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TOPIC:
STUDY OF LANGUAGES
IN PERSPECTIVE
OF
PIDGIN AND CREOLE
PREPARED BY: PREPARED FOR:
HAFIZ SAEED AHMAD PROF.MUDASSAR MAHMOODHAFIZ NOUMAN ASGHAR SPECIALIST OF LANGUAGEHAFIZ ALAMGIR STUDIESMALIK KAMRANSALMA ZAMIRNEELAM AZHAR
(FASS)
UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB
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PREFACE
We often came to listen that human is a social animal because everyone is somehow
interconnected to another one in any mode of social life.Now, the question is which
thing is plays a basic role to bring them close or connected to each other?Definitely the answer is Language or Cade through which they communicate their
thoughts, expressions and motives.
Most probably to gain and explore knowledge about that is called
SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY.
The motive of this research work is because of our last semester ofMSISwhich is
consists of a sociolinguistic subject that is duly need an assignment in order to fulfill this
purpose this kind of topic for research was chosen.
In fact, this is a group study which is done under the supervision of
Prof.MudassarMehmood a Lecturer of Sociolinguistic study at UCP.
The group consists of six members as under:
1. HAFIZ SAEED AHMAD (G.R)
2. MUFTI NOUMAN ASGHAR
3. HAFIZ ALAMGIR
4. MALIK KAMRAN
5. SALMA ZAMIR
6. NEELAM RAFIQUE
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO.1
Introduction to the topic
Historical analysis And Hurdles in the study
Origin of the terms
Theories of originDevelopment of the terms
CHAPTER NO.2
Introduction to the pidgin and creole
Definition of pidginEtymology
Terminology
Development
Common traits
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CHAPTER NO.3
i. West African pidgin
Introduction to the language
History of the language
John mettews research
Formation of language and Structure
Language areas and Map of West Africa
Historical Impacts
Examples
CHAPTER NO.4
ii. Thai-English pidgin
Introduction to the language
Characteristics and Structure
Examples and phrases
Particles
Pronunciation
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CHAPTER NO.5
iii. HAWAIIN PIDGIN ENGLISH
History and origin
Development in recent years
Formation and pronunciation
Grammar and composition
Common greetings
CHAPTER NO.6
iv. JUBA ARABIC
Introduction to the language
History and originDevelopment in recent years
Formation and pronunciation
Grammar and composition
Examples
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INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH WORK
In this assignment we will present a research study about languages which are
being spoken in the various parts of the world.
Our main goal is to produce a comprehensive research about selected languages
which are being spoken as code in terms of pidgins and creoles.
Here is the quick look on our targeted languages which are respectively as
under:
West African Pidgin language
Thai-English language
Hawaiian Pidgin language
Juba Arabic language
Now, the time we will introduce the readers with the distribution ofcontents in respect of group members which were participating in this research
work accordingly:
Introductory portion, back ground and historical analysis of whole this
research work goes to
HAFIZ SAEED
Comprehensive research on Pidgins and Creoles including
definitions, terminologies, etymologies and development with the
references of various examples this portion belongs to
SALMA ZAMIR
A productive and informative research about WEST AFRICANPIDGIN ENGLISH including language formulation, language structure
and language development with explanation of map through
examples this work is done by
NEELAM AZHAR
Anothermarginal language THAI-ENGLISH PIDGIN includingits all accessories is remained under the research observation of
HAFIZ ALAMGIR
An instructive and constructive research work on another
variety of pidgin
HAWAIIN PIDGIN ENGLISH with syntax, structure and easy tounderstand examples was by
MUFTI NOUMAN ASGHAR
At the end reader could study about a Arabic based pidgin
variety JUBA ARABIC language which is easy to catch through
handy examples by
MALIK KAMRAN
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CHAPTER NO.1:
i. INTODUCTION TO THE TOPIC
Most of the languages which are right now being spoken in various
areas of the world, most probably many of them were emerged as an
pidgin languages after this first stage with the passage of time these
languages become creole or native language.
In the term of language formulation we must considerably knew
that any language could not been formulate until unless it except the
effects of the culture which occupy the spoken community of that
language, because every culture give the space to the words or shut the
door for many other words, thats why it is admitted fact that nolanguage can develop or survive without acceptance of cultural impacts.
It was the time when all the varieties of languages like Lingua
Franca, Pidgin and creole were considered as marginal languages.
On the other side many fully fledged languages are exist but we have
very limited knowledge about them, infect the serious study of these
languages consists of only few decades.
In addition, at the time of using these languages circumstances
were also not favorable, the tendency of no-interest toward these
languages was dominant, even speaking communities of these languageswere also facing troubles and tortures, especially the researchers of
these languages were threatened to destroy their careers.
(Ronald Warthaugh, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics
Blackwell publishing 350 main street, Malden, MA02148-5020, USA
9600 Garsington Road, OxfordOX4 2DQ, UK
550 Swanton Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia)
Pg. NO.66/426, edition 5th, Pidgins and creoles
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ii. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS
Hyms (p.3) says pidgins and creoles were largely ignored by the linguiststill 1930 and these languages were considered as marginal languages
even some of them were advised to keep away from these languages
otherwise their careers could be demolished.
Infect, Hyms narrates the circumstances at the time of origin, in addition
the attitude of language speaking communities was also not appreciated
and knowledge about these languages was also very rare.
Although these languages are central point of our studyandcentralpoint of the lives of millions of people too, because these communities
are origin of these languages but, unfortunately these languages were
associated with backward, poor and dark communities.
