Guidelines for Guidelines for Efficient WritingEfficient WritingGuidelines for Guidelines for

Efficient WritingEfficient Writing

Ioana Mohor-IvanIoana Mohor-Ivan

Guidelines for efficient writing

• Present the reader with ideas worth considering;

• Organise and develop the main point logically and emphatically;

• Be precise in lexical choice, and highly specific in the supporting material;

• Present all the points clearly, with sentence and paragraph elements arranged in a unified, coherent fashion;

• Respect the conventions of grammar, spelling and punctuation.

Some additional guidelines• The first sentence should be reasonably short

(to ease the readers into the material);• Too many short/long sentences are likely to tire

readers;• Sentences which are too long or complex

should be avoided;• It is often appropriate to follow a sentence

containing a lot of information with a short one that, while not duplicating the material, summarises or clarifies it.

Which of the following punctuation marks are most adequate as a

separating device?

• It was a fine day, the sun was shining.• It was a fine day. The sun was shining.• It was a fine day – the sun was

shining.• It was a fine day; the sun was shining.• It was a fine day: the sun was shining.

HIERARCHY OF PUNCTUATION

• COMMA: brief, hardly perceptible pause; if used with a conjunction (and, but, for), it acquires the same weight as a semi-colon.

• DASH: equivalent to a ‘strong comma’; it is useful towards the end of a clause or sentence when the writer wishes to stress an additional and important point.

• BRACKETS/A PAIR OF DASHES: used to isolate a thought or piece of information that is worth including, but is secondary to the main thrust of the material. The pair of dashes is slightly the weightier, but essentially they do the same work.

• SEMI-COLON: its weight is halfway between the comma and the full stop. It should be used to separate two clauses whose subject-matter is closely related.

• COLON: whereas the semi-colon denotes a pause between two related clauses, the colon separates two that are directly interlock (i.e. each is to an extent dependent on the other for full sense or impact.)

• FULL STOP: denotes a major pause, therefore it should be used as sparingly as possible (a profusion of full stops prohibits flow.)

• THE QUESTION AND EXCLAMATION MARKS: have the same weight as a full stop, but are also specific signals.

There was no letter that day he was pleased his wife was

worried.

• There was no letter that day. He was pleased, his wife worried.

• There was no letter. That day he was pleased; his wife worried.

• There was no letter that day: he was pleased his wife worried.

Suggestions for designing paragraphs

• Each side of the paper (assuming A4 size) should usually contain 2 or 3 paragraphs;

• Except for occasions when you wish to stress or highlight something, each paragraphs should contain at least 3 sentences;

• A good paragraph usually resembles a miniature essay: it should be clearly set up, properly developed, satisfyingly rounded off.

• First and last paragraphs should be fairly short.• A paragraph should have unity and a nucleus (a

sentence to which all other material can be seen to gravitate.

What is redundant in the following examples?

• This new innovation

• At this moment in time

• Whys and wherefores

• Unnecessary fripperies

• Quite unique• Quite dead

• Throughout the whole chapter…• The final incident with which the

chapter ends …• These factors combined

together to produce …• It was no more than a mere

passing thought …• But after a while, however, he

realised…• He can do no more than just

follow blindly …

In formal writing try to avoid:

• Useless or damaging qualifiers:– incredible We thought this story incredible – very

convincing.– fantastic ‘The Winslow Boy’, that fantastic update

of the problem play, …– brilliant Defoe was a brilliant satirist …– definitely Macbeth is definitely a tragic hero …– no way/in no way No way is Macbeth not a tragic

hero …– over the top Shakespeare goes way over the

top here– sincere A most sincere poem like …

• Unnecessary complexity:– The poet succeeds in creating an arresting

picture …– Mozart manages to convince us …– Einstein is trying to put over the point that

…– …. embodies a representation of …– … the way this is brought to realisation is

…– … promotes a general level of satisfaction

…

• Leaden lead-ins:– It is interesting to note that …– It may perhaps be said that …– It is worthy of note that …– We can safely say that …– From certain points of view …

• Redundant qualifiers:– Quite evil– Rather tragic– Somewhat wicked– Very true– Completely and utterly defeated– Extremely empty

• Account for: explain the cause of• Analyse: separate down into component parts and show how they

interrelate with each other• Comment on: make critical or explanatory notes/observations• Compare: point out the differences and similarities• Contrast: point out differences only and present results in orderly

fashion• Describe: write down the information in the correct order• Discuss: present arguments for and against the topic• Evaluate: estimate the value of, looking at positive and negative

attributes• Explain: give reasons; say ‘why’ rather than just define• Identify: select features according to the question• List: item-by-item consideration of the topic• Outline: give the main features or general features of a subject• Review: make a survey, examining it critically• Summarize: state the main features of an argument

4 main types on non-fiction prose:

• Narration: recounts an event or series of events;

• Description: portrays an person, place or object;

• Exposition: explains and clarifies;• Argumentation: convinces through

a sequence of reasoning.

