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  • 7/30/2019 Guentner_etal_2004_WRR__An evaluation of different terrain indices.pdf

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    Modeling spatial patterns of saturated areas:

    An evaluation of different terrain indices

    Andreas Guntner

    Geo Fo rsch un g sZen tru m Po tsd am (GFZ), Po tsd am, German y

    J a n S e i b er t D e p ar t m e nt o f E n v ir o n me n t al A s s e s sm e n t , S w e di s h U n i ve r s i t y o f A g r i cu l t u ra l S c i e nc e s , U p p sa l a , S w e de n

    Stefan UhlenbrookI n s t i t ut e o f H y d ro l o gy, U n i ve r s i t y o f F r e i bu r g, F r e i bu r g, G e r ma n y

    R e c ei v e d 7 N o v em b er 2 0 03 ; r e v is e d 1 1 M a r ch 2 0 0 4; a c c ep t e d 2 5 M a r ch 2 0 0 4; p u b li s h e d 2 5 M a y 2 0 0 4 .

    [ 1] A k e y c o mp o ne n t t o u n de r st a nd i ng a n d p r ed i ct i ng w a te r f l ux e s a n d w a te r q u al i ty i nr i v e r b a s i n s i s t h e s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u ti o n o f w a t er - s a tu r a t ed a r e as . T h e re i s l i m i te d k n o w le d g eo n s p at i al p a tt e rn s o f s a tu r at e d a r ea s , t h ei r r e la t io n t o l a nd s ca p e c h ar a ct e ri s ti c s a n d

    processes, and the ability of hydrological models to represent the observed spatial patterns,

    particularly at the large scales most relevant for water resources management. In thiss t ud y, s a tu r at e d a r e a s w e re m a pp e d i n t w o m e s o s ca l e ( 1 8 a n d 4 0 k m2) , h u m i d t e m p e r at e

    basins. Geobotanical and pedological criteria were used to achieve a consistentt i m e -i n t e gr a t e d d e l i n e at i o n o f s a t u ra t e d a r e a s . U s i n g c o m m o n l y a v a i l a b le s p a t ia l d a t a o nl a n d sc a p e c h a r a c t er i s t ic s , v a r io u s t e r r ai n i n d ic e s w e r e e v a l u a t ed f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p r e d ic t t h e o b s e rv e d p a t t er n s . Q u a n ti t a ti v e p e r f or m a n ce c r i t er i a d e s c ri b i n g t h e a g r e em e n t o f m o d e le d a n d o b s e rv e d s p a ti a l p a t t er n s i n c lu d e d c e l l- b y - ce l l a n d c e l l- n e i gh b o r ho o da p p r oa c h es . U p s l op e c o n tr i b u ti n g a r e a w a s t h e m o s t i m p o rt a n t s i n g l e f a c t o r e x p l ai n i n g t h eo b se r ve d p a tt e rn . A n i m pr o ve d p a tt e rn w a s o b ta i ne d f o r t h e t o po g ra p hi c w e tn e ss i n de x( T O P M O D E L i n d e x ) . H o w e v e r , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e w a s m a r k e d l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e a l g o r i t h m su s e d f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f u p s l o p e c o n t r i b u t i n g a r e a a n d s l o p e g r a d i e n t . O t h e r f a c t o r s s u c h a ss o il o r c l im a te w e re o f l e ss v a lu e f o r i m pr o vi n g t h e p r ed i ct i on s . T h e o p t i mu m s p at i ala g re e me n t o f o b se r ve d a n d m o de l ed s a tu r at e d a r ea s w a s a b ou t 5 0 % f o r a c o mb i ne ds o i l -c l i m at e - to p o g ra p h i c i n d ex . G e o l og i c al f e a tu r e s ( b e dr o c k f r a c tu r e s ) p a r t ly e x p la i n edt h e r e si d ua l p a tt e rn . U s in g a n i n de p en d en t t e st c a tc h me n t, i t w a s s h ow n t h at t h e i n de xa p pr o ac h c a n b e t r an s fe r re d t o b a si n s w i th s i mi l ar p h ys i og r ap h ic c h ar a ct e ri s ti c s f o r e s ti m at i ng t h e g e ne r al p a tt e rn o f s a tu r at e d a r ea s . I NDEX T ERMS: 1 8 6 6 H y d r o l o g y : S o i lm o i s tu r e ; 1 8 6 0 H y d r o lo g y : R u n o f f a n d s t r e am f l o w ; K EYWORDS: s a t u r at e d a r e a , m e s o s ca l e , s p a t ia l p a t t er n ,

    t e r r a in i n d e x , p a t t e r n c o m p a ri s o n

    Citation: Guntner, A., J. Seibert, and S. Uhlenbrook (2004), Modeling spatial patterns of saturated areas: An evaluation of different

    terrain indices, Water Resour. Res., 40, W 0 5 11 4 , d o i : 1 0. 1 0 2 9 /2 0 0 3 W R0 0 2 8 6 4 .

    1. Introduction

    [ 2] S at ur a te d a r e as h a ve a m aj or i nf lu e nc e o n a r a ng e o f h y dr o lo g ic a l p r o ce s s es s u c h a s r u no f f p r o ce s s es a n d f l oo d in g[e.g., Dunne and Black, 1 9 70 ] , s o lu t e t r an s po r t [ e . g. , C u rm i e t al., 1 9 9 8 ] , a n d l a n d - a t m o s p h e r e i n t e r a c t i o n s [ e . g . , Q u i n n a n d

    Beven, 1 9 93 ; E n te k ha b i e t a l ., 1 99 6] , a s w el l a s p ed og en ica n d g e om o rp h ol o gi c al p r oc e s se s [ e . g. , B e ve n a n d K i rk b y,1 9 93 ] . To q u an t if y c a tc h me n t r e sp o ns e s , i . e. , w a te r f l ux e s a n dw a te r q u al i ty, a d e f in i ti o n o f m a jo r h y dr o lo g ic a l p r oc e s se sw i t h i n a c a t c h m e n t i n c l u d i n g t h e i r l o c a t i o n a n d s p a t i a l e x t e n t i s c r uc ia l. S at ur a ti o n e x ce s s r u no ff , w hi ch i s d if f er en t i nh y dr o ch em is tr y a n d r u no f f d yn a mi c s f r om o th er r u no ff c o m p o n e n t s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e b a s i n , h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t o b ea n i m po r ta n t r u no f f c o mp o ne n t i n m a ny h u mi d c a tc h me n t s

    [e.g., A n d e rs o n a n d B u r t , 1 9 90 ] . T h u s t h e s p at i al a n d o f t e nt im e- v ar i ab le d el in ea t io n o f s a tu ra t ed a r ea s i s a k e y t ou n d e r s ta n d i n g a n d p r e d i ct i n g c a t c h me n t r e s p o n se s .

    [ 3] T h e l o c at i on o f s a t u ra t ed a r e as c a n b e e s ti m at e d u s i ngd e ta i le d , h i gh l y p a r am e te r iz e d a p pr o a ch e s t h at m o de l a l lg o ve r n in g p r oc e s se s d e f in i ng t h e d i st r ib u ti o n o f s o il m o is -t ur e i n s pa ce a nd t im e, b ut t hi s a pp ro ac h i s i mp ra ct ic al

    because of dat a l i mi t at i ons and a l ack of underst andi ng oft h e g o ve r n in g p r oc e s se s a t s c a le s f r o m p l ot s t o c a tc h me n t s.P r o g r e s s h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n m a d e i n m a p p i n g s a t u r a t e d a r e a s

    by remot e sensi ng [e.g., T r o c h e t a l . , 2 0 0 1 ] , b u t t h e r e r e m a i nprobl ems wi t h pi xel resol ut i on and t he di ffi cul t y t o di st i n-g u i s h t h e s i g n a l o f s u r f a c e s a t u r a t e d a r e a s f r o m o t h e r s i g n a l s .A n a lt er na ti ve m et ho d i s t he u se o f t er ra in i nd ic es a s a na t te m pt t o d e ri v e s o il m o is t ur e p a tt e rn s d i re c tl y f r o m l a nd -s c a p e c h a r a c t e r i st i c s t h o u g h t t o c o r r e l at e w i t h t h e d o m i na n t

    f a c t o r s o f p r o c e s s c o n t r o l [ e . g . , Kirkby, 1 9 7 5 ; We s t er n e t a l .,1 9 9 9 ] . A s w e t a r e a s w e r e o f t e n f o u n d t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t hC o p yr i g ht 2 0 0 4 b y t h e A m e ri c a n G e o p h y s ic a l U n i on .0043-1397/04/2003WR002864$09.00

    W05114

    WAT E R R E S O UR C E S R E S E AR C H , V O L . 4 0 , W 0 5 11 4 , d o i : 10 . 1 0 2 9/ 2 0 0 3W R 0 0 28 6 4 , 2 0 0 4

    1 o f 1 9

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    t o po g ra p hi c d e pr e s si o ns a n d f l at a r ea s , t h e i n di c es f o c us o nt o p o g r a p h i c m e a s u r e s a s a f i r s t - o r d e r c o n t r o l o f s o i l m o i s t u r e[Kirkby, 1 9 7 5 ; B e v e n a n d K i r k b y, 1 9 7 9 ; OLoughlin, 1 9 8 6 ] .T h ey a r e o f te n b a se d o n w i de l y a v ai l ab l e d i gi t al e l ev a ti o nm o d e l s ( D E M ) a n d a r e e a s y t o c a l c u l a t e u s i n g a g e o g r a p h i ci n fo r ma t io n s y st e m ( G I S) . H o we v er , t h e m a nn e r i n w h ic ht o po g ra p hi c i n fo r ma t io n i s e x pl o re d v a r ie s f o r t h e d i ff e r en t

    i n d i c e s . V a r i o u s t o p o g r a p h i c a t t r i b u t e s s u c h a s s u r f a c e s l o p e ,u p sl o pe a r e a, c u r va t ur e , o r c o mb i na t io n s o f t h es e p r im a rya t tr i bu t es c a n b e u s ed . A d di t io n al l y, i n de x v a lu e s m a y v a ryd e pe n di n g o n t h e a l go r it h m u s e d f o r t h e c a lc u la t io n s. F o r i n st a nc e , a l go r it h ms f o r c a lc u la t in g t h e u p sl o pe a r e a d i ff e r w it h r eg ar d t o t he t re at me nt o f t op og ra ph ic s in ks a ndc h a nn e l i n i t ia t io n , o r w i th r e ga r d t o t h e a s s i g nm e nt o f f l owd i re c ti o ns w i th i n t h e g e ne r a li z ed r e pr e s en t at i on o f t h e r e a lt o po g ra p hy i n a D E M [ e . g . , Q u in n e t a l ., 1 9 95 ] . B a r li n g e t al. [ 1 9 94 ] d e ve l op e d a w e tn e ss i n de x w i th a t i me - v ar i ab l ec o nt r ib u ti n g u p s l o pe a r e a t h a t c a n b e s m al l er t h an t h e a r e ad e r iv e d f r om D E M a n al y si s .

    [ 4] S om e t er r ai n i nd ic es a c co un t f o r f ac to r s o th er t ha nt o po g ra p hy t h at m a y i n fl u en c e s o il m o is t ur e p a tt e rn s , n o ta -

    bl y soi l charact eri st i cs [Beven, 1 98 6] o r a va il ab le e ne r gyf r om s ol ar r a di at io n [Moore et al., 1 99 1; Go mez-Plaza et al. , 2 00 1] . H ow ev er, a m or e c om pl ex i nd ex d oe s n ot n e c e s s ar i l y e n s u r e b e t t er p r e d i ct i o n s o f s o i l m o i s t u r e s t a t u s .T h e s e a s o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y o f d o m i n a n t p r o c e s s c o n t r o l o n s o i lm o is t ur e s t at u s a n d w e tn e s s p a tt e rn s [ G ra y so n e t a l ., 1 9 9 7 ;We st er n e t a l ., 1 99 9; Wi ll i am s e t a l ., 2 00 3] a dd s a na d di t io n al c o mp l ex i ty t o t h e a p pl i ca t io n o f t e rr a in i n di c es .O th er p os si bl e c a us es o f w et a r ea s s uc h a s l an d u se , m as sm o ve m en t s ( l an d s li d es ) , g e o lo g y a n d t e ct o ni c s, a s w e ll a sa n th r op o ge n ic i n fl u en c es a r e o f te n n o t w e ll u n de r s to o d o r s ur v ey ed , p ar ti cu la r ly a t l ar ge r s ca le s, a nd a r e t he r ef or ed i ff i cu l t t o p a r am e te r iz e a n d i n cl u de i n a t e rr a in i n de x .

