonly associate with each other and observe certain social norms and standards.

• The number tends to be smaller ,rarely exceeds five or six.

• Objective is to provide recognition to each other and exchange information of mutual interest.

Dalton’s Three types of Cliques

• Vertical cliques – this group consists of people working in the same department drawing membership regardless of ranks .

• Ie –an superior may also be a member of the group consisting mainly of subordinates.

• These groups develop due earlier acquaintance of people or because the superior is dependent upon subordinates for any formal purposes.

• Horizontal Cliques – This consists of people of more or less the same rank and working more or less in the same area.

• Members have some points of commonness and keeping these objectives in mind come together.

• Random or mixed clique – this group draws members from different ranks ,departments and physical locations.

• Eg- members may be residing in same locality ,travelling by same bus or members of same club etc.

• Sub-Cliques – this group consist of some members of a clique inside the organisation forming a group along with persons outside the organisation .

• The members of the clique give recognition to outsiders as some of their members are associated with them.

• partially external groups.

Sayles ‘ Classification of Group

• 1. Apathetic Group – This group is characterised by relatively few grievances and it hardly ever uses pressure tactics.

• No clear leadership • Consists of relatively low paid and low skilled

assembly line workers.• Lack unity and power

• 2. Erratic groups – The members in the group are easily inflamed and easily pacified .

• Lack of consistency in their behaviour.• Sometimes they are cooperative ,sometimes

antagonist towards the management.• Here any active member could become a leader of

this group.• Show unity ,but are unpredictable in behaviour.• Members are usually semi-skilled workers.

• 3.Strategic group – these group members are able to prepare a strategy for putting pressure on other groups and the management.

• Members usually perform technologically independent jobs

• Are better placed economically and status wise.• Highly united and actively participate in union

activity.• Highly consistent antagonism.

• 4.Conservative Groups – these group are composed of professionals and highly skilled employees in the plant.

• Found in the higher levels of organisation• Display great self-confidence.• They work on their own and nature of their jobs

is such that they can shut down an organisation if required.

• Are strong and stable ,have greater internal unity.

Problems or difficulties of Informal Groups

• 1.Resistance to change• 2.Role conflict • 3.Rumours• 4.Conformity

Why People form Groups ?(Dynamics of group formation)

• 1.Propinquity Theory-• This theory states that people tend to affiliate

themselves to one another because of geographical or spatial proximity.

• Eg-in an concern people residing in same locality ,or working in a same area or have offices or homes close to one another .

• 2. Homan’s Theory – According to George.C.Homan’s ,

• The more activities people share ,the more numerous will be their interaction and stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments and more sentiments people have for one another the more will be their shared activities and interactions.

• Based on –• Activities • Interactions and • Sentiments • these three elements are directly related to

each other.• Common element is Interaction because of

which they develop common sentiments for one another.

• These sentiments gradually get expressed through formation of informal groups.

• Any disturbance to any of these activities it will disturb all the others.

• 3. Balance Theory – By Theodore Newcomb ,• States that “People are attracted to one another on

the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objects and goals.

• Once a relationship is formed ,it strives to maintain a symmetrical balance between the attraction and the common attitudes.If an imbalance occurs attempts are made to restore the balance.If balance cannot be restored the relationship gets dissolved”

• Ie Individual X will interact and form a relationship /group with individual Y –

• Because of common attitudes and values (Z).• Once this is formed members try to maintain a

symmetrical balance between attraction and common attitudes

• But if imbalance occurs an attempt is made to restore the balance .If balance is not restored the relationship dissolves.

• 4.Exchange Theory – the theory is based on Reward – Cost outcomes of interactions.

• To be attracted to a group a person thinks in terms of what he will get in exchange of interaction with group members.

Reasons for Group Formation• Members view point ------• Companionship• Power• Identity• Information• Security• Esteem• Sense of belongingness• Outlet for frustration• Generation of new ideas• Self evaluation• Job satisfaction • Improving cultural values.

