Gulf Water Security Paper-Final Paper

Water security in the GCC countries:challenges and opportunities

Omar Saif & Toufic Mezher & Hassan A. Arafat

# AESS 2014

Abstract The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) of Bahrain,Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United ArabEmirates (UAE) inhabits of one of the most water-scarceregions in the world, once comprised small impoverisheddesert principalities. However, since the 1970s, the GCC haswitnessed rapid population growth and economic develop-ment, brought on by sharp increases in oil revenues. Popula-tion growth coupled with increased urbanization, industriali-zation, and agricultural output has placed tremendous pressureon the region’s scarce groundwater resources. GCC countriesare all using hundreds to thousands times more water thansustainable recharge would allow. Their water footprints,among the highest in the world, are sustained by unconven-tional sources of water such as desalination, wastewater reuse,and the import of “virtual” water via agricultural goods. Thispaper analyzes the current state of water in the GCC using awater–energy–food (WEF) nexus approach. The paper dis-cusses various proposals for meeting future water needs in theGCC such as renewable energy-powered desalination andforeign direct investment in agricultural land and addressesthe various tradeoffs involved.

Keywords GCC .Water security . Desalination .Water–energy–food nexus . Groundwater . Renewable energy

Introduction

When one thinks of a city such as Dubai, the first thing thatmay come to mind is the city’s sparkling skyscrapers or itsvast wealth. However, like many other cities along the Arabi-an Gulf, the economic prosperity is largely attributed to thediscovery and exploitation of fossil fuels following WWII,along with more recent contributions from other sectors, suchas tourism and finance (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007). Thisoil wealth has led to the profound transformation ofimpoverished small desert principalities to modern wealthynations (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007). This transformationresulted in major economic, social, and environmental chang-es, which continue to this day. Countries of the Gulf Cooper-ation Council (GCC) which include Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates boast someof the highest per capita incomes and the fastest growingeconomies in the world (The Economist Intelligence Unit2010). From 1998 to 2008, real GDP grew at an average rateof 5.2 % annually for the GCC, with the population increasingat an average rate of 14 % annually for the same time period(Economist Intelligence Unit 2010). Table 1 provides a snap-shot of each GCC country with population and developmentindicators. Figure 1 demonstrates the precipitous populationrise of GCC countries since the 1960s. However, such drasticdevelopment would not have been possible without vitalresources such as freshwater, a scarce resource in the GCC(Alnaser and Alnaser 2011).

To support the booming populations and continued devel-opment, GCC member states have far surpassed their respec-tive carrying capacities, stressing their already limited waterresources. However, their energy wealth has allowed them togenerate freshwater from the sea via desalination, grow foodin otherwise inhospitable environments, and purchase agricul-tural lands abroad to increase their food security. Consideringthe interplay of these various policies and in order to achieve

O. Saif : T. MezherInstitute Center for Smart and Sustainable Systems (iSMART),Masdar Institute of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 54224, AbuDhabi, United Arab Emirates

H. A. Arafat (*)Institute Center for Water and Environment (iWATER), MasdarInstitute of Science & Technology, P.O. Box 54224, Abu Dhabi,United Arab Emiratese-mail: [email protected]

DOI 10.1007/s13412-014-0178-8

Published online: 26 August 2014

J Environ Stud Sci (2014) 4:329–346

Author's personal copy

water security in GCC countries, it is imperative that a water–energy–food (WEF) nexus approach be taken, particularlyconsidering the strong interdependencies between the threesectors in the GCC. Indeed, the severe reliance on fossil fuelenergy for fulfilling the GCC’s water and food security high-lights the importance of adopting this nexus approach.

Water resources in GCC countries

The Arabian Peninsula that houses GCC countries stands atapproximately 2.8 million km2 in area with the inclusion ofYemen (Al-Zubari 2003). The peninsula is extremely arid,dominated mostly by desert, and classified as a hot desertclimate (BWh) under the Köppen climate classification. Rain-fall in the Gulf is both scarce and irregular, averaging less than100 mm/year for the region (Al-Zubari 2003). Resultant of thehot climate, coupled with low rainfall and high evaporationrates (greater than 3,000 mm/year), surface water is almostnonexistent in the GCC countries. During storm events, somerunoff is generated in the southern parts of the UAE, SaudiArabia, and Oman (Al-Rashed and Sherif 2000).

The history of water use and water sources in the Gulf isstrongly tied to the discovery of oil and gas itself. Followingthe discovery of oil in the Gulf, and particularly after theSecond World War, large foreign investments began taking

place in oil exploration throughout the Gulf region (Al-Faris2002). However, the relatively small population alongwith limited human capital available prompted GCCcountries to open their borders, the cursor to the influxof expatriates and the rise of many Gulf cities (Atiyyah1996). Up until that point, the water needs of GCC stateswere met primarily through existing groundwater; in themid-1950s, freshwater in Abu Dhabi could be obtainedby simply digging down into the sand (Global Water2012). However, the increasing burden on groundwateralong with its increasing quality degradation meant atechnical solution was required to meet the growingdemand (Global Water 2012; World Bank 2005). Assuch, desalination become the backbone of many GCCstates, supplying as much as 99 % of potable waterneeds (Dawoud 2005) and representing 57 % of globaldesalination production capacity (Global Water 2014).

Table 2 highlights the water resources and uses of eachGCC country. As the table shows, water usage for the majorityof GCC countries outstrips the annual water availability, com-pensated by tapping into deep nonrenewable groundwateraquifers. It is worth noting that while all GCC countries arewater-scarce, large quantities of groundwater ranging from 67to 93 % are used for agriculture. While uneconomic, thechoice to grow food is largely a food security matter in theGCC.

Table 1 Growth indicators of GCC countries (adapted from CIAWorld Factbook 2014)

Indicator Qatar UAE Bahrain Saudi Arabia Oman Kuwait

Population growth rate(%/year)

3.58 % (2014 est.) 2.71 % (2014 est.) 2.49 % (2014 est.) 1.49 % (2014 est.) 2.06 % (2014 est.) 1.7 % (2014 est.)