    [ 5 ] D if f er e nt t er r ai n i nd ic es a nd d if fe r en t c a lc u la ti ona lg or it hm s a s a t oo l f or t he p r ed ic ti on o f s at ur at ed a r ea so r s o i l m o i s t u r e p a t t e r n s h a v e n o t b e e n a n a l y z e d e x t e n s i v e l y ,

    part i cul arl y not for l arger areas. Onl y a few st udi es havei nv es ti ga te d t he p re di ct iv e p ow er o f t er r ai n i nd ic es b yc o mp a ri n g e s ti m at e d a n d o b se r v ed p a tt e rn s o n l a rg e r a r e as( e . g . , t h a t o f R o d h e a n d S e i b e r t [ 1 9 9 9 ] , w h o u s e d t h e s p a t i a ld is tr ib ut io n o f w et la nd s t o v al id a te t he p r ed ic ti on o f t heT O P M OD E L w e t n e s s i n d e x ), a n d m o s t s t u d i es c o n c e nt r a t eo n s ma ll a re as o f a bo ut 1 k m2 o r l e ss [Beven and Kirkby,1979; B u r t a n d B u t ch e r , 1 9 8 5 ; M o or e e t a l ., 1 9 8 8 ; Nyberg,1996; A m b r o i s e e t a l . , 1 9 9 6 ; G i n e s t e e t a l . , 1 9 9 8 ; Western et al., 1 99 9; B la zk ov a e t a l. , 2 00 2; Wi l li a ms e t a l ., 2 00 3] ,m a i n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u i t a b l e d a t a a t l a r g e r s c a l e s . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s t u d i e s a t s m a l l s c a l e s , i t i sd i ff i cu l t t o a s s es s t h e a b il i ty o f t e rr a in i n di c es t o p r e di c t s o i lm oi st ur e p at te r ns a t t he l an ds c ap e s ca le . H er e a dd it io na lf a ct or s s uc h a s v ar ia bl e w at er b al an ce a nd h ig he r s pa ti alh e te r og e n ei t y c o me i n to p l ay. A n e x te n de d a s s es s me n t o f t h e p r ed i ct i ve p o we r o f t e rr a i n i n d i ce s b e yo n d t h e e x pe r i-m e nt a l c a tc h me n t s c al e i s , h o we v er , r e q ui r ed a s h y dr o lo g -i ca l m od el s f or t he r iv e r b as in s ca le u se t he se i nd ic e s t oa c c ou n t f o r s m al l er - s ca l e s o il m o is t u re v a r ia b il i ty w i th t h e

    benefi t of keepi ng a comparat i vel y si mpl e model st ruct urea n d p a ra m et e ri za t io n ( e .g . , T OP M OD E L [ Bev en and

    Kirkby, 1 97 9 ] a n d S EWA B [Mengelkamp et al., 2 00 1] ) . I na d di t io n , f o r s e tt i ng u p p r o ce s s -o r ie n t ed c a tc h me n t m o de l s

    t h at r e qu i re t h e d e li n ea t io n o f z o ne s o f d i ff e re n t d o mi n at i ng

    r un of f p ro ce ss es a s i n t he m od el o f U h le nb ro o k e t a l .[ 20 04 b] , a m od el in g s tr at eg y i s c ru ci al t o a vo id t im ec o ns u m in g m a pp i ng w h en t r an s fe r r in g t h e m o de l t o o t he r

    basi ns [ S c h e r r e r a n d N a e f , 2 0 0 3 ; Uhlenbrook , 2 0 0 3 ] . I n t h i sc on te x t, t he e xt en d ed a ss es s me nt o f t er r ai n i nd ic es i s o f g re at i nt er es t b ec au se t he i nd ic es h av e t he p ot en ti al t oc o n t r i b u t e t o d e l i n e a t i n g , e . g . , t h e z o n e s o f s a t u r a t i o n - e x c e s s

    r u n o f f . I n g e n e r a l , i t h a s f r e q u e n t l y b e e n e m p h a s i z e d d u r i n gr e c en t y e ar s t h at t h e v a li d at i on o f s p at i al p a tt e r ns a g ai n st o b se r v at i on s i s a k e y i s su e f o r a s s es s in g m o de l c a p ab i li t ie sa nd u nc er ta in ti es a nd f or m od e l i mp r ov em en ts , e ve n f or

    pract i cal appl i cat i ons i n l arger ri ver basi ns [e.g., Refsgaard ,2001]. F r a n k s e t a l . [ 1 9 9 8 ] a n d B l a zk o v a e t a l . [ 2 0 0 2 ] u s e d

    pat t erns of sat urat ed areas t o const rai n t he uncert ai nt y ofm o d e l p a r a m e te r s .

    [ 6] F o r p a t te r n c o m p ar i so n i n t h e c o n te x t o f h y dr o lo g ic a la pp li ca ti on s , h ow ev er , t hu s f a r o nl y a f ew m et ho ds h av e

    been used i n pract i ce [Grayson and Bloschl , 2 00 1] . C om -pari n g obser ved versu s si mul a t ed bi nary pat t er ns (e.g. ,s a tu r at e d/ n on s at u ra t ed a r ea s ) m a y i n cl u de t h e f o ll o wi n ga p pr o a ch e s : ( 1 ) v i su a l c o mp a r is o n ; ( 2 ) c o mp a ri s on o f l a nd -

    s c ap e m e tr i cs t h at d e sc r ib e t h e s p at i al c o nf i gu r at i ono f p a t t e rn s , s u c h a s f r a g m en t a t io n , i r r e g u la r i t y, o r c o m p le x -i ty o f s ha pe [ e. g. , H a i n es - Yo u n g a n d C h o p p in g , 1 99 6;Gustafson, 1 9 9 8 ] ; ( 3 ) c e l l - b y - c e l l c o m p a r i s o n s , f o r e x a m p l e ,t h e K a p p a m e a s u r e [ Cohen, 1 9 6 0 ] , w h i c h i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e di n m a p c o mp a ri s on o f c a te g or i ca l d a ta [ e . g. , Pontius, 2 0 0 0 ]( f o r t h e b i n a r y c a s e , i t m a y b e r e d u c e d t o a c o u n t i n g o f c e l l st h at h a ve a c e r ta i n a t t r i bu t e, e . g ., s a tu r a te d a r e a, i n b o th t h eo b s e r v e d a n d s i m u l a t e d p a t t e r n s ) ; ( 4 ) e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e s t r i c t c e ll - b y- c el l c o mp a r is o n s, e . g. , a c c ou n ti n g f o r s h if t s i n t h el o c a t i o n o f p a t t e r n s [ Grayson and Blo schl , 2 0 0 1 ] o r a c c o u n t -i ng f or t he c el l n ei gh bo rh oo d [ Constanza, 1989] due t ou n ce r ta i n ty o f l o ca t io n , f o r i n st a nc e [Hagen, 2 00 3] . H ow -

    e ve r, n o s ta n da rd o n w hi ch a pp r oa c he s s ho ul d b e u se d f or pat t ern compari son i n hydrol ogi cal appl i cat i ons for a gi venq u e s t i o n o f i n t e r e s t , p a t t e r n t y p e , a n d s c a l e o r r e s o l u t i o n y e t exi st s.

    [ 7 ] T he o bj ec ti ve o f t hi s s tu dy w as t o e va lu at e t hepredi ct i ve power of di fferent t errai n i ndi ces for model i ngs p a ti a l p a tt e rn s o f s a tu r at e d a r e as i n a m e so s ca l e c a tc h me n t ( 4 0 k m2) , a s p at i al s c a le t h at i s r e le v an t f o r w a te r r e s ou r c esm an ag e me nt . T he r ef or e a m ap pi ng m et ho d f or s at ur a te da r e a s w a s d e v e l o p e d t h a t w a s f o r t h i s l a r g e s c a l e . I t w a s o u r o b j e c ti v e t o e x a m in e t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t o p o gr a p h i c a t t r i b u te sa s w el l a s o th er t er r ai n c ha r ac t er is ti cs f or e xp la in in g t heo b se r v ed s a tu r at e d a r ea p a tt e r ns . F o r t h at p u r po s e, w i de l ya va il ab le s pa ti al d a ta s e ts w er e u se d t o d ef in e a nd a pp lyc o mb i ne d t e r ra i n i n di c es . To e v a lu a te t h e a g r ee m en t o f t h es i mu l a te d a n d o b s er v ed s p a ti a l p a tt e r ns , d i ff e re n t q u an t it a -t i ve p e r fo r ma n c e c r i te r ia w e re d e ve l op e d a n d t h ei r p o we r f o r t h i s t y p e o f p a t t e r n c o m p a r i s o n w a s a n a l y z e d . I n o r d e r t oe v a lu a te t h e s p a ti a l t r an s f er a bi l it y o f t h e i n de x a p pr o a ch f o r

    predi ct i on of sat urat ed area pat t erns, t he approach was al soa p pl i ed i n a n e ig h bo r in g c a tc h me n t ( 1 8. 4 k m2) w i th s i mi l ar

    physi ographi c charact eri st i cs.

    2. Study Area and Data

    2.1. Test Sites

    [ 8] T he s tu dy w as p er f or me d p r im ar il y i n t he m es os ca le

    B ru gg a b as in ( 40 k m2

    ) . T he n ei gh bo ri ng Z as tl er b as in

    2 o f 1 9

    W05114 GUN T N E R E T A L . : S PAT I A L PAT T E R N S O F S AT U R AT E D A R E A S W05114

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    ( 18 .4 k m2) w as u se d a s a n a dd it io na l s it e f or t es ti ng t hed e ve l op e d i n de x m o de l in g s t ra t eg y. B o th w a te r sh e d s a r el oc at ed i n t he s ou th er n B la ck F or e st M ou nt ai n s i n s ou th -w e st e rn G e rm a ny ( F ig u re 1 ) . T h es e a r e m o un t ai n ou s w a te r -s he ds w it h e le va ti on r an gi ng f r om 4 38 t o 1 49 3 m a bo vem e an s e a l e v e l a n d n i va l r u n of f r e g im e s. T h e m e a n a n nu a l

    preci pi t at i on i s approxi mat el y 1750 mm generat i ng a meana n n u a l d i s c h a r g e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 2 0 m m ( v a l u e s f o r t h eB ru gg a b as in ; t he re a re o nl y s li gh t d if fe re nc e s f or t heZ a st l er b a s in ) . T h e b e dr o c k c o n s is t s o f g n ei s s, c o ve r e d b yw e at h er i ng m a te r ia l o f P l ei s to c e ne o r ig i n: d e br i s, d r i ft , a n ds oi ls o f v ar yi ng d ep th s ( 0 1 0 m ). T he b as in s a re w id el y

    f or e st ed ( a pp ro xi ma t el y 7 5% ) a nd t he r e ma in in g a re a i spast ure. Urban l and use i s bel ow 3%.[9] P r ec e di n g e x pe r im e nt a l s t ud i es i n cl u di n g i n ve s ti g a-

    t i on s w i th a r ti f ic i al a n d e n vi r on m en t al t r ac e r s [Mehlhorn etal., 1 9 9 8 ; H o e g e t a l ., 2 0 0 2 ; U h l e n b r o o k e t a l . , 2 0 0 2 ] l e d t ot h e f o ll o wi n g c o nc e p tu a l m o de l o f t h re e m a in f l ow s y s te m sa nd o f r u no ff g e ne ra t io n i n t he B ru gg a a nd Z as tl er b as in[ U h le n br oo k e t a l ., 2 00 2] : ( 1) F as t r un of f c om po ne nt s( s ur f ac e o r n ea r s u rf a ce r un of f ) a r e g en er a te d o n s ea le d o r s at ur at ed a re as a nd o n s te ep h ig hl y p er me ab le s lo pe sc o ve r e d b y b o ul d er f i e ld s . ( 2 ) S l ow b a s e f l o w c o mp o ne n ts( d e ep g r ou n dw a te r ) o r ig i na t e f r o m t h e f r a ct u re d h a r d r o ck a q ui f er a n d t h e d e e pe r p a r ts o f t h e w e a t he r in g z o ne . ( 3 ) A ni nt e rm ed i at e f l ow s y st em c o nt ri b ut e s m ai nl y f r om t he

    ( p e ri ) gl a ci a l d e po s it s o f t h e h i ll s lo p e s ( s h al l ow g r o un d wa -t e r) . T h is f l ow s y st e m p r ed o mi n at e s t h e s t or m d i sc h ar g e o f l ar ge r f lo od s. S pr in gs d ra in in g s uc h h il ls lo pe s c a n s h owr e m a r k a b l e s h o r t - t e r m d y n a m i c s [ U h l e n b r o o k e t a l . , 2 0 0 4 a ] .A s pa ti al d el in ea ti on o f t he B ru gg a a nd Z as tl er b as in si nt o a r ea s o f d om in an t r u no f f p ro c es s es w as p e rf or m ed[ Uhlenbrook , 2 0 0 3 ] , b a s e d o n s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s w e l la s g e ol o gi c al , p e do l og i ca l , a n d t o po g ra p hi c i n fo r ma t io n , am ap o f s at ur at ed a re as [ G un t n e r e t a l ., 1 99 9] , a nd t hea n al y si s p r es e n te d i n t h is p a pe r.