• Organisation’s view point -• Lightening of responsibilty• Filling of gaps• Restraining the authority• Proper and careful planning• Information• Potential Formal Managers.

Factors affecting group performance

• 1.Group Structure –• a group consists of a number of individuals

and has a well defined structure .• Groups have structures that shape the

behaviour of its members and makes it posssible to predict and explain the individual behaviour within the group as well as the performance of group as a whole

Components of Group structure are:

• i. Group size – Minimum of 2 persons are required to form a group

• Maximum number depends on as many members who can interact meaningfully amongst one another.

• An ideal group is said to be of 5-7 members .• Smaller groups complete tasks faster.

• ii. Group Compositions – • consists of individuals with different & varied

skills, qualities,knowledge • Can be homogenous or heterogeneous.

• iii.Group Status –• The relative ranking a person holds in a group • Status is the rank of an individual relative to

others in the organisation and the group.• It is also the rights,duties,obligations an

individual holds in the organisation.

• iv.Group Norms –• These are the “the oughts” or “should be ‘ of

behaviour.• Are prescriptions for acceptable behaviour

determined by a group.• “Group norms are a set of beliefs,feelings,and

attitudes commonly shared by group members.These are also referred to as rules or standards of behaviour that apply to group members”.

• They are the informal guidelines on the do’s and don,nts and the code of conduct that provides some order and conformity to group activities.

• Examples –It is a unwritten norm that employees do not criticize their bosses in public.

• If there is a dress code for meetings or workplace it is to be followed by all members.

• It is unnecessary to tell people that it is unacceptable to gossip when meeting is on.

Types of Norm

• Different norms for different categories depending upon their nature of its members and location

• Eg- norms for factory worker will be different from the norms of office workers.

• How these norms develop?----• Explicit statements made by a group member • Critical incidents in the groups history• Primacy (first events/behavioural patterns )• Past experiences.

• Performance Norms --- performance based .• Work groups provide members with explicit

clues on how hard they should work,how to get the job done,level of output and so on.

• Regulates performance and productivity of the individual members.

• Eg- workers having low level of productivity are reprimanded .and vice –versa.

• Appearance norms – Include things like appropriate dress,loyalty to the work group or organisations etc.some organisations have formal dress code.

• Also it involves aspects like loyalty,confidentiality ,not delving company secrets etc to outsiders ,not to report aabout fellow workers to supervisors.etc.

• Arrangement norms – Mostly informal groups .based on social interactions within a group

• Ie –with whom group members eat lunch,social games ,friendship on and off the job etc.

• Allocation of resources norms –Can orginate in the group or organisation and covers things like pay,assignment of difficult job and allocation of new tools and equipment.

• Behaviour norms – these are rules and regulations defining the day to day behaviour or people at work .

• Includes punctuality as a habit,completing any given tasks within the time given

• Not losing temper,showing respect to other member’s opinion etc.

• v) Group roles -- all members of a group are expected to play specific roles.

• “It is a set of expected behaviour patterns attributed to some one occupying a given position in a social unit.”

• People are expected to play a number of role and behaviours vary as per the role he /she is playing.

• Different groups have different requirements on individuals in their group.

Types of group roles requirement of members in a group

• a) Role identity – it is created by certain attitudes and actual behaviours which are consistent with a role.

• When people change jobs ,the situations and the job demands also change.

• Eg- when a worker is promoted as a supervisor • Their attitude change from pro union to pro

management.

• b) Role Perception –Every person has his own perception of as to how he should act in a given situation .

• Role perception is the view of the person regarding the activities ,roles etc he has to play.

• It is perceived from the stimuli around us –friends,books,T.v,cinema etc.

• Eg- Every social worker will be influenced by Medha Patkhar.

• c) Role expectations – it is all about how others believe or expect you should act in a given situation.

• Eg- an university professor is expected to act with dignity and refinement.

• A football coach is seen as aggressive,dynamic,inspiring to his players etc.