Additional guidelines in using narration

• The emphasis in any narration is on what happened: A, then B, and then C, etc. Events may be arranged in a strict time sequence, or their chronology may be rearranged to emphasise a special episode.

• The 1st-person narration helps form an intimate, personal bond between the writer and the audience (e.g. presenting autobiographical material, or describing situations in which the writer was a participant or observer.)

• The 3rd-person narration is effective in highly objective writing, where the emphasis is on the event itself rather than on its interpretation (e.g. historical accounts, case-studies, reports).

• Within a narrative paragraph the topic sentence may be presented at either its beginning or its end. If placed at the end, it should summarise and re-emphasise the idea or feeling the writer wants to convey. It may be omitted if enough supporting evidence is provided to support the implied topic.

Additional guidelines in using description

• Any description should have a broader purpose as revealed in the dominant impression the writer wants to share with his/her audience.

• The dominant impression is conveyed by relying on details that convey sense impressions (details of sight, sound, taste, touch, smell). Any description may convey several sense impressions, but one should be dominant.

• An effective description is often presented from a particular vantage point. Developing detail from a particular vantage point is known as spatial order. Spatial development is an additional tool for achieving emphasis that will serve the purpose of the description.

Forms of exposition

• Definition: it presents the meaning of a term; it is used to show the specific characteristics that give something its identity, setting it apart from similar things.

• Exemplification: it explains or clarifies by providing illustrations, examples and supporting details

• Comparison/contrast: it identifies similarities and differences

• Analogy: it clarifies something unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar or easily understood.

• Classification: it is used to arrange or group a complex set of ideas or items that share some common feature.

• Process analysis: it concentrates on how something is done; it enumerates the major steps involved and provides proper warnings if a particular order of steps is involved.

• Causal analysis: it reveals and discusses the reason for an occurrence and the consequences of it.

Argumentation• It is the setting forth of reasons along with the

conclusion drawn from them.• An argumentative essay usually employs inductive

reasoning (i.e. the presentation of observations, experience, facts, statistics that make up the evidence for drawing a likely conclusion.)

• In the writing process one moves backward: stating first the conclusion (“What I believe”,) and then developing on its basis (“Why I believe this”.)

• It resorts to:– Generalisation– Authority– Positive support– Specific evidence– Cause and effect– Alternatives– Objectivity

Logical fallaciesa) Either\or (“black

and white” thinking)b) Circular reasoningc) Assuming the

conclusion d) Begging the

questione) Hasty generalisationf) Argument from

ignorance (without positive support)

g) Popular (bandwaggon) appeal.

h) False causei) Sweeping

generalisation

• Penal reform is necessary because of prison corruption, which shows the need for prison reform.

• If teachers cannot fix the problems in schools they should stay out of the debate altogether.

• Why are men more aggressive than women?

• This action is wrong because it is immoral.

• Art courses should be required in secondary schools because there is no reason that they should not be.

• Never trust anyone over thirty.• Thirty Xerox photocopiers gave clear

reproductions when tested. This thirty-first one, therefore, will make clear reproductions.

• As more women have joined the work force, juvenile crime has increased. If mothers would stay home where they belong, the crime rate would drop.

• Rome is a very good series because so many people are watching it.

Introductions• Purposes:

– Provide an interesting presentation of the thesis statement

– Stimulate the reader’s interest in the topic– Indicate clearly what the topic is so that the

reader may understand the point the paper is pursuing and how it will be approached.

• Possible openings:– A broad statement– The thesis statement– A statistics or fact– A quotation– An anecdote– A scene-setter

Conclusions• Purposes:

– offer the audience a way of viewing the paper as a whole;

– Ease the reader out of the paper;– Enable the writer offer final

affirmation of the thesis.

• The most commonly employed means of concluding are:

•the summary, •the prediction, •the question, •the recommendation (s), •the quotation.

Model for the Analysis of Creative Works

• IntroductionIdentify the workGive a brief summary in one sentenceProvide background information that related to the thesisOffer biographical facts about the author that relate to the specific issuesUse quotations and paraphrases of authorities that establish the scholarly traditionsWrite a thesis sentence that establishes your particular views of the literary work or any other art form

• BodyProvide an analysis divided according to such elements as imagery, theme, character development, structure, symbolism, narration, language, etc.