    2.2. Input Data Sets

    [10] T he f ol lo wi ng s pa ti al d at a s et s w er e a va il ab le : A

    f o r es t h a bi t at m a p ( s c al e 1 : 10 , 00 0 ) c o ve r in g t h e l a rg e st p a rt o f t h e f or es te d a re a [Forstliche Versuchsanstalt (FVA),

    1 99 6] ; g eo lo gi ca l m ap s ( sc a le 1 :5 0, 00 0) [ GeologischesLandesamt Baden-Wu rttemberg ( GLA) , 1 97 7] ; a t ec to ni c

    m ap g iv in g t he l oc at io n o f f au lt s a nd f ra ct ur es i n t hec r y s t a ll i n e b e d r o c k ( s c a l e 1 : 1 0 0 , 0 0 0) [ GLA, 1 9 8 1 ] ; a c o a r s er es ol ut io n s oi l m ap ( sc al e 1 :2 00 ,0 00 ) [Land esamt fu rG e o l og i e , R o h s t of f e u n d B e rg b a u B a d e n Wu r t t em b e rg ,1 99 8] ; a nd a d ig it al e le va ti on m od el ( D EM ) w it h a g ri ds i z e o f 5 0 50 m2 ( v e rt i ca l r e s ol u ti o n 0 . 1 m ) ( F ig u re 1 ) . I na dd it io n, a f ie ld s ur ve y w as e xe cu te d f or m ap pi ng t hes a t ur a te d a r e as i n b o th c a tc h me n t s ( s e e b e lo w ).

    [11] On th e b as is o f th e DE M, t he B ru gg a b as in wa sc l as s if i e d i n to t h re e m a in m o rp h o me t ri c l a nd s ca p e u n it s ,i . e . , h o l l o w s /c h a n n e ls , p l a n es , a n d r i d g e s . T h e c l a s s if i c a t io nw a s d o n e w i t h r e s p e c t t o l o c a l c o n c a v i t y o r c o n v e x i t y o f t h et e r ra i n s u r fa c e u s in g t h e t e r ra i n a n a ly s is m o de l L a nd S er f ,v er s io n 1 .8 [ Wood , 1 99 6, J . D . Wo od , L an dS er f : Vi su al -i s a ti o n a n d A n al y si s o f Te r r ai n M o de l s, a v a il a bl e a t h t tp : // www.soi .ci t y.ac.uk/ $j wo/ l andserf/ ] . Hol l ows or channel sa r e l o c a t e d i n a r e a s o f c o n c a v i t y , r i d g e s i n a r e a s o f c o n v e x -i ty, a nd p la ne s i n a re as w it ho ut a ny s ig ni fi ca nt l oc alc on c av it y o r c on ve xi ty. T he f r ac ti on o f t he t ot a l B ru gg a

    basi n area at t ri but ed t o each of t hese t hree l andscape uni t sw a s a p pr o x im a te l y e q ua l ( F ig u re s 2 a a n d 5 ) .

    2.3. Field Survey of Saturated Areas

    [12] P e do l og i ca l a n d g e ob o ta n ic a l m a pp i ng c r it e ri a w e re

    a pp li ed . A re as w er e m ap pe d a s s at ur at ed a re as i f t he ys h o w e d h y d r o m o r p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( i . e . , g l e y e d s o i l s w i t hr e d ox c h a ra c te r is t ic s a n d h i gh o r g an i c c o nt e nt i n t h e t o ps o ilo r p ea t s oi ls ) i n t he e nt ir e s oi l p ro fi le . I n a dd it io n, t hem ap pe d a re as h ad t o h av e a p re do mi na nc e o f w et ne ss -i n d i c a t i n g p l a n t s a s c l a s s i f i e d b y Ellenberg [ 1 9 9 1 ] . I n d i c a t o r

    pl ant s used i n t he st udy area were A c o ni t um n a p el l us ,C a l t ha p a l u st r i s, C a re x f l a va, Filipendula ulmaria, Juncusacutifloris, J u n cu s e f f us u s, Myosotis palustris, Ranunculus

    flammula, S c i rp u s s y l va t i c us, an d Vi o l a p a l u s tr i s. S in cet he se c r it e ri a w er e i nd ep en de n t o f t he s o il m oi st ur e c on -d it io ns a t t he t im e o f m ap pi ng , t he p r oc ed ur e p ro vi de d al o n g - t e r m a v e r a g e d p a t t e r n o f t h e w e t t e s t z o n e s i n t h e b a s i n .

    [13

    ] A bo ut 6 0% o f th e s tu dy a re a w as ma pp ed b y th ef o r es t h a bi t at s u r ve y [FVA, 1 99 6] . T he r e ma in in g a r ea w as

    Figure 1. L o c a t i o n a n d t o p o g r a p h y o f t h e B r u g g a a n d Z a s t l e r b a s i n s , s o u t h e r n B l a c k F o r e s t M o u n t a i n s ,sout hwest Germany.

    W05114 GUNTNER ET AL.: SPATIAL PATTERNS OF SATURATED AREAS

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    W05114

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    m ap pe d i n l at e s um me r ( S ep te mb er a nd O ct ob er ) a ft er ad r y p er io d. T he r e su lt in g f ie ld m ap s ( ob se r va ti on s ca le1 :5 00 0) w er e d ig it iz ed a nd t ra ns f or me d i nt o a g r id m ap

    w it h 1 0 10 m2 c el l r e so lu ti on . T hi s a pp ea r ed t o b e a na d e qu a te r e s ol u ti o n t o p r es e r ve t h e s m al l -s c a le s t ru c tu r e o f t he o bs e rv ed s at ur at ed a r ea s. I t s h ou ld b e n ot ed t ha t t het ot al e x te nt o f s a tu r at ed a r ea s o n t he d ig it iz e d v ec to r m apa n d o n t h e g r i d m a p w a s t h e s a m e . I n t h e n e x t s t e p , a 5 0 50 m2 g r id o f s a tu r at e d a r e as w a s g e ne r a te d , w i th r e s ol u -t io n a nd l oc at io n o f t he g ri d c el ls c or re sp on di ng t o t heD EM . F or e ac h 5 0 50 m2 g r id c e ll , t h e a r e a l f r a ct i on o f s a tu r at ed a r ea s w as c al cu la te d f r om t he o ri gi na l v ec to r m ap . T he n, 5 0 50 m2 c el ls w er e m ar ke d a s s at ur at edc e ll s s t ar t in g w i th t h e c e l l o f t h e l a r g es t f r a ct i on o f m a pp e ds a tu r a te d a r ea s a n d c o nt i nu i ng s u cc e s si v el y u n ti l t h e a r e ao f m ar ke d s a tu r at ed c el ls m at ch e d t he t ot al e xt en t o f t he

    m a pp e d s a tu r at e d a r e a.

    3. Terrain Indices and Analysis Methods

    3.1. Terrain Indices

    [ 14] F or t he d e ri va ti on o f s pa ti al f ie ld s o f t er ra in i nd ic esa s p r ed i ct o rs o f s a tu r at e d a r e as , p r im a ry t e rr a i n a t tr i bu t esa s w e ll a s c o mp o un d a t tr i bu t es t h at w e re c o mb i na t io n s o f

    pri mary at t ri but es [Moore et al., 1 9 9 1 ] , w e r e u s e d ( T a b l e 1 ) .A ll i nd ic es w er e c a lc ul at ed o n a c el l- b y- ce ll b as is f or t he50 50 m2 g r id c el ls a s d ef in ed b y t he D EM .

    [ 15] C ur va tu re ( CU RV ) i s a m ea s ur e o f t he c o nc a vi ty o r c on ve xi ty o f t he t er r ai n s u rf a ce . I t r e fl ec ts c ha ng es i n t heh y dr a u li c g r a di e nt a l on g h i ll s lo p es a n d t h e c o nv e rg e nc e o r

    d i ve r ge n c e o f f l ow p a th w ay s . C u rv a tu r e f o r e a ch c e ll w a sc a l c u l a t e d a s a c o m b i n e d t a n g e n t a n d p r o f i l e c u r v a t u r e f o r a3 3 c e l l s w i n d o w [Zevenbergen and Thorne, 1 9 8 7 ; Mooree t a l ., 1 9 91 ] a s i m pl e me n te d i n t h e G e og r ap h ic I n f or m at i onS y st e m A R C/ I NF O ( E nv i ro n me n ta l S y st e ms R e se a r chI n s t i tu t e ( E S R I ) , R e d l a nd s , C a l if o r n i a ).

    [ 16] T h re e d i ff e r en t a l g o r it h ms f o r c a l c u la t in g t h e s u r f a ces lo pe a s a m ea s ur e o f t he h yd ra u li c g ra di en t w er e t es te d:F ir st , t he s lo pe f or e a ch c el l w as c a lc ul at ed a f te r f it ti ng a

    pl ane t o t he 3 3 c el ls n ei gh bo rh oo d b y a n a ve ra gem a xi m um t e ch n iq u e [Burrough, 1 98 6] ( me an s lo pe , t anb33) . T hi s i s a s ta nd ar d m et ho d i nc lu de d, f or i ns ta nc e, i nt he G IS A RC /I NF O. S ec on d, t he s lo pe w as d er iv ed a s t he

    a v e ra g e g r a di e nt b e tw e en t h e c e l l o f i n te r e st a n d a l l n e ig h -bori ng cel l s wi t h l ower el evat i on [ Q u i n n e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ] ( l o c a l

    d o wn h il l s l op e , t a n blocal) . T hi rd , i n c on tr as t t o t he se t wom e t h o d s t h a t c o n s i d e r o n l y t h e c e l l s i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t ot h e c e ll o f i n te r e st , t h e t h ir d m e th o d f o r s l op e c a lc u la t io n s

    c on si de re d a l ar ge r d ow ns lo pe a re a. F or e ac h c el l, t hec l os e s t d o wn s lo p e c e ll w i th a p r e vi o us l y d e fi n ed e l ev a ti o ndi fference d w a s d e te r mi n ed . T h e d i st a nc e l t o t hi s c el l( d ir e ct l in e b et we en c e ll c en te rs ) w as t he n u s ed f or s lo pec a lc u la t io n a c c or d in g t o t a n bd = d/ l [Hjerdt et al., 2004]( d ow ns l op e i nd e x, t an bd) . T he r ea so ni ng b eh in d t hi sm e t h o d i s t h a t i t m a y b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t a b l eg r a d i e n t b e c a u s e s m a l l - s c a l e s t e p s i n s u r f a c e t o p o g r a p h y n o t r e f le c te d i n t h e g r ou n dw a te r s u r fa c e a r e s m oo t he d u s in g t a nbd d ue t o t he l ar ge r e xt en t o f i nc l ud ed c el ls . Va lu es f or dw e r e s e t t o 2 5 m ( t a n bd=25) a n d 1 0 m ( t a n bd=10).

    [ 17] A r ad ia ti on i nd ex ( RA D) , a s im pl e m ea su re o f t hei n f lu e nc e o f s p at i al l y v a ry i ng e v ap o tr a n sp i ra t io n o n s o il

    m o is t ur e d u e t o v a r yi n g r a d ia t io n e n er g y, w a s c a lc u la t eda s t he r at io Ri/Rmean. Ri i s t h e t o ta l a n nu a l s o la r r a d ia t io ni n pu t t o c e ll i, c a lc u la t ed w i th t h e A r c Vi e w G I S e x te n s io nS o la r A n al y st ( f r om H e li o s E n vi r on m en t al M o d el i ng I n s ti -t u te H E MI , L L C, L o s A l am o s, N e w M e x i c o) , t a ki n g s l op e ,a s pe ct , a nd s ha de e f fe c ts b y m ou nt ai n r id ge s a s t he m ai ni n f l u en c i n g f a c t o rs . Rmean i s t h e m e a n a n n u a l s o l a r r a d i a t i o ni np ut a ve r ag ed f or a ll c el ls o f t he s tu dy a r ea .