GDP real growth rate(%/year)

5.5 % (2013 est.) 4 % (2013 est.) 4.4 % (2013 est.) 3.6 % (2013 est.) 5.1 % (2013 est.) 2.3 % (2013 est.)

Human developmentindex (HDI)

0.834 0.818 0.796 0.782 0.731 0.790

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Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates Oman Qatar Bahrain KuwaitFig. 1 Population growth of theGCC states since 1960 (adaptedfrom World Bank Data 2014)



Groundwater resources

Historically, GCC countries have relied almost entirely ongroundwater resources, which are split into shallow and deepfossil aquifers. The only renewable source of water, the shal-low aquifers, is recharged at an average rate of 3.5 billioncubic meters annually (Al-Zubari 2003). The total estimatedcapacity of the shallow alluvial aquifers for the GCC andYemen stands at a 131 billion cubic meters (Al-Zubari2003). Deep fossil aquifers are estimated at a much highervalue at 2,175 billion cubic meters and were formed duringthe rainy Pleistocene and Pliocene geological periods, thou-sands of years ago (Al-Zubari 2003). Recharge to these deepaquifers is quite low, estimated at around 2.7 million cubicmeters per year (Al-Zubari 2003).

Groundwater sources are intensively used for agriculturalpurposes in the GCC—estimated at over 21 billion cubicmeters annually (Al-Zubari 2003). As Table 2 demonstrates,the agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water in allGCC countries and is supplied almost entirely by groundwa-ter. The result has been a stark decline in water tables along theGCC, as the over abstraction of groundwater resources has ledto water quality degradation, seawater intrusion, and a dryingof shallow aquifers (Al-Zubari 2003; Sale et al. 2011).

Desalination

As the demand for water in the Gulf began to grow in the mid-twentieth century—resultant of population and economicgrowth and urbanization—early thermal desalination technol-ogies, such as multiple effect boiling (MEB), were introduced(Global Water 2012). Similarly, multistage flash (MSF) wasalso introduced after its invention in 1958 (EnvironmentAgency of Abu Dhabi (EAD) 2009). Desalination gainedsignificant traction in GCC states by the 1980s as illustratedin Fig. 2. A main reason for the sudden boom in desalinationwas the 1973 oil price spike which provided many GCCcountries with the funds necessary to make major investmentsin their water and energy infrastructures (EAD 2009).

The reliance on desalination technologies for meeting theGulf’s water needs continued to grow, particularly for potableand industrial purposes. Historically, the physical characteris-tics of the Arabian Gulf seawater played an important role indetermining the choice of desalination technology, particular-ly for the countries of Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain which haveaccess only to Gulf waters as feed water (Global Water 2014).However, other GCC states such as the UAE, Oman, andSaudi Arabia benefit from having access to other water bodiessuch as the Arabian Sea and Red Sea (Mezher et al. 2011). Theharsh conditions of the Arabian Gulf water make desalinationin this region particularly difficult, despite 57 % of the world’sdesalination capacity taking place in this relatively small waterbody (Global Water 2014). The high salinity and temperaturehave particularly influenced the choice of technology used inthe Gulf (Mezher et al. 2011). Despite the greater energyefficiency of reverse osmosis (RO) and its dominance outsideof the GCC region, 62 % of the installed desalination capacityin the CCC countries is thermal based (Global Water 2014).The Arabian Gulf’s high temperatures, salinity, and turbidity,coupled with the presence of marine organisms, have tradi-tionally contributed to high pretreatment costs for RO(Mezher et al. 2011). At the same time, cheaply availablelow-grade steam from gas-fired power plants also explainsthe dominance of thermal technologies and choice to installcogeneration (power and water) facilities in the GCC coun-tries (Global Water 2014). However, recent advances in mem-brane technology along with other technological innovationsthat significantly reduced pretreatment needs have increasedthe uptake and interest of RO technology in the Gulf (Mezheret al. 2011; Global Water 2012).

Treated wastewater

Wastewater constitutes a growing water source for all GCCcountries, given the current and future strain on existing watersources. Themajority of produced sewage in GCC countries iseither treated to secondary or tertiary levels and discharging ofwater closely follows WHO guidelines (AFED 2008). The

Table 2 Summary of water resources and use for GCC countries (adapted from AFED 2010)

Country Annual water availability (Bm3/year) Annual water usage % use by sector

Natural renewable resources Desalinated water Wastewater reuse Bm3 % of total waterresources

Domestic Industry Agriculture

Bahrain 0.11 0.14 Neg. 0.25 170 26 3 71

Kuwait 0.11 0.65 0.12 0.76 87 37 2 60

Oman 1.6 0.12 0.02 1.22 74 9 1 93

Qatar 0.05 0.12 n.a. 0.28 n.a. 23 3 74

Saudi Arabia 2.5 2.28 0.15 17 506 9 1 90

UAE 0.2 0.95 0.14 1.6 180 24 10 67

J Environ Stud Sci (2014) 4:329–346 331


percentage of wastewater that is treated varies significantlyfrom country to country. Table 3 provides an estimate of totalwastewater produced, treated, and reused according to WHOand FAO estimates.

Treated wastewater is used extensively in many GCCcountries for the irrigation of gardens and parks, highwaylandscaping, and fodder crops. However, wastewater remainsnot fully utilized by all countries. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, andBahrain only reuse approximately 30 % of their treated waste-water; the remaining 70 % being discharged into the ArabianGulf or into wadis to infiltrate into shallow aquifers (AFED2011). It is worth noting that since the early and mid-2000s,great strides have been made to treat and reuse greateramounts of wastewater in the GCC countries. As such, thedata presented in Table 3 undervalues actual current treatmentand reuse rates.