• ConclusionKeep a fundamental focus on the author of the work, not just the elements of analysis as explained in the bodyOffer a conclusion that explores the contributions of the writer in concord with your thesis sentence

Model for Argument and Persuasion Papers

• IntroductionIn one sentence establish the problem or controversial issue that your paper will examineSummarize the issuesDefine key terminologyMake concessions on some points of the argumentUse quotations and paraphrases of sources to build the controversial nature of the subjectProvide background to establish a past/present relationshipWrite a thesis to establish your position

• BodyArgue in defence on one sideAnalyse the issues, both pro and conGive evidence from the sources, including quotations as appropriate

• ConclusionExpand your thesis into a conclusion that makes clear your position which should be one that grows logically from your analysis and discussion of the issues

Model for a Comparative Study

• IntroductionEstablish AEstablish BBriefly compare the twoIntroduce the central issueCite source materials on the subjectsPresent your thesis

• Body (choose one)Examine A / Compare A and B / Issue 1: Discuss A and BExamine B / Contrast A and B / Issue 2: Discuss A and BCompare and contrast A and B / Discuss the central

issues / Issue 3: Discuss A and B• Conclusion

Discuss the significant issuesWrite a conclusion that ranks one over the other, orWrite a conclusion that rates the respective wisdom of

each side

Content and structural coherence

Section of paper: theme generation of paragraphs

Section of paper: topic sentences

Thematic (content) coherence1. Introduction (general–specific)2. Theme taken from paragraph 1.3. Theme taken from paragraph 2.4. Theme generated because of development of paragraph 3.5. Theme generated because of conclusion of paragraph 4.6. Theme is the conclusion drawn at the end of the argument put forward in this section.

All the themes are related to the main topic as well as the section topic.Themes are generated because of the knowledge (and insight) of the writer.

Structural coherence1. Introduction: topic sentence of this paragraph captures theme of section.2, 3, 4 & 5. Topic sentence captures theme of the paragraph. Connectors are used to link with previous paragraph.6. Topic sentence captures the conclusion.

All the topic sentences should relate (conceptually) to the main topic.

Topic sentences are constructed to reflect a summarised version of the theme of the paragraph.

Linking words and phrases Function Transitional words and phrasesTo add In addition; furthermore; moreover; and; again; equally important; similarly

To “prove” Because; for; since; for the same reason

To compare and contrast

Yet; while; whereas; in contrast; however; on the one hand… on the other hand; conversely; on the contrary; by comparison

To show exception Yet; still; nevertheless; in spite of; despite; of course

To indicate time Immediately; thereafter; soon; finally; then

To repeat In brief; as I have noted

To emphasise Obviously; definitely; extremely; in fact; indeed; in any case; positively; naturally; surprisingly; undeniably; unquestioningly; without reservation

To show sequence First; firstly; secondly (etc.); and so forth; next; then; following this; at this time; at this point; after; before; previously; consequently; simultaneously

To give example For instance; for example; in another case; take the case of; to demonstrate; to illustrate; as an example

To summarise or conclude

In brief; on the whole; summing up; to conclude; in conclusion; as I have shown; hence; therefore; as a result; on the whole; consequently

To show cause-and-effect relationships

Because; since; therefore; as a result; consequently; hence; thus; because of; due to; as a result of

To show adversative position

Although; even though; despite the fact that; notwithstanding the fact that; nevertheless; in spite of

To clarify In other words; that is

To intensify On the contrary; as a matter of fact; in fact

2. Writing from 2. Writing from sources:sources:

2. Writing from 2. Writing from sources:sources:

quotation, paraphrase, quotation, paraphrase, summary, précis and summary, précis and

referencingreferencing

QuotationsUsed for:• support (appeal to authority);• to preserve vivid or technical language;• to analyse or comment on the

quotation;• to distance oneself from the quotation

Direct/Indirect Quotations

• Samuel Butler said: “I do not mind lying, but I hate inaccuracy.”

• Samuel Butler declared that “I do not mind lying, but I hate inaccuracy.”

• “I do not mind lying,” said Samuel Butler, “but I hate inaccuracy.”

• Samuel Butler declared that he did not mind lying, but he hated inaccuracy.

Punctuation Guidelines

• Periods and commas are placed inside the quotation:

Hemingway believed that “what is moral is what you feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel bad after.”

• Semicolons, colons and dashes are placed outside the quotation:

Hemingway believed that “what is moral is what you feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel bad after”; this also applies to Harry Morgan in To Have and Have Not.

• Question marks and exclamation points may be placed either inside (if the quotation is itself a question or exclamation) or outside the quotation (if they belong to the framework sentence):

Freud’s writings occasionally reveal a remarkable lack of insight: “The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not been able to answer despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, is: What does a woman want?”

Freud was demonstrating remarkably little insight when he wrote, “What does a woman want?” citing his “thirty years of research into the feminine soul”!

What did Freud mean when he asked, “What does a woman want”?

Quoting inside quotations

• I draw the line at “forever.” (Muriel Spark)

• Eternally enquiring and curious about people and places, “I draw the line at ‘forever.’” (Victoria Glendinning)

• In her recent profile, Victoria Glendinning emphasises Muriel Spark’s search for variety: “Eternally enquiring and curious about people and places, ‘I draw the line at “forever.”’”

Tailoring quotations• Changing capital and small letters:

– Frost wrote that “good fences make good neighbours.”

– Frost wrote, “Good fences make good neighbours.”