• d) Role enaction –From perceived and expected role comes the enacted role

• The way a person actually behaves.• Eg-what a manager says or does during a

meeting will be determined by his or her interpretations of the proper way to carry out the perceived role .

• e) Role conflict – When an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations the result is role conflict.

• The two roles played by a person are contradictary.• Eg- when an supervisor is reprimanding his

subordinate angrily ,he gets a official communication from his superior .he is so engrossed with in his role as supervisor he forgets that it is his boss calling him and he loses his temper with his boss also .-------------------.

• Vi)Conformity - It means adjusting one’s behaviour to align with the norms of the group.

• If people belong to different groups at same time their norms vary and at times its also contradictory.

• In such situations people usually conform to the norms of the important group to which they belong or hope to belong.

• Such important groups are called Reference group

• Groups generally enforce conformity by –• Rewarding people – appreciation ,listening to

them in respectful manner ,making them leaders etc.

• Negative manner-By demoralising ,demotivating, giving silent treatment ,ridiculing or expelling members etc.

• Vii) Group Resources – It is the resource that an individuaal member brings to the group.the group performance depends upon the resources of its members like-

• Skill,knowledge,efficiency,capability • Personality –like

openess ,friendliness,aggressivenes etc.

• viii) Group process ---Process is a systematic method of handling activities.Factors which affect group performance are

• Leader behaviour,communication pattern,group cohesiveness, inter-group behaviour etc

• It can be negative or positive• It can at times lead to synergy.(positive )• Social loafing (negative )

• iX) Group performance – How well the group works together .

• Depends upon factors like –• Rules,regulation• Skills ,personality,abilities etc.

Stages of Group formation

• Forming – Initial stage .marked by uncertainity and confusion.

• Members not sure about the purpose and structure ,task or leadership of the group.

• Storming – this stage is marked by high emotions ,conflicts and confrontations.—especially regarding duties ,roles etc.

• Norming – Here the members begin to settle into co-operation and collaboration .

• The “We” feeling arises here ie high cohesion,group identity and camaraderie.

• Performing –here the group is fully functioning and devoted to effectively accomplishing the tasks agreed in norming

• Adjourning – This represents the end of the group( but in ongoing permanent groups will never be reached).

• If group is formed for a particular mission,objectively ,and after this mission is accomplished the group will disband.

• The stages will start once again.

How do groups make decisions

• 1.Group size• 2.Group compositions.• 3.Unity within the group• 4.The risky shift( the phenomenon of why

people take risky decisions in groups : as the consequence of the decisions will be shared by the group members rather than one individual )

Group cohesiveness****

• It may be defined as the degree of attraction the members have for the group.

• It reflects how much influence the group as a whole has over individual members.

• Highly cohesive groups have greater understanding,less tension and hostility.

Factors which influence group cohesiveness are -

• 1.A small size group has a greater cohesiveness.• 2.A group whose members have equal status is

more cohesive.• 3.A group in which members are highly

interactive are more cohesive.• 4.Stable environment is needed for cohesiveness.• 5.Repeated success in achievement of individuals

and group goals leads to greater group cohesiveness.

Techniques of Group Decision- making

• 1.Brainstorming • 2.Delphi technique• 3.Nominal group technique• 4.Fish bowling Technique • 5.Didactic interaction

A new product to be launched

Brain Storming

• The main focus of brainstorming is on • “ generation of ideas”.• Originally developed by a prominent

advertisement executive ALEX .F. OSBORN• THIS technique was originally used to develop

an ad programme.• It is know used any time ,an organisation wants

to develop creative or free wheeling ideas.

How brain storming is done

• 1. It involves a group of people ,usually between five and ten sitting around a table in a classroom like setting ,generating ideas in the form of free association .

• 2. focus is on generation of ideas and not on evaluation of ideas .• 3. The idea behind this technique is that when a large number of

ideas are generated the probability of finding a very unique and creative solution from among them is very high.

• 4. Ideas can depart drastically from generally accepted practice.