He also argues that interest or information about these languages
weather based on scholarly tone or general tone, all was prejudges.
These languages were declared as degeneration rather creative
adaptation,
They attached them with inherited ignorance and indolence
instead of historical and social forces, because these languages could
easily ignore if these languages made separate from their political,
social, literature and cultural power.
Ref:Ronaldwarthaugh 66/426
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iii. ORIGION OF THE TERMS
THE TERMS PIDGIN AND CREOLE
There are a number of views on the origin of the term pidgin, none of
which has gained sole acceptance by the academic community.
1) Chinese corruption of the word business. As the word is used for any
action or occupation (cf. joss-pidgin religion and chow-chow-pidgin
cooking') it should not be surprising that it be used for a languagevariety which arose for trading purposes.
2) Portuguese ocupaao meaning trade, job, occupation. This
suggestion is interesting as the Portuguese were among the first traders
to travel to the third world and influence natives with their language.
Phonetically the shift from the original word to a form /pidgin/ is
difficult to explain.
3) A form from the South American language Yayo -pidian meaningpeople (claim put forward by Kleinecke, 1959). This form occurs intribal names like Mapidian, Tarapidian, etc. This claim rests on a
single occurrence of the word Pidians in a text from 1606. But as several authors have pointed out this might be a spelling error for
Indians seeing as how the author has other misspellings in the text inquestion.
4) Hancock (1972) suggested that the term is derived from
pequenoportugues which is used in Angola for the broken Portuguesespoken by the illiterate. This view is semantically justified seeing that
the word pequeno is often used to mean offspring, in this case alanguage derived from another. Phonetically, the shift to /pidgin/ is not
difficult to account for: /peke:no/ > /pege:n/ > /pigin/ > /pidgin/ (stages
not attested, however).
5) Hebrew word pidjom meaning barter. This suggestion isphonetically and semantically plausible, hinges however on the
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distribution of a Jewish word outside of Europe and its acceptance as a
general term for a trade language.
The term creole There is less controversy on this issue than on theprevious one. The term would seem to derive from French creole, it inits turn coming from Portuguese crioulo (rather than from Spanishcriollo') which goes back to an Iberian stem meaning to nurse, breed,bring up. The present meaning is native to a locality or country.Originally it was used (17th century) to refer to those from European
countries born in the colonies. The term then underwent a semantic
shift to refer to customs and language of those in the colonies and later
to any language derived from a pidgin based on a European language,
typically English, French, Portuguese, Spanish or Dutch. Now the term
refers to any language of this type, irrespective of what the input
language has been.
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iv. Theories of origin
There are various theories about the origin of pidgins which
have been proposed in the last hundred years or so. These can bepresented as a basic group of five theories which show a degree ofoverlap; note that a mixture of origins is also a possibility which
should also be considered.
1) The baby-talk theoryat the end of the last century Charles
Leland, when discussing China coast pidgin English, noted that therewere many similarities with the speech of children such as the
following features:
a) High percentage of content words with a correspondingly lownumber of function words
b) Little morphological markingc) Word classes more flexible than in adult language (free
conversion)d) Contrasts in area of pronouns greatly reduced
e) Number of inflections minimized
Later linguists, notably Jespersen and Bloomfield, maintained that
the characteristics of pidgins result from imperfect mastery of alanguage which in its initial stage, in the child with its first language
and in the grown-up with a second language learnt by imperfectmethods, leads to a superficial knowledge of the most indispensable
word, with total disregard of grammar (Jespersen 1922: 234). Theevaluative nature of such views would be rejected by linguists today.
2)Independent parallel development theoryThis view maintainsthat the obvious similarities between the worlds pidgins and creolesarose on independent but parallel lines due to the fact that they allare derived from languages of Indo-European stock and, in the case
of the Atlantic varieties, due to their sharing a common West Africansubstratum. Furthermore, scholars like Robert Hall specify that thesimilar social and physical conditions under which pidgins arosewere responsible for the development of similar linguistic structures.
3) Nautical jargon theoryAs early as 1938 the American linguistJohn Reinecke noted the possible influence of nautical jargon on
pidgins. It is obvious that on many of the original voyages ofdiscovery to the developing world many nationalities were
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represented among the crews of the ships. This fact led to the
development of a core vocabulary of nautical items and a simplifiedgrammar (at least as regards English). Later pidgins show many of
these lexical items irrespective of where the language varieties arespoken. Thus the word capsiseturns up with the meaning turn over
or spill in both West Atlantic and Pacific pidgins. So do thewords heave, hoist, hail, galley, cargo. One of the shortcomings of
this otherwise attractive theory is that it does not help to accountfor the many structural affinities between pidgins which arose fromdifferent European languages.
4) Monogenetic/relexification theoryAccording to this view all
pidgins can be traced back to a single proto-pidgin, a 15th centuryPortuguese pidgin which was itself probably a relic of the medieval
lingua franca (also known assabirfrom the Portuguese word forknow') which was the common means of communication among the
Crusaders and traders in the Mediterranean area. Lingua francasurvived longest on the North African coast and is attested from
Algeria and Tunisia as late as the 19th century.The theory maintains that when the Portuguese first sailed down
the west coast of Africa in the 15th century they would have usedtheir form of lingua franca (sabir). Afterwards in the 16th and 17th
centuries when the Portuguese influence in Africa declined, thevocabulary of the then established pidgins would have been replaced
by that of the new colonial language which was dominant in thearea, say English or French. As the Portuguese were among the first
traders in India and South East Asia a similar situation can beassumed to have obtained: the vocabulary of the original Portuguesepidgin was replaced by that of a later European language.