Using ellipses:“It is not true that suffering ennobles the character; happiness does that sometimes, but suffering, for most part, makes me petty and vindictive.” (W. S. Maugham)

Maugham does not believe that “suffering ennobles the character; . . . Suffering, for the most part, makes men petty and vindictive.”

Maugham does not believe that “suffering ennobles the character; happiness does that sometimes . . . .”

• Using brackets:– To explain a vague word– To replace a confusing phrase– To suggest an antecedent– To correct an error in a quotation– To adjust a quotation to fit your own writing

A famous philosopher once argued that “what he [man] lives for is thrills and excitement.”

One of Heywood’s Proverbes [sic] tells us that . . .

Writing citations• First reference:

John Stuart Mill writes, “The opinion which is attempted to suppress by authority may possibly be true.”

In On Liberty, John Stuart Mill writes . . .

• Second reference:Mill continues to point out that “all silencing

of discussion is an assumption of infallibility.”

In addition to his warnings about the dangers of majority rule, which were cited earlier in the discussion of public opinion, John Stuart Mill …

Reporting verbs

Neutral attitude

Some degree of uncertainty

Implied agreement

Attitude of the original

points out alleges establishes refutes

argues speculates affirms discards

suggests postulates confirms stresses

indicates contends proves advocates

describes claims convinces proposes

observes asserts demonstrates urges

remarks shows contradicts

sustains challenges

Paraphrase• Literal paraphrase: a word-for-word

substitution, staying close to the sentence structure of the original text.

• Free paraphrase: moves away from the words and sentence structure of the original text and presents ideas in the paraphraser’s own style and idiom; it can summarise repetitious parts of the original, but it will present ideas in much the same order.

Read the text below and then decide which is the best paraphrase, (a) or

(b).• Ancient Egypt collapsed in

about 2180 BC. Studies conducted of the mud from the River Nile showed that at this time the mountainous regions which feed the Nile suffered from a prolonged drought. This would have had a devastating effect on the ability of Egyptian society to feed itself.

• a) The sudden ending of Egyptian civilisation over 4,000 years ago was probably caused by changes in the weather in the region to the south. Without the regular river flooding there would not have been enough food.

• b) Research into deposits of the Egyptian Nile indicate that a long dry period in the mountains at the river’s source may have led to a lack of water for irrigation around 2180BC, which was when the collapse of Egyptian society began.

• changing vocabulary: ______________________________

• changing word-class: ______________________________

• changing word-order: ______________________________

Summary• A condensation of ideas or information provided

by a source.• It does not include examples or repetitions.• It is often used as part of a larger essay.• Guidelines for writing a summary:

– Find the most important information that tells what the paragraph or group of paragraphs is about.

– Use this information to write a topic sentence. – Find 2 or 3 main ideas and important details that

support your topic sentence and show how they are related.

– Keep the ideas and facts in a logical order that expands on your topic sentence.

– Combine several main ideas into a single sentence. – Substitute a general term for lists of items or events. – Do not include unimportant or minor details. – Do not repeat information.

Comparing paraphrase and summary

Paraphrase Summary•Reports your understanding to your reader

•Reports your understanding to your reader

•Records a relatively short passage

•Records a passage of any length

•Records every point in the passage

•Selects and condenses, recording only the main ideas

•Records these points consecutively

•Changes the order of ideas when necessary

•Includes no interpretation •Explains and interprets

Précis• A précis is a highly polished

summary, which often uses direct quotation from the original source.

• It preserves the tone of the original (doubt, skepticism, optimism, etc.)

• It may be used to review a piece of writing or to write a plot summary.

Compare the following passage from H. Marcuse’s “Essay on Liberation” (1969)

with its summary and précis. • In the affluent society, capitalism comes into its own. The two

mainsprings of its dynamic – the escalation of commodity production and productive exploitation – join and permeate all dimensions of private and public existence. The available material and intellectual resources [the potential of liberation] have so much overgrown the established institutions that only the systematic increase in waste, destruction and management keeps the system going. The opposition which escapes suppression by the police, the courts, the representatives of the people, and the people themselves, finds expression in the diffused rebellion among the youth and the intelligentsia, and in the daily struggle of the persecuted minorities. The armed class struggle is waged outside: by the wretched of the earth who fight the affluent monster.

Summary

• Capitalism dominates the affluent society at all levels. By enlarging the range and intensity of its influence, it neutralises most potential rebels, leaving only the abjectly poor to fight it.

Précis

• Capitalism, the systematic consumer of all resources, dominates affluent society at every level. Fundamentally wasteful and tyrannical, it enlarges the range and intensity of its influence, destroying or emasculating most potential rebels, leaving only “the wretched of the earth” to fight it.

Referencing• Correct and consistent use of a standard referencing

convention is essential in producing a report, thesis or paper.

• Referencing a source involves two separate steps:– indicating in the body of a piece of work that some material is

not entirely original, by providing a short 'identifier' for its source (a reference in the text)

– listing, in a separate section of the work, the full details of the source (in a list of references).