Four Rules govern the brainstorming process.

• 1.Ideas however unusual and undisciplined are neither censured nor criticised during the brainstorming session.

• 2.Free wheeling of ideas is welcomed in this session .the more radical or wilder the idea the better.As unique ideas result in unique solutions.

• 3.Strive for quantity and not quality.• 4.participants are encouraged to improve or modify

other participant’s ideas or to combine two or more ideas to make it still better.

Advantages

• Broader participation • Creativeness• Enthusiasm • Greater task orientation• Team work• Stimulated thinking.

Disadvantage

• Time consuming• None of the ideas can be feasible • Sometimes participants might feel left out

Nominal Group Technique

• Here it is a group in name only ,as no verbal

exchange is allowed among members.• There is control over the interactions among

the group members.• All group members are presented with a

problem and each develops solutions independently

The steps in nominal group technique

• 1.Members meet as group ,but before any discusssion takes place each member independently writes down his or her ideas on the problems.

• 2.This silent period is followed by each member presenting one idea to the group.

• Each member takes his/her turn going around the table presenting a single idea until all ideas have been placed ( on a flip chart or chalkboard)

• 3.The group now discusses the ideas for better clarity and evaluates them.

• 4.Each group member silently and independently rank orders the ideas.

• The final decision is done on the idea getting the highest ranking.

Advantages

• Saves a great deal of time • Includes both individual and group creativity• Equal participation among members.

Steps in Delphi method

• 1.The problem is defined by the Delphi leader or leaders.• 2.A sample of experts is selected • 3.Questionnaires are developed and sent out to

participants.• 4. Responses are compiled and summarised into a

questionnaire.• 5.participants are asked to evaluate the response.• 6.New responses are compiled and new questions may be

prepared.• 7.Cycle stops only when consensus is reached.• 8.Ultimately a solution is developed.

Advantages

• It can be used if group meetings are not possible.

• Members are independent• Annonymity • Used in areas like

education,business,health,government ,military

Disadvantages

• Time consuming • Lack scientific basis or support• Eliminates sense of motivation that arises in a

face to face interaction.

4. Fish Bowling Technique

• Similar to brainstorming ,but is more structured and to the point.

• The steps involved are ----• Here the decision making group of experts is seated

around a circle with a single chair in the centre of the circle.

• One member of the group or group leader is invited to sit in the centre chair and give his views about the problem and his ideas about the solution of the problem.

• The other members can ask him questions but there is no cross talk or irrelevent discussion.

• Once the member in the centre chair finishes talking and his view point is fully understood he leaves the centre and joins the group in the circle.

• Then the second member is called upon to sit in the chair and offer his ideas and opinions in the light of the views expressed earlier.

• The members can ask him questions based on the new ideas present by the member in the centre chair as well as the ideas discussed by the previous central member.

• The exchange will continue between centre chair person and other members.

• This will continue till all members have expressed their views .

• After this entire group discusses the various alternatives suggested and pick the one with consensus.

5.Didactic Interaction

• In this technique the problem should be such that it results in a YES - NO solution

• Applicable only in certain situations • Eg- To buy or not to buy• to sell or not to sell etc.

Steps in Didactic interaction

• 1.the whole group required to take a decision is split into two subgroups.

• one favouring “YES” and other favouring “NO”.• 2.the first group will list all the “pros” of the problem

solution and the second group will list all the “cons “.• 3. Both groups meet and discusses their findings and

reasons• 4.After exhaustive discussion the groups switch sides and

try to find weaknesses in their own original viewpoints.• 5. Mutual acceptance of ideas and solution. Finally

decision is reached

The dysfunction of groups

• Ie why groups malfunction • Find out about the following dysfunctions – • Group think (Irving Janis a social pyschologist)• Social Loafing • Risky shift • Role conflict/ambiquity

Dysfunctions of Groups & Teams

• Groupthink, a term coined by social psychologist Irving Janis (1972), occurs –

• When a group makes faulty decisions because group pressures lead to a deterioration of “mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment” .