Note that with this theory the grammatical structure of pidginswould not have been affected by the switch in vocabulary (this is
what is meant by the term relexification). Thus the obvioussimilarity in structure of all pidgins would go back to the grammar of
the proto-pidgin coming from the Mediterranean area. What thistheory does not explain is why the structure (analytic) should be of
the type it is. Furthermore there are a number of marginal pidgins(Russenorsk, Eskimo Trade Jargon) which cannot conceivably be
connected with Portuguese and which are nonetheless analytic instructure just as the pidgins based on the main European colonial
languages are.
5) Universalist theorythis is the most recent view on the origin of
pidgins and has elements in common with the other theories.However, the distinguishing mark of this theory is that it sees the
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similarities as due to universal tendencies among humans to create
languages of a similar type, i.e. an analytic language with a simplephonology, an SVO syntax with little or no subordination or other
sentence complexities, and with a lexicon which makes maximumuse of polysemy (and devices such as reduplication) operating from
a limited core vocabulary. To put it in technical terms, a creole willbe expected to have unmarked values for linguistic parameters, e.g.
with the parameter pro-drop, whereby the personal pronoun is notobligatory with verb forms (cf. Italian capiscoI understand'), theunmarked setting is for no pro-drop to be allowed and indeed this isthe situation in all pidgins and creoles, a positive value being
something which may appear later with the rise of a rich
morphology.
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v. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TERMS
Pidgins and Creoles
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A pidgin is a restricted language which arises for the purposesof communication between two social groups of which one is in a
more dominant position than the other. The less dominant group isthe one which develops the pidgin. Historically, pidgins arose in
colonial situations where the representatives of the particularcolonial power, officials, tradesmen, sailors, etc., came in contact
with natives. The latter developed a jargon when communicatingwith the former. This resulted in a language on the basis of the
colonial language in question and the language or languages of thenatives. Such a language was restricted in its range as it served a
definite purpose, namely basic communication with the colonists. In
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the course of several generations such a reduced form of language
can becomemore complex, especially if it develops into the mothertongue of a group of speakers. This latter stage is that of
creolization. Creoles are much expanded versions of pidgins andhave arisen in situations in which there was a break in the natural
linguistic continuity of a community, for instance on slaveplantations in their early years.
The interest of linguists in these languages has increased greatly in
the last few decades. The main reason for this is that pidgins andcreoles are young languages. In retracing their development it may
be possible to see how new languages can arise. Furthermore, the
large number of shared features among widely dispersed pidginsand creoles leads to the conclusion that creoles at least show
characteristics which are typical of language in the most generalsense, the features of older languages, such as complex morphology
or intricate phonology, arising due to the action of various forcesover a long period of time after the birth of these languages. In type,
creoles are all analytic and generally lack complexity in their soundsystems.
Developmental stages of pidgins/creoles
Social situation Linguistic correlate
1) Marginal contact Restricted pidgin
2) Nativisation Extended pidgin
3) Mother tongue development Creole
4) Movement towards standard language
(not necessarily input language)
Decreolization
Pidgins are generally characterized as restrictedand extended. Inthe life-cycle of pidgins one can note that they start off as restrictedlanguage varieties used in marginal contact situations for minimal
trading purposes. From this original modest outset a pidgin may,
assuming that there are social reasons for it to do so, develop intoan extended type. The latter is characterized by the extension of the
social functions of a pidgin. One very frequent scenario in the later
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development of a pidgin is where it is used as a means of
communication not just among black and white speakers but amongnative speakers themselves who however have very different native
languages. This is the major reason for the survival of Pidgin Englishin West Africa. The function of Pidgin English is thus as
a linguafranca, i.e. a common means of communication betweenspeakers who do not understand their respective native languages.
The process of pidginization is very common in any situation in
which a lingua franca is called for. Normally any such variety diesout very quickly once the situation which gave rise to it no longer
obtains. If the situation does continue to exist then the pidgin is
likely to survive. The steps from restricted to extended pidgin andfurther to creole are only taken by very few languages, particularly
the major restructuring typical of pidgins is not normally carried outby any but a very small number of input varieties.
Reasons for creole developmentCreoles may arise in one of two
basic situations. One is where speakers of pidgins are put in asituation in which they cannot use their respective mother tongues.
This has arisen in the course of the slave trade (in the Caribbean andthe southern United States) where speakers were deliberately kept
in separate groups to avoid their plotting rebellion. They were then
forced to maintain the pidgin which they had developed up to thenand pass it on to future generations as their mother tongue thus
forming the transition from a pidgin to a creole. A second situation is
where a pidgin is regarded by a social group as a higher languagevariety and deliberately cultivated; this is the kind of situation whichobtained in Cameroon and which does still to some extent on Papua
New Guinea. The outcome of this kind of situation is that thechildren of such speakers which use pidgin for prestige reasons may
end up using the pidgin as a first language, thus rendering it a creolewith the attendant relinquishing of the native language of their
parents and the expansion of all linguistic levels for the new creoleto act as a fully-fledged language.
Ref: http://www.uni-due.de/SVE/VARS_PidginsAndCreoles.htm
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CHAPTER NO.2
Introduction to the pidgin and creole
i. Pidgin(Not to be confused with thePigeonbird. For the instant messaging client).