Virtual water

A vital component to the GCC countries’ water security isvirtual water via various water-intensive agricultural and in-dustrial imports. Despite the majority of GCC groundwaterbeing used in agriculture to increase food security, GCCcountries remain net importers of agricultural goods (andconsequently of virtual water). Figure 3 illustrates the total2005 water imports for GCC countries. Saudi Arabia and theUAE are among the highest net importers.

Figure 4 demonstrates the level of water dependency ofvarious countries including select GCC countries. A country’swater dependency is calculated by dividing its external waterfootprint (i.e., virtual water imports), by the total water foot-print. The closer the value is to a 100 %, the more dependent acountry is on the water resources of other nations. The GCCcountries of Kuwait, UAE, and Saudi Arabia illustrate highwater dependency in comparison to other nations, a problem

further confounded by the fact that even their internal waterfootprints are met largely through energy-intensive desalina-tion and nonrenewable groundwater—unlike Switzerland, Ja-pan, and the UK.

For many GCC states, the demand for water is seeminglyever increasing, with a proliferation of investment in supplycapacity to meet growing demands. While most GCC coun-tries are currently reporting surplus water and energy produc-tion, future forecasts suggest that trend will likely change.Figure 5 is a projection for GCC countries that forecastsexpected water demand until 2050 (Trieb et al. 2008). Theprojection is a scenario in which water demand for the agri-cultural and industrial sectors continues to grow relative topopulation and GDP, with technical efficiencies gained overtime.

Figure 6 demonstrates a projected transition from the cur-rent water profile in the GCC countries in the future, in whichwater needs are mostly met through a combination of fossilfuel desalination, renewable energy-powered desalination,and wastewater reuse. Based on this projection, by 2050,desalination irrespective of its fuel source would account for84 % of all water needs for the region in all sectors—incontrast to the current 26 % (Trieb et al. 2008). The forecastmodel depicted in Fig. 6 validates previous models includingone done by UN-ESCWA, which reported similar demandresults.

Financial and environmental costs of water in GCCcountries

The cost of water and electricity production, tariffs, and gov-ernment subsidization rates in three GCC countries are sum-marized in Table 4. Most notably, tariffs are drastically

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Saudi Arabia UAE Kuwait Qatar Oman BahrainFig. 2 Cumulative installeddesalination capacity in GCCcountries since 1970 (data fromGlobal Water 2014)



different than the actual production costs of water and elec-tricity in these countries, as both water and electricity arehighly subsidized in GCC countries. The ranges in tariffsand subsidization rates correspond to different customer seg-ments that pay different tariff amounts. At the domestic level,GCC countries’ citizens generally receive their water andelectricity at even lower prices than expats, in the case ofwater in Abu Dhabi (UAE’s largest emirate); for example,citizens receive it for free (RSB 2014a).

Figure 7 provides an example of how water and electricitysectors are set up in Abu Dhabi. Given the historically highlevel of cogeneration facilities of water and electricity, gov-ernment entities are structured jointly as well to mirror thewater and energy sector—utility companies overlooking bothwater and electricity. In terms of government subsidies, asFig. 7 shows, government support is provided through theAbu Dhabi Water & Electricity Company (ADWEC), whichfinancially compensates the distribution companies (ADDCand AADC) who sell the water and electricity to consumersbelow production cost (RSB 2014b). It is also worth notingthat ADWEC subsidizes the water and electricity productionprocess by purchasing the gas fuel from fuel suppliers andsupplying it to the water and electricity producers wherecogeneration facilities are involved (RSB 2014b).

Water and energy subsidies in the GCC

The more energy and water are subsidized, the greater thedemand is for those goods as their true cost of productionbecomes externalized. In GCC states, this phenomenon isdemonstrated by the exceptionally high energy and water usesper capita. In Qatar and UAE, the annual electricity consump-tion stands at 16,353 and 17,296 KWh/capita, respectively(IEA 2013). Both countries consume 25 % more electricityper capita than the USA (IEA 2013). In terms of water use, thewater footprints of Qatar and UAE stand well over 3,000 m3/year, more than double the world average (Mekonnen andHoekstra 2011). Although the high electricity consumption inthe region is largely the result of air conditioning and cooling,necessary for the hot desert climate, overconsumption remainslargely linked to cheap energy prices, a fact acknowledged bywater and electricity authorities and industries in both Qatarand the UAE. Numerous reports including Qatar’s SecondHuman Development Report, launched in 2009, also conclud-ed that heavy subsidies have led to a state in which water andelectricity are overconsumed by the Qatari population at a rateexceeding sustainable development (UNDP 2009). Conse-quently, there is widespread recognition of the harmful effectscaused by current water and electricity tariffs.

Domestic water and energy subsidization by GCC states hasbeen a contributive factor towards their water- and energy-intensive economies (Enerdata 2011). High water and energyintensity is a trend witnessed among all GCC states (AFED2010). As illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9, although GCC states havecomparable, or even lower, human development index (HDI)values to other industrialized economies, they are far morewater- and energy-intensive. Though other confounding factorsexist that uniquely add to the water footprint and energy inten-sity of GCC countries (such as weather, virtual water imports,and so forth), water and energy wastage resultant of subsidiesremains a prime factor (Enerdata 2011). Consequently, GCCstates possess a tremendous opportunity to improve their eco-nomic efficiencies, especially considering that there has beenno correlation found between energy consumption and GDP

Table 3 Treated and reusedwastewater for GCC countries (adapted fromWorld Bank 2005)

Country Treatedwastewater(MCM/year)

Reusedwastewater(MCM/year)

Wastewatertreatmentrate (%)

Treatedwastewaterreuse rate (%)

Bahrain 24 17 32 71

Kuwait 260 182 62 70

Oman 12 8 22 67

Qatar 44 31 33 70

Saudi Arabia 240 98 23 41

UAE 265 159 39 60

Total 845 495 36 59

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Net export Net importFig. 3 Virtual water imports andexports for GCC countries (datafrom Mekonnen and Hoekstra2011)



growth in the GCC, suggesting GDP growth can continue evenwith conservation policy measures (Iriani, 2006).