    [ 18] T h e u p s lo p e c o n tr i bu t in g w a t e r sh e d a r e a ( U C A ) i s am ea su re o f t he p ot en ti al a re a t ha t c an d el iv er w at er v ial a te r a l f l ow p a th w ay s a n d t h us i n fl u en c e t h e s o il m o is t ur es t a t u s . I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e l a r g e r t h e c o n t r i b u t i n g a r e a , t h el ar ge r t he i nc om in g a cc um ul at ed f lo w v ol um es . F or t hi si n de x , f l ow d i re c ti o ns b e tw e en c e ll s a r e t o b e e s ta b li s he d

    a nd a p ro ce du r e c or re sp on di ng t o a ro ut in g o f a re abet ween cel l s i s requi red. Vari ous met hods for regul ar gri dD E M s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e [ e . g . , O C a l l a g h a n a n d

    Mark, 1 9 8 4 ; Freeman , 1 9 9 1 ; Q u i n n e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 5 ; Lea,1992; C o s ta - C a br a l a n d B u rg e s, 1 99 4; Holmgren , 1 99 4;Tarboton, 1 9 9 7 ] . I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e p o r t i o n fi o f a c c u m ul a t e du ps lo pe a r ea o f o ne u ps lo pe c el l a tt ri bu te d t o e a ch d ow n-s l o p e c e l l i w a s w e i g ht e d w i th r e s pe c t t o t h e s l o p e g r ad i en t t an bi b e t w e e n t h e u p l s o p e c e l l a n d c e l l i r e l a t i v e t o t h e s l o p eg r a di e nt s t o a l l o t he r d o wn s lo p e c e ll s j [ Q u i n n e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ]( e q u a ti o n ( 1 ) ) .

    fi t an bi h

    P8

    j1 t an b j h

    f or a l l t an b j > 0 1

    Figure 2. S p at i al d i st r ib u ti o n o f ( a ) l a nd s ca p e u n it s a n d ( b ) s o il u n it s i n t h e B r u g g a b a s i n .

    4 o f 1 9

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    A s p r o p o s e d b y Freeman [ 1 99 1 ] a n d Holmgren [ 1 9 9 4 ] , t h es t r e n g t h o f t h i s w e i g h t i n g c a n b e a d j u s t e d b y a n e x p o n e n t h.For h = 1 , t h e i n d e x c a lc u la t io n c o r re s p on d s t o t h e m u lt i pl ef l ow d i re c ti o n a l go r it h m b y Q ui nn e t a l. [ 1 99 1 ] . F o r l a rg ev a lu e s o f h (e.g., h > 1 5 ) t h e c o mp u ta t io n s a p pr o ac h t h os eo f t h e s i ng l e f l ow d i re c ti o n a l go r it h m w h er e a l l t h e u p sl o pea r e a i s r o u t e d t o t h e c e l l i n t h e s t e e p e s t d o w n s l o p e d i r e c t i o n

    [ O C al l a g ha n a n d M a r k , 1 9 84 ] .[19] I n t h e b a si c i n d e x c a l cu l at i on a l go r it h ms [ e . g. , Quinne t a l ., 1 9 91 ] , t h e a c c um u la t io n o f u p sl o pe c o nt r ib u ti n g a r e ao c cu r s c o nt i nu o us l y d o wn t o t h e c a tc h me n t o u tl e t. N e ve r -t he le ss , a cc um ul at ed f lo w m ay e nt er a c ha nn el a nd b ee xp or te d f r om t he c a tc hm en t w it ho ut c on tr ib ut in g t o t hed e ve l op m en t o f s a tu r a te d a r ea s i n d o wn s lo p e c e ll s . T h er e -f o r e a c h a n n e l i n i t i a t i o n t h r e s h o l d ( C I T , m2) , w a s u s e d i n t h ei n d e x c a l c u l a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o Q u i n n e t a l . [ 1 9 9 5 ] . A l l c e l l sw it h a n u ps lo pe a re a e xc ee di ng C IT a nd t he f ol lo wi ngd ow ns lo pe c el ls i n t he d ir e ct io n o f t he s te e pe st g r ad ie n t w er e m ar ke d a s c ha n ne l c el ls . T he a cc um ul at ed a r ea o f c h an n el c e ll s m u st n o t e x c e e d C I T. T h e s u r p l us o f u p sl o pea r ea , i .e ., a c cu mu la te d f lo w v ol um es , i s c on si de r ed t o

    c on tr ib ut e t o t he c ha nn el a nd i s n o l on ge r a cc ou nt ed f o r i n a n y d o wn s lo p e c e ll .

    [20] T he t op og r ap hy -b a se d w et ne ss i nd ex o f B e ve n a n d Kirkby [ 1 9 79 ] ( T OP M OD E L i n de x , TWI) wa s used as a

    c om bi ne d i nd ex . I t i s c al cu la te d a s a c o mb in at io n o f t hes t a n d ar d i z e d u p s l op e c o n t r ib u t in g a r e a a ( s t a n da r d i z e d t ot h e u n i t c o nt o ur l e ng t h) , a n d t h e s l op e t a n b as

    TWI l n a= t an b 2

    D i f f e r e n t r e a l i z a t i o n s o f t h e T O P M O D E L i n d e x w i t h r e g a r dt o t h e m a nn e r o f d e te r mi n in g t h e u p sl o pe c o nt r ib u ti n g a r e a

    a n d t h e s l op e v a lu e w e re a p p li e d i n t h is s t ud y.[21] E x te n di n g t h e p u re l y t o po g ra p hy - b as e d t e rr a in i n di -c e s , a s o il - to p o gr a p hi c i n de x , TSWI, a s p r op os ed b y Beven[ 1 98 6 ] w a s a p pl i ed ( e q ua t io n ( 3 ) ).

    TSWI l n a= T t an b 3

    I t a c c ou n ts f o r t h e i n fl u en c e o f v a r yi n g s o il t r an s mi s s iv i ty( f o r a s a tu r a te d s o il p r o fi l e) , T i n m2 d1. O n t h e b a si s o f t h e v e r y l i mi t ed g e ol o gi c al a n d p e do l og i ca l i n fo r ma t io n( se e d at a s ec ti on ) a nd o n a dd it io na l f ie ld e xp er im en ts[ U h l en b ro o k e t a l ., 2 0 02 ] , f i v e d i ff e r en t t e rr a in u n it s w e red i st i ng u is h e d f o r w h ic h m a rk e d ly d i ff e r en t s o il c h ar a c te r -

    i st ic s c ou ld b e a ss um ed . R ou gh e st im at es o f t he o r de r o f m a gn i tu d e o f t r an s mi s s iv i ti e s f o r e a c h s o il u n it w e re m a de ,a s s u m i n g a n a v e r a g e s o i l d e p t h t o b e d r o c k o f 2 m [ Hadriche t a l., 1 9 79 ] , a n d h y dr a u li c c o n du c ti v it i es e s ti m at e d f r oms o i l t e x t u r e a n d a r t i f i c i a l t r a c e r t e s t s [Mehlhorn et al., 1 9 9 8 ]( Ta bl e 2 a nd F ig ur e 2 b) . T he se T v al ue s w er e u se d a ss t ar t in g v a lu e s f o r t h e o p ti m iz a ti o n o f t h e s o il - to p og r a ph i ci n de x ( s e e s e ct i on 4 . 2) .

    [22] A s a f ur th er e xt en si on o f t he ( so il ) t op og ra ph ici n de x , t h e s p a ti a l v a r ia b il i ty o f t h e c l im a ti c w a te r b a la n c eC ( ra in fa ll m in us e va po ra ti on i n m m) w as t ak en i nt oa cc o un t a s a n a d di ti on al m ea s ur e t ha t m ay i nf lu en c e t hes p at i al p a tt e rn o f s o il m o is t ur e ( c li m at e - ( s o il ) t o po g ra p hi c

    i ndex, TCWI, TCSWI). C w as d er iv ed b y a ss u mi ng a l in ea r d ec r ea se o f e va p or at io n a nd a n e x po ne n ti al ly d e cl in in g

    i nc re a se o f p re ci pi ta ti on w it h e le va ti on a s d er iv ed f r omc li ma te s ta ti on d at a f or m ea n a nn ua l v al ue s [Uhlenbrook ,1 99 9] . T he b a si c g ri d s iz e o f e ac h c e ll si ( = 25 0 0 m

    2) w asm od if ie d ( si,mod ) a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e m e a n a n n u a lc l im a ti c w a te r b a la n ce Ci of t he cel l i r el at iv e t o t he

    basi n average Cm ( eq ua ti on ( 4) ). B y t hi s m ea ns , d ue t ot h e r o ut i ng o f a r e a a s a s i mp l if i ed r e pr e s en t a ti o n o f t h e

    r ou ti ng o f w at er v ol um es i n t he t op og ra ph ic p ar t o f t hei n de x c a lc u la t io n s , t h e e f fe c t o f s p at i al l y v a ry i ng c l im a ti cf or ci ng a mo ng c el ls i s c ap tu re d f or t he d ow ns lo pe s oi lm o i s t ur e s t a t u s.

    si;mod si CiCm

    4

    We a l so t e st e d t h e c o mb i na t io n o f TWI w i t h d i f f e r e n t b i n a r yv a r ia b le s u s in g l o gi s ti c r e g re s s io n . T h es e b i na r y v a ri a bl e s( se e dat a s ec tio n f or t he da ta so ur ce s) wer e ( 1) t h en e ig h bo r h oo d o f t e ct o ni c f a ul t s a n d f r a ct u re s , ( 2 ) l o ca t io ni n a t o po g ra p hi c d e pr e s si o n, a n d ( 3 ) t h e o c c u r re n c e o f h i gho r l o w s o il c o nd u c ti v it y. T h e l o gi s ti c r e gr e s si o n f o r mu l a

    predi ct s t he probabi l i t y p o f t he o cc ur r en ce o f s at ur at eda re as a s a f un cti on o f t he i nd ep en de nt v ar ia bl es (xi)( e q u a t io n ( 5 ) ) . T h e p a r a m e te r s bi c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s o d d sr at io s f or t he o cc ur re nc e o f s at ur at ed a re as ( i. e. , t he

    probabi l i t y for sat urat ed di vi ded by t he probabi l i t y for n o ns a tu r at e d ) . T h e v a lu e o f e x p( bi) g iv es t he r el at iv ea m ou n t b y w h ic h t h e o d ds f o r s a tu r a te d i n cr e as e ( > 1) o r d e c r e a s e ( < 0 ) w h e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e i si n cr e a se d b y o n e u n it .

    p exp y 1

    exp y

    5

    where

    y b0 X

    bi xi

    F or c om pa ri so n t o t he p ro ce ss -b as ed t er ra in i nd ic esd e sc r i be d a b ov e , a s e t o f p u r el y r a n do m ly d i st r ib u te d i n de x

    pat t erns (RANDOM) was generat ed by at t ri but i ng t o eachc el l o f t he s tud y a re a a r an do m v al ue b et we en 0 a nd 1 ,w hi ch w as d ra wn f r om a n u ni fo rm ly d is tr ib u te d r a nd omvari abl e.

    3.2. Performance Criteria

    [23] A v ar ie ty o f p er fo rm an ce c ri te ri a w er e a pp li ed t oe v al u a te t h e a b il i ty o f d i ff e r en t t e rr a i n i n di c es t o r e p re s e nt t he s pa ti al p at te r n o f o bs er v ed s at ur a te d a re a s ( s ee a ls oTa b le 3 f or a n o ve r vi ew a nd t he o pt im um v a lu e f o r e ac hcri t eri on).

    [24] 1 . C ri te r io n krank,50 i s t h e r a n k c o r r e l a t i on c o e f f ic i e n t ( af te r S pe ar ma n) b et we en t er r ai n i nd ex v al ue s a nd t hef r a ct i on o f t h e o b s e r ve d s a t ur a t ed a r e a o n t h e t o t a l g r i d c e l la re a f or t he 5 0 50 m2 c e ll s o f t he s tu dy a re a . E ac h g ri dc e ll w a s a s s o ci a te d w i th t w o r a n k n u m b er s : ( 1 ) t h e r a n k o f t h e c e l l i n d e x v a l u e a m o n g a l l i n d e x v a l u e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a

    a nd ( 2 ) t he r a nk o f t he m ap pe d s a tu r at ed a r ea f r ac ti on o nt o ta l c e ll a r e a.

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    [ 25] 2 . C ri te ri on krank,200 i s t he r a nk c or r el at io n c oe f fi -c ie nt ( a ft er S pe a rm an ) b et we e n t er r ai n i nd ex v al ue s a n dt he f ra ct io n o f s at ur at ed a re a f or a gg re ga te d 2 00 200 m2 c el ls . T he t er ra in i nd ex v al ue f or e ac h 2 00

    200 m2 c el l w as c al cu la te d a s t he m ea n o f a ll i nc lu de d50 50 m2 c el ls . T hi s c ri te ri on w as i nt ro du ce d t oe va lu at e t he c or re sp on de nc e o f p at te rn s a t a c oa rs er s pa ti al r e so lu ti on w he re l oc al t op og r ap hi c s mo ot h o ut t o s om e e xt en t.