• Groups affected by groupthink ignore alternatives and tend to take irrational actions that dehumanize other groups.

• A group is especially vulnerable to groupthink when its members are similar in background, when the group is insulated from outside opinions, and when there are no clear rules for decision making.

DefinitionIrving Janis defines group think as,• “a deterioration of mental efficiency ,reality testing,and

moral judgement that results from in group pressures”

• It results from the pressures on individual members to conform and reach consensus

• Thus Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within groups of people.

• It is the mode of thinking that happens when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Symptoms of Group Think

• There is the illusion of invulnerability .there is excess optimism and risk taking.

• There are rationalisations by the members of the group to discount warnings.

• There is unquestioned belief in the group’s inherent morality.Group ignores questionable morality or ethical issues .

• Those who oppose the group are stereotyped as evil,weak and stupid.

• There is direct pressure on any member who questions the actions of the group.

• There is self-centership of any deviation from the apparent group consensus.

• There is the illusion of unanimity .Silence is interpreted as consent.

• There is self-appointed mindguards who protect the group from adverse information.

• Groupthink occurs when groups are highly cohesive and when they are under considerable pressure to make a quality decision. When pressures for unanimity seem overwhelming, members are less motivated to realistically appraise the alternative courses of action available to them.

• These group pressures lead to carelessness and irrational thinking since groups experiencing groupthink fail to consider all alternatives and seek to maintain unanimity.

• Decisions shaped by groupthink have low probability of achieving successful outcomes.

Examples of Groupthink • Examples of groupthink “fiascoes” studied by Janis include—

• US failures to anticipate the attack on Pearl Harbor, • the Bay of Pigs invasion, • the escalation of Vietnam war, and• the ill-fated hostage rescue in Iran.

• Current examples of groupthink can be found in the

• Decisions of the Bush administration and Congress to pursue an invasion of Iraq based on a policy of “preemptive use of military force against terrorists and rogue nations”. The decision to rush to war in Iraq before a broad-based coalition of allies could be built has placed the US in an unenviable military situation in Iraq that is costly in terms of military deaths and casualties, diplomatic standing in the world, and economically.

Remedies for Groupthink Decision experts have determined that groupthink may be prevented by adopting some of the

following measures:• • a) The leader should assign the role of critical evaluator to each member• • b) The leader should avoid stating preferences and expectations at the outset • • c) Each member of the group should routinely discuss the groups' deliberations with a trusted

associate and report back to the group on the associate's reactions• • d) One or more experts should be invited to each meeting on a staggered basis. The outside experts

should be encouraged to challenge views of the members.• • e) At least one articulate and knowledgeable member should be given the role of devil's advocate (to

question assumptions and plans)• • f) The leader should make sure that a sizeable block of time is set aside to survey warning signals

from rivals; leader and group construct alternative scenarios of rivals' intentions.

Pearl Harbor case study

• The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 was a prime example of groupthink.

• A number of factors such as shared illusions and rationalizations contributed to the lack of precaution taken by Naval officers based in Hawaii. The United States had intercepted Japanese messages and they discovered that Japan was arming itself for an offensive attack. Washington took action by warning officers stationed at Pearl Harbor, but their warning was not taken seriously. They assumed that Japan was taking measures in the event that their embassies and consulates in enemy territories were usurped.

• The Navy and Army in Pearl Harbor also shared rationalizations about why an attack was unlikely.

• Some of them included:• "The Japanese would never dare attempt a full-scale surprise assault

against Hawaii because they would realize that it would precipitate an all-out war, which the United States would surely win."

• "The Pacific Fleet concentrated at Pearl Harbor was a major deterrent against air or naval attack."

• "Even if the Japanese were foolhardy to send their carriers to attack the United States, we could certainly detect and destroy them in plenty of time."

• "No warships anchored in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor could ever be sunk by torpedo bombs launched from enemy aircraft."