• Referencing in the text:– Endnotes or footnotes;– Parenthetical notes;– Explanatory notes;– Umbrella notes.

• Listing references:– References – Bibliography– Annotated bibliography

Which are the differences in the following two referencing

styles?Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His

wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more appreciative eye.7 Hadley was aware of her husband’s flirtations and of his facility with women.8 Yet, she had no idea that something was going on between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion editor for Vogue magazine.9 She was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns from a business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might spend some more time with this “new and strange girl.”10

_______________________________________________________________________________________

7 Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast (New York: Scribner’s, 1964), p. 102.

8 Alice Hunt Sokoloff, Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1973), p. 84.

9 Carlos Baker, Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story (New York: Scribner’s, 1969), p. 159.

10 Hemingway, op. cit., p. 210. Also Baker, op. cit., p. 165.

Hemingway’s zest for life extended to women also. His wandering heart seemed only to be exceeded by an even more appreciative eye (Hemingway 1964: 102). Hadley was aware of her husband’s flirtations and of his facility with women (Sokoloff 1973: 84). Yet, she had no idea that something was going on between Hemingway and Pauline Pfeiffer, a fashion editor for Vogue magazine (Baker 1969: 159). She was also unaware that Hemingway delayed his return to Schruns from a business trip to New York, in February 1926, so that he might spend some more time with this “new and strange girl.” (Hemingway 1964: 210; Baker, 1969: 165)

References1. Baker, Carlos (1969), Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story, New

York: Scribner’s.2. Hemingway, Ernest (1964), A Moveable Feast, New York:

Scribner’s.3. Sokoloff, Alice Hunt (1973), Hadley: The First Mrs. Hemingway,

New York: Dodd, Mead.

Referencing systems• There are a number of different referencing

systems used in academic writing. They broadly subdivide into:

– author-date systems;

– footnoting or endnoting systems (one variation: the Numbered system, i.e. a numbered citation is inserted into the text whenever a work is referred to. E.g. The notion of an invisible college has been explored in the sciences[26].)

Referencing Styles• The Harvard Style: a generic term for any style which

contains author-date references in the text of the document, such as (Smith 1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of the document, arranged by authors' names and year of publication. There is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is just a generic term for the many styles which follow that format.

• The Chicago Manual of Style: the most widely consulted of all style manuals, it includes provisions for footnote referencing, numbered reference lists and author-date referencing. Its footnote referencing system is widely used in the arts and humanities. Its author/date referencing provisions are also widely used, and constitute one of the many variants of the Harvard style.

• APA (American Psychological Association): is the standard style used in Psychology, but it is also widely used in other disciplines, especially in the Social Sciences. It is one of the many variants of the Harvard style.

• MLA (Modern Language Association of America): is widely used in the fields of modern literature and linguistics. MLA referencing uses Harvard-style references in the text of the document, but without the year of publication. It no longer has provisions for footnote referencing.

Harvard• Harvard is a generic term for any style which contains

author-date references in the text of the document, such as (Smith 1999). There will also be a list of references at the end of the document, arranged by authors' names and year of publication. There is no official manual of the Harvard style: it is just a generic term for the many styles which follow that format. A reference in the text or reference consists of a name - e.g. one or more surnames or the name of an organization - and a date, e.g. "Smith (2005)", "(Wilson & Patel 2007)" or "United Nations (1948)". (Other systems involve numbers, e.g. "[12]" or "12", or invented identifiers, e.g. "[Smi2005]".)

• The list of references is sorted by name (including initials if appropriate) and date. (Other systems may sort by the numerical or alphabetic order of the references in the text.)

References in the text• There are two ways of citing references in the text: • Author prominent

– This way gives prominence to the author by using the author’s surname (family name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number in parentheses (round brackets).

• Direct quote example:– Cowie (1996, p. 91) argues that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of

individualism and competition’.• Paraphrase example

– Cowie (1996) suggests that unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the individual.

• Information prominent– The other way of citing references gives prominence to the

information, with all the required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the citation.

• Direct quote example:– It has been argued that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism

and competition’ (Cowie 1996, p. 91).• Paraphrase example

– Unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of the individual (Cowie 1996).

Page Numbers• Page numbers should be used when you directly

quote material (word for word) from the original publication.

• Page numbers should also be provided for indirect quotes and paraphrasing where the summarised material appears in specific pages, chapters or sections.

– One page referred to: (Wells 1992, p. 4)– Pages that are not in sequence: (Smith 1996, pp. 1,

4 & 6)– Pages that are in sequence: (Jones & Mackay 1998,

pp. 25–26)– Pages from a web site: (Kelly & McWhirter 1997, p.

1 of 2)

• An alternative to "p." or "pp." which is sometimes found is the use of a colon: cf (Jones 1980, p. 12) / (Jones 1980:12).