A pidgin orpidgin language, is a simplified language that develops as a means
of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in
common. It is most commonly employed in situations such astrade, or where
both groups speak languages different from the language of the country in
which they reside (but where there is no common language between the
groups). Fundamentally, a pidgin is a simplified means of linguisticcommunication, as it is constructed impromptu, or by convention, between
individuals or groups of people. A pidgin is not the native language of any
speech community, but is instead learned as a second language.
A pidgin may be built from words, sounds, or body language from
multiple other languages and cultures. Pidgins allow people or a group of
people to communicate with each other without having any similarities in
language and do not have any rules, as long as both parties are able to
understand each other. Pidgins can be changed and do not follow a specific
order. Pidgins usually have lowprestigewith respect to other languages.
Not all simplified or "broken" forms of a language are pidgins. Each
pidgin has its own norms of usage which must be learned for proficiency in
the pidgin.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_%28sociolinguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_%28sociolinguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_%28sociolinguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_%28sociolinguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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ii. Etymology
The origin of the word pidginis uncertain. Pidginfirst appeared in print in
1850. The most widely accepted etymology is from theChinesepronunciation
of the English word business.
Another etymology that has been proposed is Englishpigeon, a bird
sometimes used forcarrying brief written messages, especially in times prior
to modern telecommunications.
iii. Terminology
The wordpidgin, formerly also spelled pigion, originally used to refer to
Chinese Pidgin English, was later generalized to refer to any pidgin.
Pidginmay also be used as the specific name for local pidgins orcreoles,
in places where they are spoken. For example, the name of the creole language
Tok Pisinderives from the English words talk pidgin. Its speakers usually
refer to it simply as "pidgin" when speaking English. Likewise,Hawaiian
Creole Englishis commonly referred to by its speakers as "Pidgin".
The termjargonhas also been used to refer to pidgins, and is found in
the names of some pidgins, such asChinook Jargon. In this context, linguists
today usejargonto denote a particularly rudimentary type of pidgin;however, this usage is rather rare, and the termjargonmost often refers to the
words particular to a given profession.
Pidgins may start out as or become trade languages, such asTok Pisin. Trade
languages are often full blown languages in their own right such asSwahili.
Trade languages tend to be "vehicular languages", while pidgins can evolve
into thevernacular.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinook_Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinook_Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinook_Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernacularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swahili_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinook_Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Language7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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iv. Pidgindevelopment
The creation of a pidgin usually requires:
Prolonged, regular contact between the different language communities
A need to communicate between them
An absence of (or absence of widespread proficiency in) a widespread, accessible
interlanguage
Also, Keith Whinnom (inHymes (1971)) suggests that pidgins need three
languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the
others.
It is often posited that pidgins becomecreole languageswhen a generation ofchildren learn a pidgin as their first language, a process that regularizes
speaker-dependent variation in grammar. Creoles can then replace the
existing mix of languages to become the native language of a community (such
as theChavacano languagein thePhilippines,KrioinSierra Leone, andTok
PisininPapua New Guinea). However, not all pidgins become creole
languages; a pidgin may die out before this phase would occur (e.g. the
Mediterranean Lingua Franca).
Other scholars, such asSalikoko Mufwene, argue that pidgins and creoles
arise independently under different circumstances, and that a pidgin need not
always precede a creole nor a creole evolve from a pidgin. Pidgins, according
to Mufwene, emerged among trade colonies among "users who preserved
their native vernaculars for their day-to-day interactions". Creoles,
meanwhile, developed in settlement colonies in which speakers of a European
language, oftenindentured servantswhose language would be far from the
standard in the first place, interacted extensively with non-Europeanslaves,
absorbing certain words and features from the slaves' non-European native
languages, resulting in a heavilybasilectalizedversion of the original
language. These servants and slaves would come to use the creole as aneveryday vernacular, rather than merely in situations in which contact with a
speaker of the superstrate was necessary.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin#CITEREFHymes1971http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin#CITEREFHymes1971http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin#CITEREFHymes1971http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavacano_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavacano_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavacano_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guineahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tok_Pisinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chavacano_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin#CITEREFHymes1971http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interlanguage7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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v. Common traits
among pidgin
languages
Since a pidgin language is a fundamentally simpler form of
communication, thegrammarandphonologyare usually as simple
as possible, and usually consist of:
Uncomplicatedclausalstructure (e.g., noembeddedclauses, etc.)
Reduction or elimination ofsyllable codas
Reduction of consonant clusters or breaking them withepenthesis
Basic vowels, such as [a, e, i, o, u]
Notones, such as those found in West African and Asian languages Use of separate words to indicatetense, usually preceding theverb
Use ofreduplicationto representplurals,superlatives, and other parts of
speech that represent the concept being increased
A lack ofmorphophonemic variation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin
citation time:10:55 p.m dated:4th june.2013,Tuesday
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_codahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_codahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_codahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduplicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduplicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduplicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphophonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphophonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphophonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphophonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduplicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_%28linguistics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_codahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subordinate_clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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CHAPTER NO.3
West African Pidgin English
i. INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGE
West African Pidgin English, also called Guinea Coast Creole English, was
thelingua franca, or language of commerce, spoken along the West African coast
during the period of theAtlantic slave trade. British slave merchants and local
African traders developed this language in the coastal areas in order to facilitate
their commercial exchanges, but it quickly spread up the river systems into the
West African interior because of its value as a trade language among Africans of
different tribes. Later in its history, this useful trading language was adopted as a
native language by new communities of Africans and mixed-race people living in
coastal slave trading bases such asJames Island,Bunce Island,Elmina
Castle,Cape Coast CastleandAnomabu. At that point, it became acreole
language.