Environmental cost of water production in GCC countries

There are numerous environmental concerns associated withcurrent water production in the GCC region, particularly withthe desalination process itself. Figure 10 highlights the prima-ry areas of concern. They can be categorized as input, output,and process concerns.

In terms of inputs, the intake of seawater for desalinationplants is an area of concern (Lattemann and Höpner 2008).Organisms living within the vicinity of a desalination plant’sintake pipe can collide with the intake screens (impingement)or be trapped within the feedwater into the plant (entrainment)(Lattemann and Höpner 2008). Due to lack of data and abilityto quantify the rates of impingement and entrainment, theassociated environmental impacts are often overlooked eventhough they may represent the most significant and directeffects from desalination (Pankratz 2004). The threat of intakepipes on the marine environment is highly variable and de-pendent on the technology employed for seawater intake; howfar the intake pipe is from the shore as well whether the intakepipes are open sea or subsurface (Pankratz 2004; Gille 2003).

The other input of concern in the desalination process is theenergy quantity and type involved. The current use of fossilfuels as an energy supply is problematic for both its outputs aswell as the longevity of the energy source (Meerganz vonMedeazza 2005). Given the heavy reliance on desalination forsupplying the freshwater needs of GCC countries, a sustain-able source of energy for desalination would ensure that thewater produced is renewable and helps increase water security(Trieb et al. 2008). At the environmental level, it is estimatedthat when desalination is coupled with renewable energysources, the environmental load can be reduced by 80–85 %by eliminating the harmful effects associated with fossil fuels(Meerganz von Medeazza 2005).

It is worth noting that the desalination technology employed,regardless of the energy source, plays a crucial role in the overallenvironmental load, as desalination technologies differ in energyintensity, land requirements, and chemical usage, among manyother variables. Figure 11 provides a life cycle analysis of threedesalination technologies with their respective environmentalloads. In general, reverse osmosis as a technology has the lowestenvironmental impact followed by multiple effect distillationand then lastly multistage flash. Among the most importantfactors affecting environmental load is energy intensity. Theuse of natural gas or oil as a fuel source for desalination plantsresults in millions of metric tons of greenhouse gases being

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%IndiaBrazilChina

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Fig. 4 Water dependency ofvarious countries including selectGCC states (data from Mekonnenand Hoekstra 2011)

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Saudi Arabia UAE Kuwait Oman Qatar BahrainFig. 5 Water demand forecast forGCC countries until 2050(adapted from Trieb et al. 2008)



spewed into the atmosphere annually in theGulf. The Emirate ofAbu Dhabi alone releases roughly 4 to 9 million metric tons ofCO2 annually from desalination plants (EAD 2009).

Lastly, one of the most significant areas of environmentalconcern when it comes to desalination plants is brine manage-ment (Ahmed et al. 2001). The discharged brine is often amixture of saline concentrate along with thermal and chemi-cally added pollutants (Meerganz von Medeazza 2005). Thesolution’s salinity concentration is largely dependent on thetechnology employed; though often double the ambient sea-water salinity (Global Water 2014). In addition to the addedsalinity, the brine mixture often contains numerous chemicalsemployed in pretreatment such as antiscaling additives, anti-fouling additives, halogenated organic compounds formedafter chlorine addition, antifoaming additives, anticorrosionadditives, and oxygen scavengers (Höpner and Windelberg1997). Furthermore, if thermal desalination is the predominanttechnology employed, as is the case in the Arabian Gulf, thetemperature of the brine mixture will often be above theambient seawater temperature (Sale et. al 2011). All the afore-mentioned by-products can negatively impact the Gulf’s na-tive biota; be they mangroves, corals, or other aquatic species(Sale et al. 2011); particularly given the brine’s density whichsinks it to the bottom of the seabed where most ecologicalactivity takes place (Meerganz von Medeazza 2005).

Coral and mangrove species survive within a narrow setof environmental parameters that if exceeded can lead to

ecological stress on the marine populations (Rezai et al.2004). Coral and mangrove species in the Arabian Gulf areunique as they are among the most versatile corals andmangroves, being able to tolerate both high temperaturesand salinity (Rezai et al. 2004). Despite the high toleranceof mangroves and coral to this harsh environment, thesehabitats are still vulnerable to brine discharge (Purnamaet al. 2005). Mangroves across the GCC have often beencleared in the process of coastal development (Sale et al.2011). Mangroves rely on a delicate balance of inlandfreshwater and seawater: if the seawater becomes too salineor concentrated due to brine discharge, then their growthcan become stunted or they may die all together (Höpnerand Windelberg 1997). Similarly, corals exposed to hightemperatures will undergo a process called coral bleaching,which effectively destroys the coral (Brown 1997). Whilemuch research has been done on the negative effects ofbrine discharge to marine flora, there remain few studiesthat assess the direct impacts of desalination on marinefauna (Purnama et al. 2005).

Also worth mentioning are the potential cumulative effectsof desalination on the Arabian Gulf itself. The semi-enclosednature of the water body along with the high desalination ratespresents a unique case in which the effect of brine dischargeby desalination plants must be looked at collectively andcumulatively, as opposed to singular environmental impactstudies (Sheppard et al. 2010). Long-term environmental

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Fig. 6 Future water supplyscenario for the GCC region(adapted from Trieb et al. 2008)

Table 4 Water and electricity production cost, tariffs, and subsidy rates in select GCC countries

Country Product Production cost (USD $) Tariff (USD $) Subsidization rate (%) Source

Bahrain Electricity 0.07/kWh 0.01–0.04/kWh 43–86 Bahrain Electricity and Water Authority (2014)Water 1.92/m3 0.80–1.06/m3 45–58

Qatar Electricity 0.07/kWh 0.02–0.04/kWh 42–67 (GWI 2014) and Kahramaa (2014)Water 2.74/m3 1.21–1.92/m3 30–56

UAE Electricity 0.07–0.09/kWh 0.01–0.04/kWh 40–88 RSB (2014a)Water 2.48/m3 0.60/m3 76–100



studies on the cumulative impacts of desalination discharge inthe Gulf are very scarce (Purnama et al. 2005).