Features of the reference list

• For a book, the following elements should be presented in this order:• surname and initials of author(s)• year of publication• title of book (in italics)• the edition, for example, 4th edn, if not the original

publication• publisher• place of publication.

e.g. Shearman, D. & Sauer-Thompson, G. 1997, Green or Gone, Wakefield Press, Kent Town.

Shearman, D., Sauer-Thompson, G. (1997), Green or Gone, Kent Town: Wakefield Press.

• For a journal article, the following elements should be presented in this order:• surname and initials of author(s)• year of publication• title of article in quotation marks• title of journal or periodical in italics and maximal

capitalisation• volume number where applicable• issue number or other identifier where applicable, for

example, Winter• page number(s).

– e.g. Stove, R.J. 1999, ‘Xenophobia: the great local content myth’, Institute of Public Affairs Review, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 14–16.

Stove, R.J. (1999), ‘Xenophobia: the great local content myth’, Institute of Public Affairs Review, 51(1), pp. 14–16.

• For an electronic resource, include:• author and date• title• date viewed• URL address or name of database.

– e.g. Kennedy, I. 2004, ‘An assessment strategy to help forestall plagiarism problems’, Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation and Development, vol. 1, no. 1, viewed 7 October 2005, http://www.sleid.cqu.edu.au/viewissue.php?id=5

– Kennedy, I. (2004) ‘An assessment strategy to help forestall plagiarism problems’, Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation and Development, vol. 1, no. 1, http://www.sleid.cqu.edu.au/viewissue.php?id=5 [accessed 7 Oct. 2005]

Arranging the reference list1. The reference list is arranged in alphabetical order according to the author’s family name.(Do not use numbers, letters or bullet points to begin each entry.)2. Any reference that starts with a number (e.g. 7:30 Report) precedes the alphabetical listingand is listed numerically.3. Where there is more than one author of a publication, maintain the order of their names asthey appear on the title page of the publication, even if they are not in alphabetical order onthe title page.4. If a reference has no author, list it alphabetically according to the sponsoring body, forexample, CSIRO or Education Queensland.5. If there is no author or sponsoring body, list alphabetically according to the title. The wholetitle of the resource must appear, but when listing alphabetically, ignore words such as, ‘The’,‘A’, ‘An’ at the beginning of the reference’s title. 6. If there are two or more references by the same author, then list them in order of publicationdate with the oldest work first.7. If references by the same author have been published in the same year, then list themalphabetically according to the title and add the letter ‘a’ after the first date, and ‘b’ after thesecond date, and so on, (e.g. 1993a, 1993b, 1993c).

Formats for referencing• A complete book.

– Jones, P.J. (1980), Introduction to Algorithms, London: Methuen. Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds) (1988), Artificial Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd edition), New York: Wiley.

• A chapter in an edited book.– Hamza, K.A. (1988), "Vision Systems", in Jones, P.J., Smith, R. & Watson, E.P. (eds),

Artificial Intelligence Reconsidered (2nd edition), New York: Wiley, pp. 12-34.• An article in a journal.

– Carson, P.R. (1970), "An Approach to Intelligent Planning", Journal of Applied Artificial Intelligence 38(3), 4-11.

• An article from a bound volume of conference proceedings.– Jones, P.J. (1983), "An Attempt to Construct a Knowledge-based Route Planner",

Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Transport Planning, Budapest: Hungarian Transport Association, pp. 212-58.

• An article you have obtained which was read at conference whose proceedings seem not to have been published.

– Jones, P.J., Richards, M., Zhao, C.H. & Reynolds, P.E. (1988), "The Use of BASIC in AI", paper read to the annual meeting of the Norwegian Association for Computer Education, August, Oslo, Norway.

• A report produced in 'duplicated' form by an academic or research institution.

– Jones, P.J. (1987), "An Algorithm for Distributed Intelligent Route Planning with a BASIC Implementation", Report #32, Intelligent Transport Laboratories, 38 West Avenue, Forked Springs, California, USA.

Referencing Online Sources

• Some documents appear both in printed form and on the web, in which case the printed form should treated as primary, although the URL can usefully be given as additional information in the list of references, for example by adding a note of the form "[online at URL, accessed FULL_DATE]".

• Where a work is only published on the web, if the author and date of 'publication' can be found then the author's name and the date can be used as a reference in the text in the normal way. For example: – Coxhead (2007) states that ...– The entry in the list of references: Coxhead, P. 2007, "A Referencing Style

Guide", http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~pxc/refs/refs.html [accessed 2 Apr 2007].• With web pages, it is often necessary to use the name of an

organization instead of the name of the author. Note that Wikipedia is not a primary source (although often a good provider of references to original sources). Wikipedia articles are mainly useful as overviews; see, for example:– Wikipedia 2007, "Harvard referencing", online at http://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Harvard_referencing [accessed 2 Apr 2007].• If the date of publication cannot be found, one possibility is to use the

date on which the URL was last visited.