Some scholars call this language "West African Pidgin English" to emphasize its
role as a lingua francapidginused for trading. Others call it "Guinea Coast Creole
English" to emphasize its role as acreolenative language spoken in and around
the coastal slave castles and slave trading centers by people permanently based
there.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_francahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island_(The_Gambia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island_(The_Gambia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island_(The_Gambia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunce_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunce_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunce_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomabuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomabuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomabuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomabuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Coast_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmina_Castlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunce_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Island_(The_Gambia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_tradehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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ii. HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE
West African Pidgin English arose during the period when the British
dominated the Atlantic slave trade in the late 17th and 18th centuries, ultimately
exporting more slaves to the Americas than all the other European nationscombined. During this period, English-speaking sailors and slave traders were in
constant contact with African villagers and long-distance traders along
thousands of miles of West African coastline. Africans who picked up elements of
pidgin English for purposes of trade with Europeans along the coast probably
took the language up the river systems along the trade routes into the interior
where other Africans who may never have seen a white man adopted it as a
useful device for trade along the rivers.
The existence of this influential language during the slave trade era is attested bythe many descriptions of it recorded by early European travelers and slave
traders. They called it the "Coast English" or the "Coast Jargon."
iii. JOHN MATTHEWSs research (A British slave Trader insierra leone)
A British slave trader in Sierra Leone, named John Matthews, mentioned pidgin English
in a letter he later published in a book titled A Voyage to the River Sierra-Leone on the
Coast of Africa. Matthews refers to West African Pidgin English as a "jargon," and he
warns Europeans coming to Africa that they will fail to understand the Africans unless
they recognize that there are significant differences between English and the coastal
pidgin:
Those who visit Africa in a cursory manner...are very liable to be mistaken in the
meaning of the natives from want of knowledge in their language, or in the jargon
of such of them as reside upon the sea-coast and speak a little English; the
European affixing the same ideas to the words spoken by the African, as if they
were pronounced by one of his own nation. [This] is a specimen of the
conversation which generally passes...:
Well, my friend, you got trade today; you got plenty o f slaves?
No, we no got trade yet; by and by trade come. You cant go.
What you go fo r catch people, you g o for make war?
Yes, my brother gone for catch people; or they gone for make war."
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iv. Formation and Structure
Like otherpidginandcreolelanguages, West African Pidgin
English took the majority of its vocabulary from its target
language (English), and much of its sound system, grammar,
andsyntaxfrom the local substrate languages (West
AfricanNigerCongolanguages).
The English dialect that served as the target language (or
lexifier) for West African Pidgin English was not the speech of
Britain's educated classes, though, but the Nautical English
spoken by the British sailors who manned the slave ships that
sailed to Africa. Nautical speech contained words from British
regional dialects as well as specialized ship vocabulary.
Evidence of this early nautical speech can still be found in the
modern pidgin and creole languages derived from West African
Pidgin English. InSierra Leone Krio, for instance, words derived
from English regional dialects
include padi("friend"), krabi t("stingy"), and ber in("funeral").
Words from specialized ship vocabulary
include koht las("machete"), f log("beat," "punish"), eys[from"hoist"] ("to lift"), and dek("floor").
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidginhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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v. LANGUAGE AREAS AND
MAP OF WEST AFRICAN SLAVE TRADE
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Slave trade from Africa to the Americas, 1650-1860
This map shows the major slave trade routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas
over a two-hundred-year period. With the rise of the plantation economy after 1650,established first in sugar and later (after 1800) cotton, slavery became a fundamentaleconomic institution in the Americas. The numbers in black rectangles indicate theapproximate number of slaves sent to each region; the vast majority were transported tothe West Indies and Brazil. Slaves from Western Africa formed the labor force for extractingprofitable colonial commodities sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, rice, and precious metals providing the foundation for rapid growth in trade and productive economies in theEuropean transatlantic empires. The legend on the lower left indicates the principalindustries worked by slave labor in each region. Britain, which by the eighteenth centuryhad the largest slave trade, abolished it in 1807. While other countries followed suit inofficially banning the trade, illegal importation of slaves continued to flourish until the1860s.
http://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps.html
Citation time:04:05p.m Dated:5th
june,2013 wednesday
http://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps/08-Map.pnghttp://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps/08-Map.pnghttp://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps.htmlhttp://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps.htmlhttp://www.slaverysite.com/slave%20trade.htmhttp://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps.htmlhttp://www.unc.edu/wrc/maps/08-Map.png7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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vi. Historical impact
The various pidgin and creole languages still spoken in West
Africa todaytheAku languageinThe Gambia,Sierra Leone
Krio,Nigerian Pidgin English,Ghanaian Pidgin
English,Cameroonian Pidgin English,Fernando Poo Creole
English, etc. -- are all derived from this early West African Pidgin
English. Indeed, these contemporary English-based pidgin and
creole languages are so similar that they are sometimes grouped
together under the name "West African Pidgin English," though
the term applies more properly to the trade language spoken on
the West African coast two hundred years ago.
Some scholars also argue that African slaves took West African
Pidgin English to the New World where it helped give rise to the
English-based creoles that developed there, including theGullah
languagein coastalSouth CarolinaandGeorgia,Bahamian
Dialect,Jamaican Creole,Belizean Kriol,Guyanese
Creole,Sranan Tongoin Suriname, etc. Since the slaves taken to
the Americas spoke many different African languages, they
would have found West African Pidgin English as useful as alingua franca on the plantations as they had found it back home
in West Africa as a trading language. Their enslaved children
born in the Americas would have adopted different versions of
West African Pidgin English as their "native" languages, thus
creating a series of New World English-based creoles.