    [ 26] F o r f u r t h er p e rf o r ma n c e c r i t er i a , t h e b a si c p r in c ip l ew as t o s el ec t t ha t s u bs et o f g r id c el ls f r om e a ch m od el edi n de x p a tt e rn t h at i s m o st p r o ne t o s u r fa c e s a tu r a ti o n, i . e. ,t h e c e l l s w i th t h e l o we s t o r h i gh e s t i n d e x v a l u e s d e p e n di n go n t he i nd ex d ef in it io n. S ta rt in g w it h t he c el l w it h t hel o we s t ( o r h i gh e s t) v a lu e , a l l c e ll s w i th s u c ce s s iv e l y l a rg e r ( o r l ow er ) i nd ex v al ue s w er e s el ec te d u nt il t he f r ac ti ono f t he s el ec te d n um be r o f c el ls i n t he s ub se t r el at iv e t o

    t he n um be r o f a ll c el ls i n t he s tu dy a re a w as e qu al t o t hef r a ct i on o f m a pp e d s a tu r a te d a r e as t o t o ta l b a s in a r e a. T h er e s u l ti n g 5 0 50 m2 c e ll p a tt e r n, M 5 0, w a s d i sa g gr e g at e dt o a 1 0 10 m2 g r id r e s ol u ti o n ( p a tt e rn M 1 0) b y s i mp l ys ett in g t he c ell v alu e o f e ac h la rge c el l o f M 50 t o a ll2 5 s ma ll er c el ls i n M 10 . T he m od el ed p at te rn s w er e t he nc om pa re d i n t he f or m o f a b in ar y v ar ia bl e ( sa tu ra te d/ n on sa tu ra te d ) t o t he o bs e rv ed p a tt er ns b ot h a t t he 5 0 50 m2 ( ob s er ve d p at te r n O 50 ) a nd t he 1 0 10 m2 gri dr e s o l u ti o n ( O 1 0 ) .

    [ 27] 3 . C ri te ri a kmatch,10 and kmatch,50 a r e m ea su re s o f t hed i r e c t s p a t i a l c o i n c i d e n c e o f o b s e r v e d a n d m o d e l e d s a t u r a t e da r ea s f or a c e ll -b y- c el l c om pa r is o n, a s p er c en ta ge o f t he

    t ot al s a tu ra te d a r ea ( e qu at io n s ( 6 ) a nd ( 7) a nd F ig ur es 3 aa nd 3 b) ,

    kmatch;10 n10n10 100 6

    kmatch;50 n50

    n50100 7

    where n10 and n50 g iv e t he t ot al n um be r o f s a tu ra te d g r idc el ls i n t he s tu dy a re a f or t he 1 0 m a nd 5 0 m r es ol ut io ng r i d s , r e s p e c ti v e l y; n10

    + i s t h e n u mb e r o f s p at i al l y c o in c id i ngm o de l ed a n d o b s e r ve d s a tu r a te d a r e as i n p a tt e rn s M 1 0 a n dO 1 0 ; a n d n50

    + i s t h e n u mb e r o f s p at i al l y c o in c id i n g m o de l eda nd o bs er ve d s at ur at ed a re as i n p at te rn s M 50 a nd O 50 ,respect i vel y.

    [ 28 ] 4 . C ri te ri on k fuzzy i s a f uz zy c ri te ri on o f s pa ti alc o in c id e nc e o f o bs e rv e d a nd m o de le d s a tu r at e d a r ea s .S im il ar t o t he c on ce pt f or m ap c om pa r is o n p re s en te d b y

    Hagen [2003], k fuzzy a c co u nt s f o r f u z zi n es s o f l o ca t io n , i . e. ,i t a c co u nt s f o r m o de l ed s a tu r a te d a r e as t h at d o n o t d i r e c tl yc o i n c i d e w i t h o b s e r v e d a r e a s b u t t h a t a r e c l o s e t o t h e m . T h ed eg re e o f c oi nc id en ce i s d ef in ed b y a l ow er v al ue i f t hed i st a nc e b e tw e en o b se r v ed a n d m o de l ed s a tu r a te d c e ll s i sl a r g e r . T h i s c r i t e r i o n c o n s i d e r s t h a t d e v i a t i o n s i n t h e l o c a t i o no f o bs er v ed a nd m od el ed s at ur at ed a re a s a r e a ls o d ue t o( 1 ) t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s p a t i a l r e s o l u t i o n o f m o d e l i n g ( 5 0 m )a n d m a pp i ng ( a b ou t 1 0 m ) , ( 2 ) u n ce r ta i nt i es o f d e f in i ng t h ee xa ct p os it io n i n t he f ie ld , ( 3) e rr or s i n c on ve rt in g t he

    Table 1. O v e r vi e w o f T es t e d T er r a i n I n d i c e s

    Abbrevi ati on Index Ty pea No tes

    CURV curvature 1tan b33 mean s lop e 1 grad ien t calcu lat ed from a 3 3 c e ll w i nd owtan blocal local downhil l sl ope 1 grad ien t to nei ghbori ng d own slop e cellstan bd downsl ope i ndex 1 vari ati ons o f th e elev ati on di fference d o f 1 0 a n d 2 5 m ( t a n bd=10 an d

    tan bd=25)

    RAD radiatio n ind ex 1UCA upsl ope con tri but ing area 1 vari ati ons o f Holmgren fact or h a n d c h a nn e l i n i t i at i o n t h r e sh o l d C I TTWI TOPMODEL wetness in dex 2 comb inatio n of UCA and di fferen t sl ope i ndi cesTSWI soi l-t opog raphic index 2 comb inatio n of TWI a n d s o i l c h a ra c t e ri s t i c sTCWI, TCSWI cli mate-(soil ) t opog raphic i ndex 2 comb inatio n of TWI o r TSWI w i t h c l i m a t i c w a t e r b a l a n ceRANDOM random ind ex 1 rand om n umb ers b etween 0 and 1

    aI nd e x t y p e 1 i s p r im a ry i n de x ; i n d e x t y p e 2 i s c om b in e d i n d ex .

    Table 2. S o i l U n i t s W i th E s t i ma t e d a n d O p t i mi z e d T r a ns m i s si v i ty T

    Unit Descrip tio n T E s t i m at e d , m2 d1 T O p t i mi z e d , m2 d1

    1 bou lder fi el ds, co mpo sed o f high ly permeablem a t e ri a l o n s t e e p s l o p e s w i t h l a r ge m a c ro p o re s

    1 1 04 1 1 03

    2 s tr at ifi ed p er igl aci al dri ft c ove r on s te epe r s lope sw i t h h i g h l y p e r m e a bl e b o ul d e r h o r i z o n a s t o p l a y e r

    1 1 03 1 1 03

    3 s tr at ifi ed p er igl aci al dri ft c ove r on s lo pes a nd h il ly up lan ds ,m a i n ly s a n d y t o l o a m y w i t h v a r y i n g c o n t en t o f c o a r s ef r a gm e n ts , i n c l ud i n g l e s s p e r me a b l e l a y er s

    1 1 00 1 1 00

    4 mo raine mat erial , loamy, often co mpact ed 1 1 01 1 1 005 Hol ocene d epo sit s i n t he val ley b otto ms , mai nly

    l o a m y s a n d w i t h v a r yi n g c o n t e n t o f c o a rs e f r a gm e n ts

    1

    1 01 5

    1 00

    6 o f 1 9

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    o bs er v at io ns i nt o a d ig it al m ap , a nd ( 4) u nc e rt ai nt ie s i npreci sel y del i mi t i ng t he ext ent of sat urat ed areas i n t he fi el d.T h ro u gh q u al i ta t iv e r e a so n in g , a m a xi m um t o le r a bl e d i s-t an ce b e tw ee n o bs er v at io ns a nd m od el r e su lt s f or w hi chs o m e d e g r e e o f c o r r e l a t i o n c o u l d s t i l l b e a s s u m e d w a s s e t t oa bo ut 5 0 m . A cc or d in g ly, f or a n o bs er v ed s at ur at ed c el l i

    bei ng i n a radi us ri o f 5 o r m o r e 1 0

    10 m2 c e l l s d i s t a nc e

    a wa y f ro m a ny m od el ed c el l, t he d eg re e o f c oi nc id en ce fi

    w i t h t h e m o d e l w a s s e t t o 0 . O t h e r v a l u e s o f f w e r e d e f i n eda c c or d in g t o e q ua t io n ( 8 ) a n d F i g u re 3 c .

    k fuz z y Pn10

    i1fi

    n10100 with fi 1 0:2ri 8

    [29] 5 . Cr it er ia kdist,o and kdist,m a r e d i s t a n c e m e a s u r e s t h a t

    d e sc r i be t h e p e rf o r ma n ce o f t h e t e r r a in i n di c es a s a f u nc t io n

    Figure 3. E x e m p la r y e x p l an a t i on o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a , e v a l u a ti n g t h e a g r e e me n t o f m o d e le d a n do b se r ve d p a tt e rn s o f s a tu r at e d a r e as .

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    o f t he d is ta n ce b et we en o bs e rv at io n s a nd m od el r e su lt s.T he c r it er ia a r e b as e d o n p at te r ns O 50 a nd M 50 ( s ee a ls oF i gu r e 3 d ) . kdist,o s ta r ts o ut f r om e a ch o bs er v ed s at ur a te dcel l i a n d l o o k s f o r t h e c l o s es t m o de l ed s a tu r at e d g r i d c e ll j

    t o d e f i n e t h e d i s t a n c e dij a s t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e b e t w e e n t h e c e l lcent ers. kdist,o i s t h e m e a n o f t h e s e d i s t a n c e s f o r a l l o b s e r v e ds a tu r a te d c e ll s ( e q ua t io n ( 9 )) . kdist,m r e ve rs e s t he p oi nt o f v ie w, s ta r ti ng o ut f r om e a ch m od el ed s a tu r at ed c el l a n dl o o k in g f o r t h e d i s t an c e d ji t o t h e c l os e s t o b se r v ed s a tu r a te dc e l l ( e q u a t i o n ( 1 0 ) ) . kdist,mean i s u s e d a s a c o m b i n e d d i s t a n c ec r i t e r ia ( e q u a ti o n ( 1 1 )) .

    kdis t ;o Pn10i1

    dij

    n109

    kdis t ;m

    Pn10 j

    1

    d ji

    n1010

    kdis t ;mean kdis t ;o kdis t ;m

    211

    [ 30 ] I n a dd it io n t o t he q ua nt it at iv e c r it er ia p re s en te da bo v e, t he v is ua l c om pa r is o n o f o bs e rv ed a nd m od e le ds p at ia l p a tt er n s w as u s ed a s q u al i ta t iv e i n fo r ma t io n o nm at ch o r m is ma tc h o f p at te rn s. To s up po rt t he v is ua ld e s cr i pt i on , t w o l a nd s c ap e m e tr i cs w e re u s e d. ( 1 ) T h e f i rs t i s m ea n p at ch s iz e o f s at ur a te d a r ea s ( MP S, m2) . G r i d c e l l sm ar ke d a s s at ur a te d a r ea a re c on si de r ed t o b el on g t o t hes a me p at ch i f t he y a r e a d j ac en t i n a t l ea st o ne o f e ig ht g r idd i re c t io n s, i n cl u di n g t h e d i ag o na l s ( e ig h t- n e ig h bo r ho o d

    r ul e) . M PS i s a n i nd ic at or o f p at te rn f ra gm en ta ti on .( 2 ) T h e s e c o n d i s m e an s h ap e i n de x ( M S I, d i me n s io n le s s ).M S I i s c a lc u la t ed a c c or d in g t o e q ua t io n ( 1 2) [Patton, 1 9 7 5 ;S a ur a a n d M a rt nez -Mi ll an, 2 0 01 ] :

    MSI Pnp

    i1 pi

    4 ffiffiffiaip

    n p12

    n p i s t h e n u m b e r o f s a t u r a t e d p a t c h e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a , w i t ha p a t c h b e i n g d e f i n e d a s f o r M P S a b o v e . pi i s t h e p e r im e te r o r t o t a l e d g e l e n g t h o f p a t c h i i n m , c a l c u l a t e d a s t h e s u m o f a ll s id e l en gt hs t ha t a n y g r i d c e ll o f t he p at ch i s h a r e s w i t hn o n s a t u r a t e d g r i d c e l l s . ai i s t h e s i z e o f p a t c h i i n m

    2. M S I i sa p e ri m et e r- a r ea r e la t io n sh i p t h at m e as u r es t h e i r r eg u la r it yi n s ha pe f or s at ur at ed p at ch es c om pa re d t o a s im ples ta nd ar d s ha pe , i .e ., a s qu ar e i n t he r as te r r ep r es en ta ti on .M SI i s 1 i f a ll s a tu ra te d p at ch e s a r e s qu ar e s a n d r es u lt s i n

    h i gh e r v a lu e s w i th g r ea t er p a tc h s h ap e c o mp l ex i ty.