Referencing TV programmes, videos,

motion pictures• For a recording of a TV show, use the date the program was aired:

– A Current Affair (video recording) 18 January 2003, Australian Consolidated Press, Sydney, Director, Megan James.

• For a video recording, use the date it was produced. Sometimes, you will not be able to find the individual producer or director’s name – make sure you at least indicate the company or organisation that produced it.– Babakiueria (video recording) 1991, Australian Broadcasting

Commission, Sydney. • Even if you view a video copy of a film, indicate that it was

produced as a motion picture, and name the producer or director:– The Dead Poet’s Society (motion picture) 1992, Fox Studios, Los

Angeles, Producer Peter Weir.Filmography: – Je vous trouve très beau (2006). Dir. Isabelle Mergault. France.

The Humanities Style (Chicago Manual)

• Book• One author• N:

– 1. Wendy Doniger, Splitting the Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 65.

• B: – Doniger, Wendy. Splitting the Difference. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1999. • Two authors• N:

– 6. Guy Cowlishaw and Robin Dunbar, Primate Conservation Biology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 104–7.

• B: – Cowlishaw, Guy and Robin Dunbar. Primate Conservation Biology. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 2000. • Four or more authors• N:

– 13. Edward O. Laumann et al., The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 262.

• B: – Laumann, Edward O., John H. Gagnon, Robert T. Michael, and Stuart Michaels. The

Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

• Editor, translator, or compiler instead of author

• N: – 4. Richmond Lattimore, trans., The Iliad of Homer

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 91–92.

• B: – Lattimore, Richmond, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1951.

• Editor, translator, or compiler in addition to author

• N: – 16. Yves Bonnefoy, New and Selected Poems, ed. John

Naughton and Anthony Rudolf (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 22.

• B: – Bonnefoy, Yves. New and Selected Poems. Edited by John

Naughton and Anthony Rudolf. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

• Chapter or other part of a book• N:

– 5. Andrew Wiese, “‘The House I Live In’: Race, Class, and African American Suburban Dreams in the Postwar United States,” in The New Suburban History, ed. Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 101–2.

• B: – Wiese, Andrew. “‘The House I Live In’: Race, Class, and African American Suburban

Dreams in the Postwar United States.” In The New Suburban History, edited by Kevin M. Kruse and Thomas J. Sugrue, 99–119. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

• Preface, foreword, introduction, or similar part of a book• N:

– 17. James Rieger, introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), xx–xxi.

• B: – Rieger, James. Introduction to Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary

Wollstonecraft Shelley, xi–xxxvii. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. • Book published electronically• N:

– 2. Philip B. Kurland and Ralph Lerner, eds., The Founders’ Constitution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/ (accessed June 27, 2006).

• B: – Kurland, Philip B., and Ralph Lerner, eds. The Founders’ Constitution. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1987. http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/. Also available in print form and as a CD-ROM.

• Article in a print journal• N:

– 8. John Maynard Smith, “The Origin of Altruism,” Nature 393 (1998): 639. • B:

– Smith, John Maynard. “The Origin of Altruism.” Nature 393 (1998): 639–40. • Article in an online journal • N:

– 33. Mark A. Hlatky et al., "Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women after Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial," Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5 (2002), http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo.

• B: – Hlatky, Mark A., Derek Boothroyd, Eric Vittinghoff, Penny Sharp, and Mary A. Whooley.

"Quality-of-Life and Depressive Symptoms in Postmenopausal Women after Receiving Hormone Therapy: Results from the Heart and Estrogen/Progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Trial." Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 5 (February 6, 2002), http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v287n5/rfull/joc10108.html#aainfo.

• Newspaper article: may be cited in running text (“As William Niederkorn noted in a New York Times article on June 20, 2002, . . . ”) instead of in a note, and may be omitted from a bibliography as well. N:

– 10. William S. Niederkorn, “A Scholar Recants on His ‘Shakespeare’ Discovery,” New York Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition.

• B: – Niederkorn, William S. “A Scholar Recants on His ‘Shakespeare’ Discovery.” New York

Times, June 20, 2002, Arts section, Midwest edition.

• Book review• N:

– 1. James Gorman, “Endangered Species,” review of The Last American Man, by Elizabeth Gilbert, New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002, 16.

• B: – Gorman, James. “Endangered Species.” Review of The Last American Man, by

Elizabeth Gilbert. New York Times Book Review, June 2, 2002. • Thesis or dissertation• N:

– 22. M. Amundin, “Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena” (PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991), 22–29, 35.

• B: – Amundin, M. “Click Repetition Rate Patterns in Communicative Sounds from the

Harbour Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena.” PhD diss., Stockholm University, 1991. • Paper presented at a meeting or conference• N:

– 13. Brian Doyle, “Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59” (paper presented at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, Berlin, Germany, June 19–22, 2002).