The similarities among the many English-based pidgin and
creole languages spoken today on bothsides of the Atlantic are
due, at least in part, to their common derivation from the early
West African Pidgin English. Note the following examples:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aku_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aku_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aku_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamian_Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamian_Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamian_Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belizean_Kriol_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belizean_Kriol_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belizean_Kriol_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sranan_Tongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sranan_Tongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sranan_Tongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sranan_Tongohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyanese_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belizean_Kriol_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_Creolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamian_Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahamian_Dialecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Carolinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Poo_Creole_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghanaian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krio_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aku_language7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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vii. EXAMPLES
Sierra Leone Krio:
Dem dey go for go it res-- They are going there to eat rice
Nigerian Pidgin English:
Dem dey go chop rais-- They are going there to eat rice
Cameroonian Pidgin English:
Deydi go for go chop r ice-- They are going there to eat rice
Gullah:
Dem duh gw inefuh eat rice-- They are going there to eat rice
References:
1. ^Matthews, John (1788). A Voyage to th e River Sierra-Leone on the
Coast of Afr ica. Printed for B. White and Son.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_English
3. CITATION TIME:03:30 p.m., dated:5th
june,2013, Wednesday
4. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_English#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_English#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_African_Pidgin_English#cite_ref-17/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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CHAPTER NO.4
ii. Thai-Englishpidgin
(Not to be confused wi thTanglishorTenglish, in terl anguages of English wi th Tamil
and Telugu, respectively).
i. I ntroduction to the languageTinglish is even widespread on official signs in Thailand.
Tinglish (US and Thailand[1]) or Thaiglish (UK) (also Thenglish, Thailish orThainglish) is the imperfect form of English produced by nativeThaispeakers
due tolanguage interferencefrom the first language.
Differences from 'native' English includedifferent pronunciation, unusual
word choices, and grammatical anomalies, as well as innovative vocabulary
items.
ii. Characteristics and structure
Characteristics and examples (direct translation) include.
omission of pronouns and of the verb be;
use ofpresent tense+ "already" instead ofpast tense
non-use or incorrect use ofarticles,declensionandconjugation.
addition of Thai finalparticles, e.g. I don' t know na
Frequent confusion between anyand every.
General misunderstanding of conditional constructions
pronunciation ofsilent lettersin a word Inability
[citati on needed]to speak consecutive consonants. E.g. "Sprite"
pronounced "Sa-pa-rite"
use ofdouble negatives
lallationof the H and S pronunciation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English#Thaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English#Thaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English#Thaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_lettershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_lettershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_lettershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_negativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_negativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_negativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lallationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lallationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lallationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_negativeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_lettershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjugationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_%28grammar%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-native_pronunciations_of_English#Thaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanglish7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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iii. Examples of words and phrases
Examples (direct translation) include:
same same(similar, as usual) and same same but different(seems similar but
different in some ways);
I li ' you well ywelly mutt(I like you very much)
My frien' you(You are my friend)
My fri end you(your friend -- this construction is mostly correct in Thai)
My name (My name is )
Him boxing you(He will punch you)
Up to you(It's your decision) [this is also perfectly good British English]
open/close the li ght(means "To turn on/off the light");
no have ... (means "there is no ..." or "I do not have a ...");
I send you to air port(means "I will take you to the airport");
I love you too much; (indicating confusion between "too" and "very")
I 'm not pretty sure(means "I don't know");
This trousers are fi t(means "this trousers are a little too small to wear");
I have ever been to L ondon; I always go to London
I 'm interesting in football(means "I am interested in watching/playing football");
wash the film(means "develop the film");
I very li ke it(means "I really like it");
I 'm sad when my mother angry me(means is angry with me);
I used to go Phuket(means "I have been to Phuket before");
take a bathreferring to taking a shower;
Ar e you spicy?(means "Does your food taste spicy?")
Are you boring?Do you feel bored?
Do you know how to eat thi s?referring to food with taste that may be unfamiliar, orfood requiring special eating method (such as wrapping it in lettuce) that may not be
known to the listener;
I play in ternet(I go on/use the internet);
Check bil l(means I want to get a check in a restaurant);
This is suck!means "This sucks!";
I very enjoy!means "I'm enjoying myself/I enjoyed myself";
Linkkey(erroneous pronunciation ofLinksys)
F ill up the oil(fill up the gas/petrol)
Piki Wiki or Picky Wicky(erroneous pronunciation of the USA grocery chainPiggly
Wiggly)
Run me nut(meaning "drive me nuts") Kids go bad Burger King(meaning "The kids were misbehaving at Burger King")
Cup-a-hole(erroneous pronunciation of Cul-de-sac)
You sahtoopid by yourself(meaning you made an error that was completely your
fault)
"I cook at here sticky rice" (meaning, "I plan to cook some sticky rice here")
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggly_Wigglyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_translation7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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iv. Particles
The words of Thai prefix particles and their implied meanings:
khun(literally mister, miss, or mrs.) or k. = mister or miss (e.g.KhunSomchai will have a meeting on Friday.)
Following is the list of Thai final particles and their implied meanings:
la= to give suggestion (e.g. Why don't you ask her la?), to inform the
listener of something (e.g. I'm going to bed la.), or to ask if the subject
would do something that the subject of the previous sentence does (e.g.