    4. Results

    4.1. Field Survey of Saturated Areas

    [ 31] I n m os t l oc a ti on s , s a tu r at ed a r ea s c ou ld b e c le ar lyd e li m it e d i n t h e f i el d b y t h e p e do l og i ca l a n d g e ob o ta n ic a lc r it e r ia . T ra n s it i on s t o p l ac e s w i th n o w e tn e ss - i nd i ca t in gc h a ra c t er i st i cs h a ve o f te n b e en o b se r ve d w i th i n a v e ry s h or t d i s t a n c e ( < 3 m ) . I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e e x t e n t o f s a t u r a t e d a r e a sw a s o f te n c o n st r ai n ed b y s t ee p s l op e s a t t h ei r b o rd e r s. O n lya s ma ll n um be r o f s at ur at ed a re a s s h ow ed a m or e g r ad ua lt r a n s i ti o n i n t o p l a c e s w i t h n o w e t n e ss - i n d ic a t i n g c h a r a c t e r -i s t i c s , e . g . , i n f l a t t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e v a l l e y b o t t o m s a l o n g t h em a i n r i v e r.

    Table 3. P e rf o rm a nc e o f Te r ra i n I n di c es t o R e pr e se n t t h e O b se r ve d P a tt e rn o f S a tu r at e d A r ea s i n t h e B r ug g a B a si n

    Criteria

    CIT, h a h MPS, h a MSI krank,50 krank,200

    kmatch,10,%

    kmatch,50,%

    k fuzzy,%

    kdist,o,m

    kdist,m,m

    kdist,mean,m

    Perfect fit val ue - - - - 1 o r 1 1 or 1 10 0 100 100 0 0 0Wo rst case v alu e - - - - 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1Ob serv ed p attern sO1 0 (10 m g ri d) - - 1 .17 4.9 1 - - - - - - - -

    O5 0 (50 m g ri d) - - 0 .93 1.7 5 - - - - - - - -Ran d o m p attern

    RANDOM - - 0 .32 1.1 2 0.0 04 0 .001 6 .5 6. 1 20 .5 101 182 142S i m p le i n d i ce s

    RAD - - 6 .33 3.0 1 0.0 46 0 .004 2 .2 2. 3 4. 3 538 190 364CURV - - 1.45 2.0 1 0 .3 4 1 0 .432 1 6.4 16.3 27 .3 196 11 8 157tan b33 - - 2 .06 2.3 3 0 .2 2 6 0 .269 1 2.1 11 .9 19 .5 248 195 222tan blocal - - 2 .26 2.5 1 0 .2 8 5 0 .346 1 9.4 19.8 28 .3 232 139 185tan bd=10 - - 2 .55 2.7 7 0 .2 6 1 0 .313 2 2.6 22.4 29 .3 296 11 8 207tan bd=25 - - 6 .19 3.5 2 0.311 0 .383 2 3.8 23.3 28 .1 357 8 4 221UCA - 1 1 2.65 1 1.9 5 0.4 03 0 .489 2 7.4 26.6 36 .1 2 28 8 6 157UCA - 1 5 2 1.08 16. 23 0.3 84 0 .480 2 7.4 27.4 41 .8 133 8 6 110

    Co mb in ed in d icesTWI w i t h t a n b33 - 1 5 7 .44 3.4 5 0.4 25 0 .527 3 0.0 29.7 44 .4 125 7 7 101TWI w i t h t a n bd=25 - 1 5 7 .23 9.7 9 0.4 32 0 .535 3 0.3 30.0 44 .2 132 7 5 104

    TWI w i t h t a n blocal - 1 5 6 .84 9.8 2 0.4 30 0 .533 3 0.2 30.0 44 .3 125 7 6 100TWI w i t h t a n blocal - 1 7 .23 7.4 7 0.4 41 0 .540 3 1.0 30.1 41 .0 2 11 7 5 143TWI w i t h t a n blocal 1 0 1 0 3 .42 4.6 2 0.4 36 0 .537 3 3.4 33.9 48 .2 105 6 9 87TCWI 1 0 1 0 3 .56 4.5 4 0.4 40 0 .541 3 3.6 33.9 48 .3 106 6 9 88TCSWI 1 0 1 0 3 .16 2.8 8 0.4 04 0 .473 3 1.0 30.9 41 .9 179 6 6 122

    b est TCSWI 8 8 2 .53 3.1 9 0.4 26 0 .491 3 4.2 34.0 50 .7 92 6 6 79Logi sti c regress ion - - 3 .24 3.7 1 0.4 36 0 .568 3 3.5 33.1 49 .2 105 6 9 87

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    [32] T he t ot al s iz e o f s at ur at ed a r ea s i n t h e B ru gg a b a s ini s 2 . 6 k m2, w h i c h i s 6 . 6 % o f t h e b a s i n a r e a ( e x c l u d i n g a r e a sw i t h s e t t l e m e n t s o r o t h e r a r e a s t h a t a r e h e a v i l y d i s t u r b e d b yc o ns t ru c ti o n) ( F ig u re 4 a ). S a tu r at e d a r e as o c cu r i n n a r ro ws tr ip s i n t he r ip ar ia n z on e a lo ng t he m ai n r iv er s ( c om pa r eF ig ur e 1 ) a nd a lo ng n ar r ow a nd s te ep v al le ys o f t ri bu ta r yc re ek s, w he re h or iz on s o f s pr in gs o r d if fu se z on es o f e me rg in g s ub su rf ac e f lo w a re l oc at ed a t t he t oe o f t heh i ll s lo p es a d ja c e nt t o t h e c h an n el . S a tu r a te d a r ea s o f l a rg e r e x te n t w e r e f o un d i n c i r qu e s o r s i mi l ar h o ll o w s t r u c tu r e s o f P le is to ce ne o r ig in a nd i n o th er h ol lo ws w it h c o nv e rg in gm or p ho lo gy. T he c ir q ue s a r e o f te n c h ar a ct er iz e d b y ar ou g hl y b ow l- s ha pe d m or ph o lo gy w it h a l ow - ly in g, f la t

    c e nt r a l p a r t w h er e s a tu r a te d a r ea s o c cu r a s b o gs .[33] I n l i ne w i th t h es e f i el d o b s e r va t io n s, m o st s a tu r at e da r ea s ( 66 .6 % o f t he t ot a l s a t ur a te d a r ea ) w er e f ou nd i n t heh ol lo w/ ch an n el l an ds c ap e u ni t, i .e ., i n l oc at io ns w it h a na n a ly t ic a ll y d e r iv e d t o p og r a p hi c c o n ve r g en c e ( F i gu r e 5 ;c o mp a re w i th F i gu r e 2 a ) . F i el d o b s er v at i on s t h at e x pl a int h e o c c u r re n c e o f t h e r e m a in i ng s a tu r a te d a r e as i n p l an e s o r o n r id ge s a r e a s f ol lo ws : ( 1) S at ur at ed a re a s w er e f ou nd

    bel ow spri ngs on t he st eep and l ocal l y pl anar headwal l s oft he c ir q ue s m en ti on ed a bo ve . ( 2 ) T he s at ur at ed a r ea s a r el o ca t ed c l os e t o t h e w a t e rs h ed d i vi d e, o n ly a f e w m e t e r s i na lt it ud e b el ow t he t op o f t he m ou nt ai n r id ge s w he r e t he yw er e a ga in r el at ed t o t he o c cu rr e nc e o f s pr in gs . ( 3) S at u-r a t e d a r e a s o f l a r g e r s p a t i a l e x t e n t w e r e m o s t o f t e n f o u n d i n

    t h e s o u t hw e st e rn p a r t o f t h e B r u g ga b a si n . I n t h is a r ea , t h ec r y st a ll i ne b e dr o c k i s w i de l y c o ve r e d b y m o ra i ne d e po s it s( s e e F i g u re 2 b ) t h at h a ve d e ns e r s o il s w i th l o we r h y dr a u li cc on du ct iv it y. T hi s l ea d s t o a h ig he r p ot en ti al f o r s ur f ac esat urat i on.

    [34] T h e d i s tr i bu t io n o f s a t u r at e d a r e a s a m o n g t h e d i f f e r-e nt s oi l u ni ts o f t he B ru gg a b as in s ho we d t ha t t he 2 0%f r a ct i on o f s a tu r a te d a r e as i s i n de e d c o mp a ra t iv e ly l a rg e f o r t he m or ai ne u ni t ( Fi gu re 6 ). A s im il ar c ov er ag e w it hs a tu r a te d a r ea s w a s f o u n d f o r t h e H o l o ce n e d e p o s it s i n t h ev a ll e y b o tt o ms , w h er e as p r a ct i ca l ly n o s a tu r a te d a r e as w e ref o u n d i n u n i t s w i t h a b o u l d e r l a y e r ( F i g u r e 6 ) . T h e e x t e n t o f s at ur a te d a re a s i n t he d if f er e nt e le va ti on z on es t en ds t o

    i nc re a se w it h e le va ti on u p t o a m ax im um ( ab ou t 8 %) a t a ne l ev a ti o n o f a b ou t 9 0 0 1 10 0 m . F o r h i gh e r e l ev a ti o ns , t h e

    f r a ct i on o f s a tu r at e d a r e as r e ma i ns a b ov e t h e b a si n a v er a g e( F ig u re 7 ) .

    [35] A ft er t ra n sf or ma ti on t o t h e 5 0 50 m2 g r i d, t h e p a t t e rno f s a tu r a te d a r e as a p pe a re d m o re f r a gm e n te d ( F ig u re 4 b ).T hi s i s a ls o e xp re s se d i n t er ms o f a s ma ll er p at ch s iz e a nda m or e r eg ul ar p at ch s ha pe f or 5 0 50 m2 a s c o mp a r edt o t h e 1 0 10 m2 g r id ( s e e M P S a n d M S I i n Ta b le 3 ) . F o r t h en a rr o w b a nd s o f s a tu r at ed a r ea s i n t he v a ll ey b o tt om s,t he f ra ct io n o f a re a i n t he l ar ge r g ri d c el ls w as o ft en n ot s u f f i c i e n t t o c l a s s i f y a 5 0 50 m2 c e l l a s s a t u r a t e d a r e a .4.2. Performance of Terrain Indices

    [36] T h e r a d ia t io n i n d ex ( R A D ) w a s f o u nd t o r e su l t i n t h e

    poorest repres ent at i on of sat urat ed area spat i al pat t erns

    Figure 4. P at te rn o f ma pp ed s atu ra te d a re as i n th e B ru gg a b as in : ( a) o ri gi na l ma pp in g a nd( b ) t r an s f or m at i on t o t h e 5 0 50 m2 gri d.

    Figure 5. F r ac ti on o f a r ea o f l an ds ca pe u ni ts o n t he t ot ala re a o f t he B ru gg a b as in a nd f ra ct io n o f o bs er ve d a nd

    m od el ed s at ur at ed a re a s ( SA ) o n t he a r ea o f t he l an ds c ap eu n it s ( m od e l w i th b e st TCSWI t e r r a in i n d e x ).

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    ( Fi gu re 8 b a nd Ta bl e 3 ). L ar ge p at ch es w it h t he l ow es t a nn ua l r ad ia ti on i np ut ( mi ni mu m 5 29 k W h m2 a1) arem ai nl y l oc at ed o n t he l ow er p ar ts o f s te ep n or th f ac in gs l o p e s . R A D p e r f o r m e d e v e n w o r s e t h a n t h e r a n d o m p a t t e r nR AN DO M. F or t he p at te rn o f R AD w it h a c lu mp in g o f

    pat ches i n some part s of t he st udy area, t he di st ancesbet ween observed and model ed sat urat ed cel l s (kdist) w er el ar ge r o n a ve r ag e t ha n f o r t he r a nd om p at te r n b ei ng u ni -f o r m l y d i s t r i b ut e d i n s p a c e .

    [ 37] T he m ea n s ur f ac e c ur va tu re ( CU RV ) r es ul te d i n apat t ern of t he most pronounced concavi t y of t he l andscapet h at h i gh l ig h ts t h e b o tt o ms o f n a rr o w, d e ep l y i nc i se dv al le y s, m ai nl y i n t he l ow er p ar t o f t he m ai n v al le y a nd i ni t s c o nt r ib u ti n g c r e ek s ( F i gu r e 8 c ) . T h es e p a r ts f r e qu e n tl yc or r es p on d t o t he l oc a ti on o f s at ur at ed a re a s. T he C URV

    pat t ern, however, di d not i ncl ude sat urat ed areas i n t hev a ll ey b ot to ms o f b r oa d er , m or e o pe n v al le y s e gm en t s,

    part i cul arl y t hose i n t he sout hwest ern part of t he basi n.H e re t h e m o s t p r on o un c ed c o nc a vi t y w a s f o u nd a t t h e r i s e

    o f t h e s t e e p h i l l s l o p e s i n s t e a d o f c l o s e t o t h e c h a n n e l , w h i c hi s s ur r ou nd ed b y c om pa r at iv el y f la t t er r ai n. T he p er f or -m a nc e o f c u r va t ur e i n q u a nt i ta t iv e t e rm s w a s c o ns i de r a bl y

    bet t er t han was RAD, as i t was al most i n t he range of t heperformance of t he more sui t abl e sl ope i ndi ces (see bel owa n d Ta b le 3 ) .