Water–energy–food nexus analysis of water securityin the GCC

As previously mentioned, the nexus that exists between water,energy, and food in the GCC region is unprecedented. Con-sequently, it is crucial to analyze the dynamics of waterscarcity in the region and how it can be dealt with both cost-effectively and sustainably through a WEF approach. Fig-ure 12 illustrates a general overview of the WEF nexus in

the GCC region. It demonstrates traditional and future ave-nues of meeting the GCC’s water, energy, and food needs. Thefigure incorporates tags that highlight the necessary resourcesneeded, be they financial, political, or utility based such asfreshwater and energy.

As Fig. 13 also illustrates, water security is a function ofboth water supply and water demand. So long as a country’ssupply rate outstrips that of its demand with no externalizedcosts, then it can be considered water secure (even if waterdependent on other nations) (World Bank 2005). Hence, waterscarcity can be addressed in two ways, through demand man-agement and through supply management.

Water supply management in GCC countries

Demand management employs strategies to decrease the de-mand on the water resource, while supply management lookstowards strategies that can increase the supply of the waterresource (World Bank 2005). Figure 13 illustrates some sup-ply and demand management strategies. Both approaches areimportant to meet any country’s water needs; however, de-mand management should be prioritized over supply manage-ment when possible as it is both more cost-effective andenvironmentally friendly as it avoids unnecessary investmentin new water and energy infrastructure (World Bank 2005;EAD 2009).

Despite the increasing push for privatization and privatesector involvement, it is clear that GCC countries are continu-ing to invest heavily in their water and energy sectors asevident by their large shares in many independent water andpower projects (IWPP) (Global Water 2014). Between 2000and 2008, Qatar’s Kahramaa (the government owned waterand electricity company) invested approximately 660 millionUSD in its water sector, excluding investments made in IWPP

Fig. 7 Overview of the water and energy sector entities in the Abu DhabiEmirate

Fig. 8 Relationship between thehuman development index andthe energy intensity of selectedcountries, including several GCCstates (data from IEA 2013 andRoca 2013)



projects (Al-Malki 2008). In 2009, Qatar initiated a 30-yearwater and electricity master plan that will see major invest-ments in desalination, water infrastructure, and wastewatertreatment (Global Water 2014). Between 2010 and 2015, thevalue is projected at reaching 5.47 billion USD with anadditional 1.1 billion USD investment in IWPP productionfacilities between 2013 and 2017 (Al-Malki 2008).

Likewise, inMay of 2012, at the global summit for water inthe oil and gas sector, the undersecretary of the UAEMinistryof Environment and Water announced that the UAE will beinvesting 13.89 billion USD in new desalination plants anddistribution networks from 2012 to 2016 according to theUAE’s The National newspaper (2012).

Strong government investments in the water and energysector are largely the result of rapidly rising demand coupledwith higher global oil and gas prices which have providedgreater revenue from energy exports for GCC countries(Global Water 2014), similar to the massive investments madefollowing the oil crisis in 1973 (Al-Faris 2002).

Currently, many GCC countries are placing heavy empha-sis and resources on ensuring that they are water secure for thefuture. This has corresponded to increasing their installeddesalination capacities among other actions such as wastewa-ter reuse. Figure 14 illustrates the projected cumulative capac-ity increase in GCC countries for the next 4 years. In Qatar,Kahramaa is planning to add an additional 1.72 million m3/day to its existing desalination capacity between the years of2016 and 2032 as a part of its 30-year power and water masterplan (Al-Malki 2008; Global Water 2012). This would repre-sent an increase of roughly 140 % compared to the currentinstalled capacity of 1.2 million m3/day (Al-Malki 2008).

Despite the fossil fuel wealth that GCC states enjoy, sig-nificant investments are being made to diversify the energymix of the region and shift away from dependence on fossilfuels (Alnaser and Alnaser 2011). Investments in energy di-versification would allow the region to export greater amountsof fossil fuel—earning greater revenue and also prepare themfor a post-fossil fuel world (Reiche 2010). Most investments

Fig. 9 Relationship between thehuman development index andthe water footprint of selectedcountries, including several GCCstates (data from Mekonnen andHoekstra 2011 and Roca 2013)

Fig. 10 Box model ofenvironmental impacts related tothe desalination process



are currently being made by public sector entities rather thanthe private sector, though public–private partnerships, partic-ularly in research, are growing (Reiche 2010).

The GCC countries’ desire to diversify their energy mixis best represented by some of the initiated programs andprojects in these countries. In 2008, the UAE published a

report on nuclear energy for the country citing that by2020, natural gas will only be sufficient to meet 50 % ofelectricity needs, and the remaining will have to come fromother sources such as nuclear and renewable energies(ENEC 2008). The report estimated that renewables willsupply around 6–7 % by 2020, with the remaining 43–

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Fig. 11 Life cycle analysis ofvarious desalination technologies(adapted from Raluy et al. 2006)

Fig. 12 Water–energy–food nexus dynamics in the GCC countries



44 % coming from nuclear energy through an estimated 14plants; four of which will be operational by 2020 (ENEC2008). In terms of renewables, Masdar’s Shams 1 is aconcentrated solar power plant project constructed nearAbu Dhabi in the UAE (Abengoa Solar 2013). The project,the largest parabolic trough power plant in the world attime of construction, is the largest solar power plant in theMiddle East (Abengoa Solar 2011). Details on UAE’sShams 1 and the Barakah nuclear power plants are sum-marized in Table 5.