I'm going to have dinner now, how about you la?)
na= to give a suggestion (e.g. You must do your homework first na.), to
inform the listener of something (e.g. I'll be right back na.), or to softena statement about something that the speaker thinks should have been
done but have not yet been done (e.g. Why don't you ask her na?)
cha/ja= to add informality to the conversation (e.g. Hello ja.)
khrap/krab(or, alternatively, krub) (for male speaker only) = add at end
of sentence to make the conversation polite/formal; also as confirmation
(Yes!) (e.g. Hello krab.)
kha(or ka) (for female speaker only) = same as krab (e.g. Hello kha.)
Some less common particles:
mang/mung= a qualifier indicating uncertainty, sometimes translated
as "maybe" (e.g. The shop already closed, mung. / I think he's 25 years
old, mung.)
loei/leoy= totally or immediately (e.g. I don't understand leoy la. / See
you there leoyna)
laeo/laew= already or done (e.g. I have to go laew la.)
na= to give suggestion (it's likely to be used with someone who's close to
you and of equal status, such as your close friend, considered very rude
otherwise) (e.g. I don't know at all na, why don't you come with me na?)
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v. Pronunciation
As some sounds in English just simply don't exist in Thai language, this affects
the way native Thai speakerspronounceEnglish words[citati on needed]
:
shifts the stress to the last syllable of the word
omits consonant clusters
final consonants are often omitted or converted according to the rules of
Thai pronunciation: land rbecome n, while sbecomes t
"sh" and "ch" sounds can be indistinguishable as the Thai language
does not have the "sh" sound, e.g. ship/chip, sheep/cheap
"v" sound is almost always replaced by "w" sound, e.g. vow -> wow,
ville -> will
"g" and "z" sounds are usually devoiced, e.g. dog -> dock, zoo -> sue
"th" sound is often replaced by "t" or "d" sound, e.g. thin -> tin,
through -> true, then -> den
ambiguity between the short "e", as in "bled", and a long "a", as in
"blade"
"e(vowel) " such as cherry is pronounced shireri, error is pronounced
err-rer
In Thai, consonants generally cannot be blended together (exceptions to this
rule are /r/, /l/ and /w/.) A short "a" (ah) sound is automatically added
between any other two consonants.
start - sahtat
stupid - sahtupid
sleep - sahleep
speak - sahpeak
snore - sahnore
swim - sahwim
stay - sahtay
school - sahkoon
album - alabum schedule - sahketdual
in trend- in train
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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References
1. ^Kong Rithdee(2012-03-10). "Davos, Tokyo and clueless Tinglish".Bangkok Post(in English). p. 7. "Seriously, watching that clip, I rooted for
her to pull it off, to show thatSuvarnabhumi English, our Tinglish, is asgood as any as long as what she meant to say came off."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish
citation time:10:35 p.m dated:4th
june,2013,Tuesday
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suvarnabhumi_English&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suvarnabhumi_English&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suvarnabhumi_English&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suvarnabhumi_English&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinglish#cite_ref-17/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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CHAPTER NO.5
Hawaiian Pidgin
I. Introduction:
Hawaiian Pidgin is an English Based Pidgin Language used by many residents
ofHawaii.
Although English and Hawaiian are the co-official languages of the state of
Hawaii, Pidgin is used by many Hawaiian residents in everyday conversation and
is often used in advertising toward Hawaiians.
ii.History and Formulation
Pidgin originated as a form of communication used between English
speaking residents and non-English speaking immigrants in Hawaii. It has been
influenced by many languages, including Portuguese, Hawaiian, and Cantonese.
As people of other language backgrounds were brought in to work on the
plantations, such as Japanese, Filipinos, and Koreans, Pidgin acquired words
from these languages.In the 19th and 20th centuries, Pidgin started to be used outside the plantation
between ethnic groups. Public school children learned Pidgin from their
classmates, and eventually it became the primary language of most people in
Hawaii, replacing the original languages. For this reason, linguists generally
consider Hawaii Pidgin to be a creole language.
In recent years, writers from Hawaii such as Lois-Ann Yamanaka and Lee
Tonouchi have written poems, short stories, and other works in Pidgin. A Pidgin
translation of the New Testament (calledDa Jesus B ook) has also been created,
as has an adaptation ofWilliam Shakespeare'sTwelf th Night, or What You Wil l,
titled in Pidgin "twelfnite o' WATEVA!"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_Japanesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois-Ann_Yamanakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Tonouchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Tonouchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Jesus_Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Jesus_Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Jesus_Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night,_or_What_You_Willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night,_or_What_You_Willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night,_or_What_You_Willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelfth_Night,_or_What_You_Willhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Jesus_Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Tonouchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Tonouchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lois-Ann_Yamanakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koreanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_Japanesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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iii. Some
Common
greetings:
Shoots = Bye/Okay; positive affirmation of statement
Aloha = Hello, Goodbye, Love
A HuiHou = Until we meet again
MalamaPono = Take Care
Make = Dead
iv.Pronunci
ation
Pidgin has distinct pronunciation differences from standard American English
(SAE). Some key differences include the following:
1. The voiced and unvoiced thsounds are replaced by dortrespectivelythat
is, changed from a fricative to a plosive (stop). For instance, that(voiced th)
becomes dat, and think(unvoiced th) becomes t ink.
2. The sound lat the end of a word is often pronounced ooro l. For
instance, mentalis often pronounced mento; peopleispronouncedpeepo.