• B: – Doyle, Brian. “Howling Like Dogs: Metaphorical Language in Psalm 59.” Paper

presented at the annual international meeting for the Society of Biblical Literature, Berlin, Germany, June 19–22, 2002.

• Web site: may be cited in running text (“On its Web site, the Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees states . . .”) and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography list as well.

• N: – 11. Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees, “Evanston Public Library Strategic

Plan, 2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach,” Evanston Public Library, http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html.

• B: – Evanston Public Library Board of Trustees. “Evanston Public Library Strategic

Plan, 2000–2010: A Decade of Outreach.” Evanston Public Library. http://www.epl.org/library/strategic-plan-00.html (accessed June 1, 2005).

• Weblog entry or comment: may be cited in running text (“In a comment posted to the Becker-Posner Blog on March 6, 2006, Peter Pearson noted . . .”) instead of in a note and they are commonly omitted from a bibliography list as well.

• N: – 8. Peter Pearson, comment on “The New American Dilemma: Illegal

Immigration,” The Becker-Posner Blog, comment posted March 6, 2006, http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/archives/2006/03/the_new_america.html#c080052 (accessed March 28, 2006).

• B: – Becker-Posner Blog, The. http://www.becker-posner-blog.com/.

• E-mail message: may be cited in running text (“In an e-mail message to the author on October 31, 2005, John Doe revealed . . .”) instead of in a note citation, and they are rarely listed in a bibliography list.

• N: – 2. John Doe, e-mail message to author, October 31, 2005.

Abbreviations• Footnotes and/or reference lists may contain the abbreviations Ibid. and/or op.

cit. • DEFINITIONS

– Ibid. (abbreviation for the Latin Ibidem, meaning "The same"). Refers to the same author and source (e.g., book, journal) in the immediately preceding reference.

– op. cit. (abbreviation for the Latin opus citatum, meaning "the work cited"). Refers to the reference listed earlier by the same author.

• Ibid. refers to the immediately preceding reference; op. cit. refers to the prior reference by the same author.

• EXAMPLES – R. Poirer, "Learning physics," (Academic, New York, 1993), p. 4. – Ibid., p. 9. – T. Eliot, "Astrophysics," (Springer, Berlin, 1989), p. 141. – R. Builder, J Phys Chem 20(3) 1654-57, 1991. – Eliot, op. cit., p.148.

• Other: • Idem: From Latin idem "the same". This repeats the previous author. It is

rarely used today. • Loc.cit.: From Latin loco citato "in the place cited". This repeats the title and

page number for a given author. It is not often used today.

• cf. = confer (compare)• e.g. = exempli gratia (for example)• ed. (edition, editor; plural: eds)• et al. = et alii (and other authors)• sq./sqq. = sequens (continues on the next page/s)• ibid. = ibidem (same author, same work. It is

followed by the page number)• id. = idem (it follows ibid. – same author, work,

page)• i.e. = id est (that is)• infra (see below)• loc. cit. = loco citato (similar to op. cit., only used

when the reference is made to the same page)• ms. = manuscriptum (manuscript; plural: mss.)• op. cit. = opere citato (cited work)• passim (from place to place)• supra (see above)• vol. (volume/s)

Power point presentations• Appeal through:

– Ability to build up more complex pictures – by adding in more detail on each slide in a series.

– clarity and legibility

• Disliked if:– The presentation

displays poor typographic layouts and odd colour combinations;

– lecturer simply reads out the Power-Point slides.

7 x 7 rule: use no more than seven words per line, and seven lines per slide.

Handouts• A summary version of the paper available as a hand-

out during the talk. • It helps listeners follow the presentation and grasp its

overall structure.• It may be helpful to reproduce copies of any of the key

PowerPoint slides, but it is unwise just to present them all in reduced size.

• Requirements:– Must be readable;– Must contain the title of the talk, the speaker’s name and

institutional address, and the date and place of delivery.

Text revision - Hartley, J. (1997). Writing the thesis

1 Read through the text asking yourself:• Who is the text for?

2 Read through the text again, but this time ask yourself:• What changes do I need to make to help the reader?• How can I make the text easier to follow?

3 To make these changes you may need:• to make big or global changes (e.g. rewrite sections);

or• to make small or minor text changes (e.g. change the

original text slightly).

4 Global changes you might like to consider are:

• re-sequencing parts of the text

• rewriting sections in simpler prose

• adding examples• changing examples for

better ones• deleting parts that

seem confusing.

5 Text changes you might like to consider are:

• using simpler wording• using shorter sentences• using shorter paragraphs• using active rather than

passive tenses• substituting positives for

negatives• writing sequences in

order• spacing numbered

sequences or lists down the page (as here).

6 Keep reading through the revised text from start to finish to see if you want to make any more global changes.

7 Repeat this whole procedure on the revised text some time after making your initial revisions (say twenty-four hours), and do this without looking back at the original text.

8 Repeat stage 7 several times, but draw the line eventually!

GOOD LUCK!