In terms of renewable energy and desalination, SaudiArabia’s King Abdulaziz University for Science & Technolo-gy built the world’s largest (30,000 m3/day) solar-powered(PV) desalination plant in Al-Khafji (Negewo 2012). Underphase 2 of the project, the desalination capacity is planned to

be expanded by an additional 150,000 m3/day (Negewo2012). Saudi Arabia has additionally announced that it plansto generate 54 GW of electricity from renewables by 2032(Negewo 2012).

The combination of renewable energy and desalinationtechnologies is often site and context specific. Much researchis taking place in this area, particularly for the GCC countries.Table 6 summarizes some of the tradeoffs of various renew-able energy and desalination technology combinations. Forexample, unlike multi-effect distillation powered using con-centrated solar power (CSP-MED), reverse osmosis poweredwith photovoltaic electricity (PV-RO) does not require that thePV panels be located at the shore where the RO plant is, amajor advantage if the land is expensive or not provided bythe government. However, CSP-MED is capable of greaterproduction and can tolerate higher salinities in comparison toRO. The cost range of renewable energy-powered desalina-tion is also quite variable but generally more expensive thanfossil fuel desalination for the time being. Figure 15 provides arange of renewable-powered seawater desalination costsbased on existing projects.

Aside from water supply capacity and the longevity of theenergy sources used for water production, GCC states alsosuffer from severe water storage capacity issues. It is estimatedthat Qatar’s water storage capacity is only 1.23 days if alldesalination plants were to stop operating (Al-Malki 2008).That number is standing at 2 days in the UAE (EAD 2009),with similar numbers for Kuwait and Bahrain who also lacksignificant groundwater resources. As such, GCC states areresearching and investing in water storage technologies, bethey manmade reservoirs or aquifer storage and recovery(ASR) (World Bank 2005).

Under Qatar’s National Food Security Programme(QNFSP), a core objective is to use solar-desalinated waterto replenish the country’s depleted aquifers, increasing thecountry’s water storage capacity and decreasing the need forlarge water storage containers (QNFSP 2014). Similar toQatar’s QNFSP, Abu Dhabi has already invested in ASR as

Fig. 13 Supply and demand in water scarcity dynamics

0

5,000,000

10,000,000

15,000,000

20,000,000

25,000,000

30,000,000

35,000,000

40,000,000

45,000,000

50,000,000

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Cum

ula�

ve in

stal

led

capa

city

(m3/

day)

KSA UAE Kuwait Qatar Oman BahrainFig. 14 Forecast of cumulativeinstalled desalination capacity forGCC countries (adapted fromGasson 2013 forecast)



a means of increasing the country’s water storage capacity(EAD 2009). The 5 billion USD project in Liwa was imple-mented by the Environment Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD,2009). The water reservoir can be tapped into wheneverneeded, particularly in times of emergency or natural crisis(EAD 2009).

Manmade reservoirs are also being built. In Qatar,Kahramaa is planning to add 2 million m3 in secondaryreservoirs and 8.64 million m3 mega reservoirs by the end of2015 (Al-Malki 2008). The secondary reservoirs will providean additional 2-day reserve capacity, while the mega reser-voirs will add 5 for a planned total of 7 days of 24-h supply(Al-Malki 2008).

Water demand management in GCC countries

A general dichotomy exists within demand management:technical efficiency and behavioral consumption. Technicalefficiency generally encompasses storage, transmission, dis-tribution, and end use. Behavioral consumption includes con-sumptive patterns of water by all sectors. Traditionally inGCC states, behavioral change has received little attention,with priority going to supply management and increasingtechnical efficiency.

One of the major technical efficiencies being worked onin GCC countries is related to end use and building codes(Bachellerie 2012). In 2009, Dubai launched its green build-ing code which aims to harmonize various building andplanning policies within the emirate (Reiche 2010). Thebuilding code is based largely on the US Leadership inEnergy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating system,however, modified to suit Dubai’s environmental conditions

(Reiche 2010). In Abu Dhabi, under “Plan Abu Dhabi2030,” a key program emerged named Estidama, whichoperates as a “building design methodology for constructingand operating buildings and communities more sustainably”(Abu Dhabi UPC 2014). One of the outputs of Estidama isthe Pearl Rating System, which harmonizes existing codessuch as BREEAM, LEED, and Green Star, to evaluate thesustainability of building development practices in AbuDhabi (Abu Dhabi UPC 2014).

Similarly, Qatar has recently developed its own systemcalled the Global Sustainability Assessment System (GSAS)(GORD 2014). GSAS was developed after studying 40 dif-ferent green building codes from around the world, with theobjective of creating a system that can assess all types ofdevelopments, at both the macro and micro level (GORD2014). GSAS is mandatory for all government buildings,while private sector developments are to adhere to unspecifiedwater- and energy-saving measures (GORD 2014).

Another key area of water efficiency is through transmissionnetworks. Current transmission water loss stands below 15% inDubai (World Bank 2005) and 17 % in Abu Dhabi, with effortsby ADWEA along with its subsidiary distributors to reduce thatvalue to 10 % through more sophisticated management (EAD2009). Distribution companies in the country are currentlyinstalling automatic smart meters at all outlets in the network,to better account for water loss in the system (EAD 2009).