    [ 38] T h e t h r e e d i f fe r en t s l o p e i n d ic e s r e s u lt e d i n m a rk e dl yd i f f e r en t p a t t e r n s o f s a t u r a te d a r e a s . T h e w o r s t p e r f o r ma n c ei n c om pa ri so n t o t he o bs er va ti on s w as f o un d f or t an b33( F ig ur e 8 d a nd Ta bl e 3 ). T he p a tt er n o f m in im um s lo pev al ue s o f t an b33 i s d om in at ed b y c el ls c lo se t o t hew at er sh ed d iv id e a nd i n t he u pp er mo st p ar ts o f t he g en tl yu n du l at i ng h i gh l an d a r e a i n t h e s o u th w es t er n B r ug g a b a si n .

    T h e o c c u r re n ce o f m a pp e d s a t u r at e d a r e a s i n t h es e p a r ts i sc om pa ra ti ve ly l ow. O nl y a s ma l l n um be r o f c el ls w it h t he

    l o we s t s l op e g r a di e nt s f o r t h e t a n b33 i n de x a r e a t tr i bu t e dt o t h e v a l l ey b o tt o ms . T h is w a s i n c o nt r as t t o t h e p a t te r n o f t h e t a n blocal i n de x t h at s h ow e d b r oa d er p a tc h e s o f s a tu r a te da r ea s i n t he v al le y b ot to ms a t t he e xp en se o f a re a s i n m or ee l ev a te d p a r ts o f t h e b a s i n ( F i g u re 8 e ) . T h e d i ff e r en c e s a r ed i re c tl y d u e t o t h e c a lc u la t io n m e th o ds o f b o th i n di c es . F o r c e ll s l oc at ed i n t he f la t v al le y b ot to m c lo s e t o i ts m ar gi ns ,

    t h e a d ja c e nt h i ll s lo p e c e ll s w i th h i gh e r e l ev a ti o n a r e c o n-s i de r e d f o r s l op e c a lc u la t io n b y t a n b33. I n t h e c a s e o f t a nblocal, i n c on tr a st , o nl y t he a dj ac e nt d ow ns lo pe c e ll s i n t hev a ll ey b ot to m w it h a c o mp a ra t iv e ly s ma l l d if f er e nc e i ne l ev a ti o n a r e c o ns i de r e d. T h us t a n blocal r e s ul t s i n s m al l er s lo pe v al ue s t ha n t an b33. A b et te r p er fo rm an ce w asa c hi ev e d f or t he t an blocal s lo pe m et ho d a cc o rd in g t o a llc r i t e r ia ( Ta b l e 3 ) .

    [ 39] T he t en de nc y d es c ri be d a s t he d if fe re n ce b et we ent an b33 a nd t an blocal w as a mp li fi ed w he n l oo ki ng a t t het an bd i n di c es . T h e r e s ul t in g p a tt e rn e m ph a s iz e s e v en m o ret he m ai n v al le y b ot to ms a nd a dj ac en t h il ls lo pe c el ls( Fi gu re 8 f) . T he i nd ex t an bd=25 p e r fo r me d b e tt e r t h an

    bot h t an bd=10 a n d t a n b33 i n t e r ms o f t he krank and kmatchc ri te ri a, b ut e qu al ly w el l o r w or se i n t er ms o f t he f uz zya nd t he d is ta nc e c ri te ri a ( Ta bl e 3 ). T he f ir st g ro up o f c r it e ri a t en ds t o g iv e a h ig he r w ei gh t t o r ep r es en ti ng t hes a tu r at ed a r ea s i n t he m ai n v al le y b ot to ms a nd h ol lo ws o f t h e s t u d y a r e a , w h er e a s t h e s e c on d g r ou p s t r es s e s m o r e t h ea bi li ty o f t he i nd ex t o r ep re se nt t he s pa ti al ly s ca tt er edd i st r ib u t io n o f s a tu r a te d a r ea s .

    [ 40] U s in g t h e u p s lo p e c o n t ri b ut i ng a r e a a s t e r ra i n i n d e x,t h e p a t t e r n o f h i g h e s t i n d e x v a l u e s w a s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h ec ha nn el f lo w l in es i n t he m ai n v al le ys a nd i n t he m aj or c o nt r ib u ti n g v a ll e ys . F o r t h e i n de x a l go r it h m u s in g h = 15( c o rr e s po n di n g t o t h e s i ng l e f l ow d i re c ti o n a l go r it h m) t h e

    pat t ern was pri mari l y formed by one si ngl e l i ne of cel l s i n

    Figure 6. F ra ct io n o f s oi l u ni ts o n t he t ot al a re a o f t heB ru gg a b as in a nd f ra ct io n o f o bs er ve d a nd m od el eds at ur at ed a re as ( SA ) o n t he a re a o f t he s oi l u ni ts ( mo de lw i th b e s t TCSWI t e r r a in i n d e x ).

    Figure 7. F r a ct i on o f e l ev a ti o n z o n e s ( 1 00 m c o nt o ur l i nei n te r v al s ) o n t h e t o t a l a r e a o f t h e B r u g ga b a si n a n d f r a c t io n

    o f o b s e r v e d a n d m o d e l e d s a t u r a t e d a r e a s ( S A ) o n t h e a r e a o f t h e e l ev a ti o n z o ne s ( m od e l w i th b e st TCSWI t e r r a i n i n d e x ).

    1 0 o f 1 9

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    t he l ow es t c ha nn el c el ls o f t he v al le ys ( Fi gu re 8 g) . T hepri nci pal di fference i n t he mul t i pl e fl ow di rect i on al gori t hm( h = 1 ) ( Fi gu re 8 h) w as t ha t f o r t he l at te r, b r oa de r a r ea s o f s a t u r a t e d c e l l s w e r e g e n e r a t e d i n t h e v a l l e y b o t t o m s b e c a u s ea c c um u la t ed a r e a w a s r e d is t r ib u te d a m on g s e v er a l d o wn -s l op e c e ll s . To c o mp e ns a te , t h e p a tt e rn o f s a t ur a te d c e ll s f o r h = 1 5 e x t e n d e d f u r t h e r i n t o l o c a t i o n s o f h i g h e r e l e v a t i o n i nt h e c h a n n e l h e a d w a t e r s . F o r i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s o f h, m i x e d

    s p at i al p a tt e rn s b e tw e en t h es e t w o e x tr e me p a tt e rn s w e reo b ta i ne d . I n a c co r d an c e w i th t h e o b se r v at i on t h at m a pp e d

    s a t ur a te d c e ll s a r e c h ar a c te r i ze d b y r a th e r l o ng b u t n a rr o ws t ri p s i n t h e v a l l e y b o t t om s a n d o f t e n l o ca t ed i n h e ad w at e r a r e as , m o st p e rf o r ma n c e c r it e ri a s h ow e d b e tt e r r e s ul t s f o r a l go r it h ms t h at c a lc u la t e t h e u p s lo p e i n de x w i th s t r on g er f l ow c on v er ge n ce a pp r oa c hi ng t he s in gl e f lo w d ir e ct io na l go r it h m ( Ta b le 3 ) . I n de p e nd e nt f r o m t h e a c tu a l v a lu e o f h, t h e u p sl o pe c o nt r ib u ti n g a r e a i n de x o u tp e r fo r me d a l l t h eo t h e r s i m p l e t e r r a i n i n d i c e s . M o r e t h a n 4 1 % o f t h e o b s e r v e d

    s a t ur a te d a r e as w e r e e x p l ai n ed i n t e rm s o f t h e f u z z y s p a ti a lc o i n c id e n c e (k fuzzy).

    Figure 8. S pa ti al p at te rn s o f ( a ) o bs e rv ed a nd ( b -m ) m od el ed s a tu ra te d a re a s w it h v ar io us t er r ai ni ndi ces.

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    [ 41] F or t he e xa mp le o f t he s in gl e f lo w d ir ec ti on a lg o-r it hm ( h = 1 5 ) , t h e c o mb i na t io n o f s l op e a n d c o nt r ib u ti n ga r ea i n t he f or m o f t he T OP MO DE L w et ne s s i nd ex , TWI,

    performed bet t er t han any of t he si mpl e i ndi ces. Di fferent s l o p e c a l c u l a t io n m e t h od s u s e d w i t h in TWI r e s ul t ed i n o n lym i no r d i ff e r en c es ( Ta b le 3 ) . T h e m a in d i ff e r en c e b e tw e ent he p at te rn o f s at ur at ed c el ls f or a ny o f t he TWI i ndi cesr el at iv e t o t h e U CA i n de x w as t h at i n t he f ir st c as e,s a tu r at ed c el ls a lo ng s te ep c ha nn e l s eg me n ts o f t ri bu ta r yc r e e k s w e r e r e m o v e d ( F i g u r e 8 i ) . T h i s w a s c o n f i r m e d b y t h ef ie ld m ap pi ng , w he r e o f te n n o s a tu r at ed a re a s c ou ld b ef o un d a dj ac en t t o t he c r ee ks c on ne c ti ng t he h il ly u pl an da r e a s w i t h t h e v a l l e y b o t t o m s o v e r t h e v e r y s t e e p s i d e s l o p e s

    o f t h e m a i n v a ll e ys . A n a d di t io n al e f f ec t i n t h is r e s pe c t w a so b ta i ne d b y i nt r od u ci ng t he c h an n el i ni ti a ti on t hr e sh ol d( C I T ) . A s t h e m a x i m u m u p s l o p e a r e a o f e a c h c e l l i s l i m i t e d

    by CIT, t he sl ope val ue gai ns i n rel at i ve i nfl uence wi t hi n t hecombi ned TWI. A s a r e su lt , m or e c el ls a lo ng s te ep c ha nn e lr e ac he s w er e r e mo ve d f r om t he p at te r n o f s a tu r at ed c e ll s.I n s te a d , a d di t io n al s a tu r at e d c e ll s w e r e g e ne r at e d i n m o ree le va te d a re a s o f t he h ea dw at er s o f t ri bu ta r y v al le ys , a n da ls o p ar tl y a t t he m ar gi ns o f t he m ai n v al le y b ot to ms( F i g u r e 8 j ) . F o r s i m u l a t i o n s o f TWI w i t h t a n b a s s l o p e v a l u ea n d w i t h v a r i a t i o n s o f C I T i n t h e r a n g e 0 t o 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 m 2 andf o r d i ff e r en t d e gr e e s o f f l ow c o nv e r ge n ce b y v a r yi n g h i nt he r an ge 1 t o 1 5, a n o pt im al p at te rn o f s at ur at ed c el lsa c c o r d in g t o k fuzzy w a s o b t a i n e d f o r C I T = 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 m

    2 andh = 1 0 ( F ig u re s 9 a n d 8 j ) . F o r t h is p a r am e te r c o mb i na t io n ,t he o th er p er f or ma nc e c r it er ia w er e a ls o c lo se t o a n o pt i-m um v a lu e. F or C IT v al ue s t ha t w er e t oo s ma l l, t oo m an yc e l l s a t s t e e p e r l o c a t i o n s w e r e n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e p a t t e r n o f s a tu r at e d c e ll s . S ma l le r v a lu e s o f h p r od u ce d l e ss p r o-n ou nc ed c o nv er gi ng f lo w p at hw ay s a nd , a s d is cu ss e d f o r U C A, p a tc h es o f s a tu r a te d a r e as i n t h e v a l l e y b o t t om s t h at w e re t o o b r oa d .