• In addition, officers succumbed to social pressures and did not want to face social scrutiny by objecting to the common belief that Japan would not attack Pearl Harbor.

• Janis prescribed three antecedent conditions to groupthink.----

• High group cohesiveness • Structural faults:

– insulation of the group – lack of impartial leadership – lack of norms requiring methodological procedures – homogeneity of members' social backgrounds and ideology

• Situational context: – highly stressful external threats – recent failures – excessive difficulties on the decision-making task – moral dilemmas

Corporate worldCases for Group Think

• Swissair's collapse

• In the corporate world, ineffective and suboptimal group-making decision can negatively affect the health of a company and cause a considerable amount of monetary loss.

Swiss airline company that was thought to be so financially stable that it earned the title the "Flying Bank.“

The authors argue that, among other factors, Swissair carried two symptoms of groupthink: -------

The belief that the group is invulnerable and the belief in the morality of the groupIn addition, prior to the fiasco, the size of the company board was reduced, subsequently

eliminating industrial expertise. This may have further increased the likelihood of groupthink

With the board members lacking expertise in the field and having somewhat similar background, norms, and values, the pressure to conform may have become more prominent

This phenomenon is called group homogeneity Together, these conditions may have contributed to the poor decision-making

process that eventually led to Swissair’s collapse..

Risky Shift Phenomenon• Group polarization (Choice shift) • Is the phenomenon that when placed in group situations, people will

make decisions and form opinions to more of an extreme than when they are in individual situations. The phenomenon has shown that after participating in a discussion group, members tend to advocate more extreme positions and call for riskier courses of action than individuals who did not participate in any such discussion.

• Choice shifts are mainly explained by the largely differing human values and how highly these values are held by an individual.

• When people are in groups, they make decision about risk differently from when they are alone. In the group, they are likely to make riskier decisions, as the shared risk makes the individual risk less.

• They also may not want to let their compatriots down, and hence be risk-averse (this is sometimes called cautious shift).

Example

• Entire football teams sometime get into aggressive or defensive moods as they either throw caution to the winds trying to score or desperately try to avoid being caught out.

• Juries given weak evidence will become very lenient after discussion, whilst when given strong evidence they are likely to give harsh judgment.

• A notable example from history is the Holocaust. • During the Holocaust, Hitler united a group of like-minded

individuals, Nazis, who shared the common belief that Jews should be exterminated. Once these individuals united into a group, they viewed anyone who didn’t hold Nazi beliefs as outsiders, thus demonstrating polarization.

• As they polarized, their sense of unity increased and their Nazi pride intensified, ultimately causing them to engage in the violent behavior that they did.

• Group polarization is also evident in situations similar to the these, such as terrorist attacks and gang violence.

Reasons as to why risky shift might happen.

That greater risks are chosen due to a diffusion of responsibility, where emotional bonds decrease anxieties and risk is perceived as shared.

• High risk-takers are more confident and hence may persuade others to take greater risks.

• Social status in groups is often associated with risk-taking, leading people to avoid a low risk position.

• As people pay attention to a possible action, they become more familiar and comfortable with it and hence perceive less risk.

Social Loafing • Social loafing occurs when members reduce their effort and performance

levels when acting as part of a group.• So Social loafing is the phenomenon of people exerting less effort to

achieve a goal when they work in a group than when they work alone • Social loafing is also associated with two concepts that are

typically used to explain why it occurs:• The "free-rider" theory (a free rider (or freeloader) is

someone who consumes a resource without paying for it, or pays less than the full cost.

• and • The resulting "sucker effect", which is an individual’s reduction in effort in

order to avoid pulling the weight of a fellow group member.

Experiments on Social loafing

• Rope-pulling experiments by Max Ringelmann in 1913 .