In other GCC countries, such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar,the opportunity for water savings is greater as current watertransmission losses are high, estimated at 30–35 % (GWI2012). Consequently, in Qatar, Kahramaa has made watertransmission efficiency a priority with plans to cut leaks to10 % by 2014 according to government entities. In 2009,

Table 5 Renewable and nuclear energy projects in the UAE (data fromWorld Nuclear Association and ArabianBusiness.com and Abengoa Solar 2011)

Project owner Project cost Energy capacity Tonnes of CO2

displacedStatus

Emirates Nuclear Energy Corporation(ENEC)

20 billion USD 5,600 MW (1,400 MW/plant) 12,000,000/year Under construction

Masdar (60 %), Abengoa SA (20 %),Total SA (20 %)

600 million USD 100 MW 175,000/year Operational as of end of 2012

Table 6 Tradeoffs of various renewable and desalination technology combinations (adapted from Kalogirou 2005)

Technology Scale of application Land requirement/m3 water produced Salinity tolerance Site suitability

PV-RO Small–medium Medium (can be decoupled fromdesalination plant)

Moderate High and regular insolation

Solar Still Small High High High and regular insolation, low humidity

HDH Small Medium High Access to waste heat

CSP-MED Medium–large Medium (if thermal, cannot bedecoupled from desalination plant)

High High and regular insolation, low humidity

PV-RO reverse osmosis powered with photovoltaic electricity,HDH humidification–dehumidification,CSP-MEDmulti-effect distillation powered usingconcentrated solar power



Kahramaa invested 58 million USD into a Supervisory Con-trol and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system for the controland monitoring of the country’s water system (Al-Malki2008). This system is to be coupled with greater controlmanagement which includes new district flow meters andadvance meter information (Al-Malki 2008).

Among the most important and crucial issues that need tobe addressed is the efficiency of irrigation for agricultural andlandscaping in the GCC states. The agricultural sector con-sumes on average 60 to 90% of the groundwater supply in theUAE, Saudi Arabia, and Oman, even though it only contrib-utes 2 to 6 % towards those countries’ GDP (World Bank2005). Agriculture in the GCC states suffers from poor irriga-tion practices that lead to water losses exceeding 50 % (WorldBank 2005). Reducing leakage in agricultural water networksand utilizing better irrigation systems will ensure that GCCcountries can continue to improve their food security withoutthreatening their scarce and valuable water resources.

Behavioral changes within the water sector are relatedlargely to consumptive patterns (Russell and Fielding 2010).Water consumption among any sector or user is determinedprimarily by the cost of the utility and the general level ofawareness surrounding water conservation (Russell andFielding 2010). Water and electricity tariffs were previouslydiscussed for select GCC countries and how they differ forvarious customer segments. The large subsidies in place havea significant impact on consumption patterns as they encour-age overconsumption of both water and electricity. This ismost evident in the agricultural sectors of GCC countries,where water wastage is highest as water prices tend to be thelowest when compared with other customer segments. Anincrease in water and electricity tariffs through subsidy re-moval would likely decrease consumption by a considerableamount, as has been often stated by academic, government,and industry experts in the region. However, within GCCstates, there are considerable social and political consider-ations when it comes to subsidies (IEA 2013; Fattouh andKatiri 2012). Given the wealth generated by fossil fuel exportin the GCC, a culture has emerged in which citizens feel theyhave a birth right to those resources and that such utilities

should be made free for them (Mansfeld and Winckler 2007).Consequently, increasing water and electricity tariffs for citi-zens would be extremely unpopular.

There is broad consensus from utility companies, aca-demics, researchers, and those in the water industry thatsubsidies for water and electricity need to go down across allGCC states and that such an outcome is inevitable. The DubaiElectricity &Water Authority (DEWA) did just that in 2011 asit introduced a fuel surcharge for electricity production whichwas passed on to consumers. According to the UAE’s nationalnewspaper (2012), the result was a 2.2 % drop in per capitaelectricity consumption the following year.

However, given the political and social sensitivity of tariffincreases, an emphasis on awareness building is being placedinstead. Consequently, conservation campaigns are starting toflourish to educate the public in many GCC countries. In theUAE and Qatar, key government institutions including envi-ronmental ministries and water and electricity authoritiesalong with the utility/distribution companies have begun topromote greater conservation through various avenues. Sig-nificant work has been carried out on government websites(particularly utility websites) to promote conservation andsustainability, through open access to statistical information,online consumption calculators, water and electricity savingtips, among others.

In the UAE, some utility companies have begun to showthe true cost of water and electricity production on the waterand electricity bill of customers and howmuch they are savingvia government subsidies in an effort to raise awarenessamong the public about the true value of these utilities. Suchinitiatives are hoped to prove to be useful as water andelectricity subsidies decline in the future.

Water security tradeoffs

The water security of GCC countries cannot exist in a siloseparate from food and energy. Consequently, the adoption ofany strategy for increasing water security in this region willhave repercussions on other sectors. Figure 16 depicts anassessment of three supply side interventions using qualitative

1 3 5 7 9 11

tankers to remote areas

Conven�onal + RO, ED

PV + RO

PV + ED

Wind + RO

Wind + ED

Cost (USD/m3)

Tech

nolo

gy co

mbi

na�o

n

Fig. 15 Cost of variousrenewable and seawaterdesalination technologycombinations (adapted fromGude et al. 2010)



metrics, namely the existing fossil fuel desalination, continuedgroundwater extraction, and lastly renewable energy ornuclear-powered desalination—which has yet to majorly takeoff in the GCC states, though it has recently been made apriority. The qualitative metrics used are social/political ac-ceptance, potential cost savings (compared to the status quo),potential for oil/gas savings, water saving, and security issues.

As discussed previously, the GCC states have historicallyrelied almost exclusively on their groundwater resources,tapping more into their nonrenewable deep aquifers as thepopulation grew. The current rate of extraction will result inthe drying of the aquifers, their salinization through seawaterintrusion, and eventual collapse. Consequently, on their own,they cannot ensure the water security of the GCC.

Traditional fossil fuel desalination has offered GCC coun-tries a way of securing their water security and decreasing

their reliance on their scarce and nonrenewable groundwaterresources. However, it is becoming increasingly an opportu-nity cost of lost gas and/or oil export revenue. The UnitedArab Emirates, which operates the bulk of its desalinationplants using natural gas, imports the gas from Qatar. SaudiArabia uses oil for a large majority of its desalination plants, alost opportunity of revenue from oil exports.