    [ 42] T he m od if ic a ti on o f TWI w i th c o ns i de r a ti o n o f t h ec l i m a t i c w a t e r b a l a n c e C r e s u l t e d i n a s m a l l i m p r o v e m e n t o f t he s pa ti al p at te rn o f s at ur at ed a re as ( TCWI i n Ta bl e 3 ),

    because more sat urat ed cel l s were predi ct ed i n hi gher rat hert ha n i n l ow er p ar ts o f t he w at er sh ed . T he d if fe re nc es

    c o mp a re d t o t h e i n de x w i th o ut a n e l ev a ti o n g r a di e nt w e re ,

    h ow ev e r, l es s i mp or ta nt t ha n t he e f fe ct o f d if fe re n t a lg o-r i t h m s i n t e r m s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s h a n d C I T. Te s ti n g a m o res o ph i st i ca t ed c e ll - ba s e d a s se s s me n t o f t h e c l im a ti c w a te r

    bal ance whi ch account s for t he i nfl uence of l and use andr a di at io n i np ut o n e va po tr an sp ir a ti on d id n ot f ur th er i m-

    prove t he si mul at ed pat t ern (not shown).[ 43] U sin g t he TCWI i n de x w i th t h e t r an s mi s si v it y T for

    t he f iv e d if f er en t s oi l u ni ts g iv en i n Ta b le 2 i n t he f o rm o f t h e c l i m a te - s o i l- t o p o gr a p h i c i n d e x TCSWI r es u lt ed i n a d e-c re as e i n p er fo rm an ce w he n c om pa re d t o t he o bs er ve ds a tu r a te d p a tt e rn ( Ta b le 3 ) . H o we v er , a s t h e T v a lu e s w e r eo n ly r o ug h e s ti m at e s, b a tc h s i mu l at i on s w e re p e rf o r me d t oo b ta i n o p ti m um v a lu e s. T w as v ar ie d i n a r an ge o f tw oo r d er s o f m a gn i tu d e a b ov e a n d b e lo w t h e e s ti m at e d v a lu e sf o r e a c h s o i l u n i t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , h a n d C I T a l so v a r ie d w i th i nt he r a ng es m en ti on ed a b ov e. T he r e su lt s s ho we d t ha t o nec on di ti on f or a n i mp ro ve d s pa ti al p at te rn w as t ha t n os a tu r at ed c el ls o cc u rr e d i n s oi l u ni ts 1 a nd 2 , w hi ch w asa ch ie ve d f or T > 1 102 m3 d1 in u nit s 1 a nd 2 . T h e

    presence of a very coarse, rapi dl y drai ni ng surface mat eri alprevent ed t he format i on of surface-sat urat ed areas as cor-

    r o bo ra te d b y t he f ie ld s u rv ey ( Fi gu re 7 ) . A n o pt im um w asr e a c h e d i f b o t h T3 and T4 w e r e s e t t o 1 101 m3 d1 whi l ea t t he s a me t im e s e tt in g T5 = 4 101 m3 d1 ( Ta b le s 2a nd 3 ). T he i nt ro du ct io n o f t he s oi l i nf or ma ti on s li gh tl ys h if t e d t h e v a lu e s o f t h e o p ti m iz e d p a ra m et e rs h a n d C I T t o8 a n d 8 0 , 0 0 0 m2, r e s p e c ti v e l y.

    [ 44] T he m ai n d if f er en ce b et we en TCSWI and TCWI wast h at f o r TCSWI t he n um be r o f s at ur a te d c e ll s i n t he c ha nn el

    part of t he val l ey bot t oms wi t h hi ghl y permeabl e sedi men-t ar y d ep os it s w as r e du ce d. F or TCSWI, t he l in ea r p at te rnw as d iv id ed i nt o i nd iv id ua l s eg me nt s i n s o me l oc at io ns( F ig ur e 8 k) . T he se c ha ng es c am e c lo s er t o t he o bs e rv ed

    pat t ern, as quant i fi ed by t he val ues of MPS and MSI, where

    pat ches i n t he val l ey bot t oms are hi ghl y noncont i guous( F ig ur e 4 b) . To c om pe n sa te , a n d i n a cc or d an ce w it h t heo b se r v ed p a tt e rn , a d di t io n al s a tu r at e d c e ll s i n TCSWI wereg e ne r a te d i n z o ne s w i th m o ra i ne o r d r if t m a te r ia l , p r im a ri l ya t t he m ar gi ns o f c on ve rg in g z on es i n v al le y o r h ol lo ws t ru c t ur e s . I f p a tc h es o f s a tu r at e d c e ll s a l re a d y e x is t e d f o r TCWI i n t he u pp er p ar ts o f t he b as in , t h en t he y w er ee x t e n d ed f o r TCSWI t o wa r d t h e w a te r s he d d i vi d e.

    [ 45] T he o pt im um v er s io n o f a t er r ai n i n d ex f ou nd i n t h iss t ud y ( b es t TCSWI i n Ta bl e 3 ) e xp la in ed 3 4. 2% o f t heo b se r ve d s a tu r at e d a r ea . I n cl u di n g t h e c o in c id e nc e o f m a pp e d a n d m o de l ed a r e as w i th i n a 5 0 m t o le r a nc e r a d iu sw i th l o we r w e ig h ts f o r d i st a nt c e ll s , t h e e x pl a in e d r a ti o i s5 0 . 7 % . T h e c e l l - ba s e d r a n k c o r r e l a t i on c o e f f i ci e n t b e t w e e ni n d e x v a l u e s a n d t h e f r a c t i o n o f s a t u r a t e d a r e a s i s 0 . 4 3 . I t i ss l ig h tl y h i gh e r ( 0 . 49 ) w h en a v e ra g ed o v er l a r ge r a r ea s ( i .e . ,200 2 0 0 m2 c e ll s ). F o r t h e o b se r v ed s a tu r a te d a r ea s , t h em e an d i st a nc e t o t h e c l os e s t m o d el e d c e l l i s 9 2 m , w h ic h i sl ar ge r t ha n t he d is ta nc e f ro m e ac h m od el ed c el l t o t hec l os e st o b se r ve d s a tu r at ed a r ea ( 6 6 m ) . T h is d if f er e nc e

    bet ween bot h kdist c r i t e r i a i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o b s e r v e d p a t t e r ni s m or e s ca tt er ed i n s pa ce t ha n t he m od el ed p at te r n. A c-c or d in g ly, t he m ea n s iz e o f s at ur a te d p at ch e s w as o ve r -s im ul a te d b y a f a ct or o f a bo ut 2 .5 , w it h a m or e i rr e gu la r s ha pe t ha n t he o bs er ve d s iz e a t t he 5 0 m g ri d r es ol ut io n( M PS a nd M SI i n Ta bl e 3 ).

    [ 46] F or t he r e si du al p at te r ns , a ll ow in g f or a t ol er a nc e

    d is ta n ce o f 5 0 m d ue t o e f fe c ts o f r e so lu ti o n, g ri d d is cr e ti -

    Figure 9. R es p on s e s ur f ac e o f t he p er f or ma nc e c ri te r iak fuzzy f or t he T OP MO DE L w et ne ss i nd ex TWI cal cul at edw i t h v a r y i n g c h a n n e l i n i t i a ti o n t h r e s h o l d C I T a n d H o l m g r e nfact or h.

    1 2 o f 1 9

    W05114 GUN T N E R E T A L . : S PAT I A L PAT T E R N S O F S AT U R AT E D A R E A S W05114

  • 7/30/2019 Guentner_etal_2004_WRR__An evaluation of different terrain indices.pdf

    13/19

    z a t i o n , a n d u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f l o c a t i o n , o n l y 9 % o f a l l m o d e l e ds a t u r a te d c e l l s w i t h TCSWI w e re a t a l a rg e r d i st a nc e r e l at i vet o a n y o b s e r v e d s a t u r a t e d a r e a ( F i g u r e 1 0 a ) . T h e s e r e s i d u a l st en d t o b e l oc at ed c lo se t o u rb an o r d is tu rb ed a re as

    part i cul arl y i n t he nort hern part of t he basi n (compare wi t hF i g u r e 1 ) . T h u s o n e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e d e v i a t i o n s i s h u m a ni mp ac t, e .g ., b y d r ai na ge o f w et z o ne s . F r om t he p oi nt o f v ie w o f t he o bs er v ed p at te r n, 3 3% o f m ap pe d s at ur at eda re as we re a t a d is ta nc e o f mo re t ha n 5 0 m to th e n ex t m o d e l e d s a t u r a t e d c e l l ( F i g u r e 1 0 b ) . T h e p a t t e r n o f r e s i d u a l si s c o m p o s e d o f s m a l l p a t c h e s s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r es t u d y a r e a . I n g e n e r a l , t h e y t e n d t o o c c u r i n e l e v a t e d p a r t s o f

    t h e b a s i n , w h i c h i s a l s o s h o w n b y t h e u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n o f t h ef r ac t io n o f s a tu r at e d a r ea s o n d i ff e re n t e l ev a ti o n z o ne s( Fi gu re 7 ) . A l ar ge n um be r o f e rr o rs w er e f ou nd i n z o ne sl o ca t ed w i th i n a s h or t d i st a nc e d o wn s lo p e o f t h e w a te r s he dd iv id e, e sp e ci al ly i n t he s ou th er n a nd e as te rn p a rt s o f t he b as in . T he se r es id ua l p at ch es a re o ft en c lo se t o t hel oc at io n o f f au lt s a nd f r ac tu re s i n t he c ry s ta ll in e b ed r oc k ( F ig ur e 1 0 b) . T he s i mu la t ed p a tt e rn o v er e st im at ed t hef r a ct i on o f s a tu r at e d a r e as i n t h e h o ll o w/ c ha n ne l l a nd s c ap eu ni t a t t he e xp en se o f t ho se i n p la ne o r r id ge p os it io ns( F ig u re 5 ) . F o r t h e s o i l u n i t s, t h e f r a c ti o n o f s a tu r at e d a r e a sw a s o v e r e s t i m a t e d i n m o r a i n e m a t e r i a l a n d H o l o c e n e d e p o s -i t s, w h il e t h e s a tu r a te d a r e a f r a c t io n i n t h e p e r ig l ac i al d r if t m a te r ia l , w h i c h h a s a l a rg e s p at i al e x te n t i n t h e s t u d y a r e a ,w a s u n d e r es t i m at e d ( F i g u re 6 ) .

    [47] T he r es u lt s o f t he l og is ti c r e gr es s io n i nd ic at ed t ha t,o n a ve ra ge , th e p ro ba bil ity f or a c el l t o b el on g t o t hes a t ur a te d a r ea s a l mo s t d o ub l ed w h en TWI i nc r ea se d b y 1( Ta b le 4 ) . C e ll s c l os e t o t e ct o ni c f a ul t s w e r e t w ic e a s l i ke l yt o b e lo ng t o t he s at ur a te d a r ea s a s t ho s e m or e d is ta nt f r omf a ul ts . S at ur at ed a re a s w er e m or e t ha n t wi ce a s l ik el y i na r ea s w it h p oo rl y c on du ct iv e s oi ls a s t he y w er e i n t ho sew i th h i gh e r c o nd u ct i vi t ie s . L o ca t io n i n a t o po g ra p h ic d e -

    pres si on i ncre ased t he proba bi l i t y by about 60%. Thepredi ct ed pat t ern of sat urat ed areas, gi ven by t he cel l s wi t hh i gh e st p r ob a bi l it y o f s a tu r a ti o n, w a s s i mi l ar t o t h e p a tt e rno f th e be st TCSWI v e r si o n ( F ig u re 8 m ). T h e q u an t it a ti v e

    performance cri t eri a were i n general sl i ght l y worse t han t hev al ue s o f th e b es t TCSWI, b ut a bo ut e qu al t o th e o th er c o mb i ne d t e r ra i n i n di c es ( Ta b le 3 ) . O n e n o ta b le e x c ep t io ni s krank,200, w h i c h h a d i t s o p t i m u m v a l u e a m o n g a l l a n a l y z e di n di c es f o r t h e p a tt e rn d e r iv e d f r o m t h e l o gi s ti c r e g re s s io n .T hi s i nd ic a te s t ha t a t t he c o ar se r s ca le o f 2 00 2 00 m2,a re as o f h ig h p ro ba bi li ty o f s oi l s at ur at io n t en de d t oc o in c id e m o re f r e qu e nt l y w i th a h i gh f r a ct i on o f o b se r v eds at u ra te d a re a s t ha n f or t he o th e r i nd ex p at te r ns . P re su m-a b ly, t h e r e as o n f o r t h is i s t h at l o gi s ti c r e g re s s io n a c c ou n tsf o r a d di ti on a l i nf o rm at io n o n t er r ai n c h ar a ct er i st ic s t ha t f a v or s o il s a tu r a ti o n i n t h e n e i g h bo r ho o d o f e a ch g r id c e ll( a s d o n e b y t h e c h a n n e l / h o ll o w l a n d s c a p e u n i t c l a s s if i c a t i ona n d b y t h e l o c a t i o n c l o s e t o a b e d r o c k f a u l t o r f r a c t u r e ) . T h i sl ar ge r r a di us o f c on s id e ra ti on o f t er r ai n c h ar a ct er i st ic s

    Table 4. R e s u lt s o f L o g i st i c R e g r es s i o na

    Independent Variable Con stant b0 TWI Tectonicsb Lan d scap e Un itc So ild

    Parameter estimate bi 8 .67 0.63 0 .76 0 .49 0.8 5O d d s r a t i oe 1.87

    ( 1 . 7 8 1 . 9 7 )2 .1 3

    ( 1 . 7 9 2 . 5 3 )1 .6 3

    ( 1 . 3 9 1 . 9 3 )2 .3 4

    ( 1 . 9 0 2 . 8 8 )

    aDep en d ent v ariab le y ( y = 0 : n o ns a tu r at e d, n = 1 4 46 0 ; y = 1 : s a tu r at e d, n = 1 01 2 ).bVa l ue i s 1 f o r c e


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