Found that when he asked a group of men to pull on a rope, that they did not pull as hard collectively, as they did when each was pulling alone. This research did not distinguish whether it was the individuals putting in less effort or poor coordination within the group

• Clapping and shouting experiments• Bibb Latané showed this by blindfolding male college students while

making them wear headphones that masked all noise. They then asked them to shout both in actual groups and pseudogroups in which they shouted alone but believed they were shouting with others. When subjects believed one other person was shouting, they shouted 82% as intensely as they did alone, but with five others, their effort decreased to 74%.

Example of Slacker Team Mate Problem

• My team mate is very good in front of customers,but otherwise he does little to no work.I pick up the slack ,because of our team results are what I’m evaluated upon.And when I spoke to my team mate about the problem he says, “I’m the front man and you ‘re the back end guy”. I am tired of doing all the work on our customer projects and being seen as my slacker team mates first mate.I am sure my boss will not want to hear what my problem is as he believes that working through team issues is part of our responsibilties.

The causes of Social Loafing are--

• Lack of performance feedback within the group• Tasks that are not intrinsically motivating • Situations in which performance of others will cover the

reduced efforts of others.• The “SUCKER-EFFECT” –OF NOT WANTING TO DO MORE

THAN THE PERCEPTION OF EFFORT BEING GIVEN BY OTHERS• Lack of “We feeling” among the group members• Tend to appear in Bigger teams and groups.(where individual

contributions are difficult to identify)

• So to reduce social loafing it is very necessary to keep the team small.

• Specialise task so that individual member contribution are identifiable,measure individual performance .

• Select only motivated employees when building teams.

• T.E.A.M = Together everyone achieves more. - Anonymous

• Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much.

-- Helen Keller

Informal Groups/Teams

• Informal groups in the workplace play a significant role in the dynamics of organisational behaviour.

• Informal groups do not have officially

prescribed goals and relationships.

Norms and Roles in informal Groups

• The norms are the “oughts” of behaviour.• Norms will be strictly enforced if they –• Aid in group survival• Simplify the behaviourS of GROUP MEMBERS• Help members to avoid embarrasing

interpersonal problems.• Express the central values or goals of the

group.

Roles • Role consists of a patterns of norms

• It is a position that can be acted out by an individual.

• Some informal roles are –

• The BOUNDARY SPANNER –who acts as a facilitator between units or groups.

• The BUFFER - who protects and filters negative or disappointing news or information that might cause group members to be upset

• The LOBBYIST- who promotes and tells others how successful and important the group is to outsiders.

• The NEGOTIATOR-- who is empowered by the group to act on its behalf to get resources and make deals.

• The SPOKESPERSON - who is the voice of the group.

• these informal roles wield considerable power in organisations and are recognised by effective managers.

• Managers have started using informal networks to assist them.

• He who wished to secure the good of others, has already secured his own." --Confucius

ACTIVITY • Find an aggregate of individuals in some public place. Observe the grouping of people for at least 20

minutes, and be sure to take notes. Answer the following questions.• 1. Where did you find your group?• 2. What were the characteristics of the people in the group?• 3. How were the people arranged in the physical environment? (You may include a diagram if you

wish.)• 4. What were the characteristics of the group (rather than the people in the group)?• a. Interaction: How were the members interacting with each other?• b. Structure: Could you discern the group's norms, roles, status hierarchy, or communication patterns?• c. Cohesiveness: Did the group seem unified?• d. Identity: Do you think the members shared a sense of identity with one another?• e. Goals: What was the group's purpose?• 5. Was the aggregate you observed a "group" in the text's sense of the word? Was it high in

"entitativity", or perceived groupness, or was it a loose conglomeration?• 6. Critique your study of the group, from a measurement standpoint. How could you have increased

the scientific accuracy and value of your observations?• 7. Did anything about the group puzzle or surprise you? Did your observation raise questions that

could be answered through research?

Quote

• Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working together is success. ~Henry Ford

• No one can whistle a symphony. It takes a whole orchestra to play it. ~H.E. Luccock

• Thank you • Reference books : OB books by Fred

luthens ,Understanding Organisational behaviour by by –Udai Pareek