Lastly, the use of renewables or nuclear energy for desali-nation is considered a significant security improvement as itensures the supply of a sustainable source of energy and hencewater, which is not the case with current fossil fuel desalina-tion. However, among the tradeoffs with using renewables fordesalination is the higher cost, which was presented in Fig. 15for various renewables and desalination technology combina-tions. However, the relative difference in cost betweenrenewable-powered desalination and fossil fuel desalination

Security

Water savings

Oil & gas savingsCost savings

Social/poli�calacceptance

Fossil fuel desalina�on RE/nuclear desalina�on Groundwater extrac�on

Fig. 16 Water security tradeoffsin the GCC states

Security

Water savings

Oil & gas savingsCost savings


Local produc�on Food imports FDI in agricultural land

Fig. 17 Food security tradeoffsin the GCC states



is expected to levelize in the future as renewable energy costsdrop and fossil fuel prices increase.

Food security tradeoffs

Looking at food security, GCC countries are pursuing variousalternatives, all ofwhich possess their own tradeoffs. Figure 17demonstrates the various tradeoffs associated with food secu-rity in the GCC states. While many GCC countries are cur-rently emphasizing food security through local food produc-tion, the resultant repercussions of this option are significant.Local food production puts significant stress on groundwaterresources (see Table 2 for agricultural use of groundwater inGCC countries) and requires significant energy and financialinput through government subsidies (direct and indirect) toenable the produce of local farmers to compete domestically.

Food imports, while cheaper than local production, aresubject to significant international drivers and are hence pricevolatile, as the 2007/2008 global food price crisis demonstrat-ed. Hence, from a security standpoint, food imports—whilemore environmentally friendly for GCC countries given theirclimate and limited water resources—remain capricious.

Another option of achieving food security which GCCcountries have begun to pursue is that of foreign direct invest-ment (FDI) in farmland abroad, particularly in neighboringEast Africa. Table 7 highlights the acquired land (purchased orleased) by some GCC states in countries such as Sudan,Kenya, and Tanzania.

The tradeoffs associated with energy security, as discussedthroughout the water security section, are summarized inFigure 18.

The purchase or long-term leasing of the land providesfood security that regular imports fail to provide. However,

Table 7 Foreign direct invest-ment by three GCC states in Af-rican farmland, benchmarkedagainst that by South Korea, Jor-dan, Egypt, and China (adaptedfrom Ibrahim Forum 2011)

Investor Target Land acquired through purchase or lease (ha)

Saudi Arabia Sudan 10,000

Tanzania 500,000

United Arab Emirates Sudan 380,000

Qatar Kenya 40,000

South Korea Sudan 700,000

Jordan Sudan 30,000

Egypt Uganda 860,000

Ethiopia 20,000

China Cameroon 10,000

Democratic Republic of Congo 2,800,000

Zimbabwe 100,000

Security

Health & climatechange

Oil & gas savingsCost saving


Fossil fuel based Nuclear and renewables

Fig. 18 Energy security tradeoffsin the GCC



foreign direct investment in farmland remains an ethicallycontentious topic, due to the lack of clear international lawsand oversight. Furthermore, while security might be providedcontractually through purchase or long-term leasing agree-ments, the actual food output of these lands is subject toclimatic conditions and the support of local populations.

Conclusion

The GCC states have seen tremendous changes in their recenthistory, which has brought great prosperity to the region. How-ever, the unprecedented population and economic growth thatoccurred have not taken place void of challenges. The regionfaces significant pressures on its water and food security—cur-rently maintained directly or indirectly through its rich fossil fuelreserves. As such, the GCC countries need to manage all threesectors simultaneously to ensure that the region continues todevelop sustainably. Key trends—discussed often in the literatureand among government and industry experts—are currentlytaking place or likely to take place in the near future that willenable this transition. Such trends include the following:

1. The decoupling of water and electricity production: Whilecogeneration plants have traditionally been the norm inGCC countries, due to the availability of free low-gradesteam and use of thermal desalination technologies, theseplants will eventually be phased out. The decoupling ofwater and electricity production will allow for the intro-duction of renewable and nuclear energy into the energymix as well as more compact and energy-efficient desali-nation technologies such as reverse osmosis (Fig. 18).

2. Given the decoupling of the water and energy sectors, theuse of renewables and nuclear energy will grow in GCCcountries, particularly in conjunction with the productionof desalinated water for water security reasons.

3. Increased reliance on desalinated water for future needs:The portion of water coming from desalination will likelyincrease with time as groundwater is further depleted and/orbanned to be used, except as emergencywater storage units.

4. Higher water and electricity tariffs to decrease water andelectricity demand: While socially unpopular and politi-cally sensitive, water and electricity tariffs are likely to goup as GCC countries gradually remove or shift currentutility subsidies.

5. Emphasis on demand side management through aware-ness and education: In conjunction with higher utilitypricing, GCC countries will proliferate their current ef-forts at conservation through public awareness campaignsand education.

6. Greater water efficiency in local food production: Giventhe high rates of water use by the agricultural sectors ofGCC countries, increased irrigation efficiency coupledwith better crop choices will become a priority.

7. Greater investment in farmland abroad: Foreign directinvestment in farmland, particularly in Africa, is likelyto increase, especially as leasing contracts mature andensure security through greater stakeholder involvementand oversight.

In conclusion, while the GCC countries face significantchallenges related to their water security, this reality alsopresents numerous opportunities to utilize their current fossilfuel wealth to make the necessary transitions that will ensuretheir long-term water, food, and energy security.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the United NationsUniversity-Institute forWater Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) fortheir financial support to the lead author during 2011 that allowed for theconduct of interviews with various experts in Qatar and the UAE thatultimately inspired this paper. Special appreciation is extended to Mrs.Hanneke Van Lavieren of UNU-INWEH for her invaluable support andinput.

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