3. Pidgin is non-rhotic. That is, rafter a vowel is often omitted, similar to manydialects, such as Eastern New England, Australian English, and English
English variants. For instance, caris often pronounced cah, and letterispronounced letta. Intrusive ris also used. The number of Hawaii
Pidgin speakers with rhotic English has also been increasing.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voicedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unvoicedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_New_England_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusive_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusive_Rhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_New_England_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_and_non-rhotic_accentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unvoicedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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v.Grammaticalfeatures
Fo rtense-mark ing ofverb,auxi l iary verbsare emplo yed:
1. To express past tense, Pidgin uses wen (went) in front of the verb.
Jesus w en cry. (DJB, John 11:35)
Jesus cried.
To express future tense, Pidgin uses g oin (going) in front of the verb, adeclaratory
wordorverbum dicendi, common in m any fo rms ofslangAmerican English.
God goin do plenny go od kine stuff fo h im. (DJB, Mark 11:9)
God is going to do a lot of good th ings for h im.
To express p ast tense negative, Pidgin u ses neva (never). Neva can also m ean "n ever"
as in norm al English u sage; context sometimes, but not always, makes the meaningclear.
He neva like dat.
He didn't w ant that. (or) He never wanted that. (or) He did n't like that.
Use of fo (for) in place of the inf in i t ive part ic le "to" . Cf. dialectal form " Going for to carry
me home."
I try infot ink. (or) I try fot ink.
I 'm try in g to think.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbum_dicendihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbum_dicendihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbum_dicendihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbum_dicendihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaratory_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxiliary_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tense7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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CHAPTER NO.6
iv. JUBA ARABIC
i. Concepts:
Juba Arabic is the name given to an Arabic-based variety spoken
mainly in the southern part of the Sudan and more precisely in
Juba, the capital city of the Equatoria region. There are indications
that the Arabic varieties spoken in the other southern regions (Bahr
al Ghazal and Upper Nile) are dialectally distinctive.1
ii. Introduction:
Juba Arabic is a lingua franca spoken mainly in Equatoria
Province in South Sudan, and derives its name from the
town of Juba, South Sudan. It is also spoken among
communities of people from South Sudan living in towns in
Sudan. The pidgin developed in the 19th century, amongdescendants of Sudanese soldiers, many of whom were
forcibly recruited from southern Sudan. Residents of other
large towns in South Sudan, notably Malakal and Wau, do
not generally speak Juba Arabic, tending towards the use of
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Arabic closer to Sudanese Arabic, in addition to local
languages.2
Juba Arabic is a lingua franca spoken mainly in Equatoria
Province in Southern Sudan, and derives its name from the town ofJuba, Sudan. It is also spoken among communities of people from
south Sudan living in towns in Northern Sudan. The pidgin
developed in the 19th century, among descendants of Sudanese
soldiers, many of whom were forcibly recruited from southern
Sudan. Residents of other large towns in southern Sudan, notably
Malakal and Wau, Sudan, do not generally speak Juba Arabic,
tending towards the use of Arabic closer to Sudanese Arabic, inaddition to local languages.
3
The relation between language and ethnic identity have been
the focus ofhundreds of sociolinguistics studies. While a trend tends
to emphasize the major roleof language in maintaining distinctive
collective entity, another trend tends to qualify the role of language
accordingto historical and social context. Giles & al. (1977)have
defined the concept of Ethnolinguistic Vitality (E.V.) as the
sociostructuralfactors (i.e. demography, status and institutional
support) that affect a group's ability tobehave and survive as a
distinct linguistic entity.4
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iii. Juba Arabic Verbs and Phrases.5
Akider Able/canIta bi akiderruwa You can go
Aannaakiderligodukan de We were able to find the shop.
Jon bi akidersaiduita John can help you
Ana ma bi akidersaiduita I cannot help you
Amulu Do
Itagiamulusunubukura? What are you doing tomorrow?
Itakun bi amulusunu, hasa? Now, what will you do?
Mata amuluayihaja le uwo. Do not do anything to him/her/it.Ana bi amulusunu? What can I do?
Ita bi amulusunu le umon? What will you do to them?
Ana ma bi amuluiyihaja le ita? I wont do anything to you.
Aannaamulu be dur We did it purposely
Asalu Ask
Aannaasaluumonashankedeja. We asked them to come.
Ana bi asaluuwobaadsuwiya. I will ask him after awhile.
Jon asalusunu min ita.? What did Peter ask from you?Ana giruwaasaluumon ma kalam de. I am going to ask
themaboutthis.
Ana der asaluitasual? I want to ask you a question.
Itagiruwaasalumunu? Who are you going to ask
Asurubu Drink
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Aannaasurubuleben We drank some milk
Ana giasurubumoyo. I am drinking some water.
Uwo ma giasurubumerisa. He does not drink alchohol.
Juba Arabic Verbs and Phrases. 5
iv. Conclusion;
Juba-Arabic is now considered as part of the cultural heritage of the
South. It has been localized, vernacularized and
consideredappropriate to symbolize a 'Southern identity'. However,
Juba Arabic is not spoken inisolation. It has links with both African
vernaculars and Colloquial Arabic. All these languages are part of
the linguistic environment of the Southern communities. The
'literary' use of Juba Arabic in drama and songs is a new
development in the culturalarena of Khartoum. It does not indicate
necessarily that Juba Arabic will remain themain Arabic variety
spoken by Southerners. In fact daily speeches are far
moreinfluenced by Colloquial Arabic.
v. References;
Catherine Miller; Catherine Miller."Juba Arabic."Encyclopedia of Arabic
Language and Linguistics. Managing Editors Online Edition: Lutz Edzard,
Rudolf de Jong. Brill Online, 2013.Reference. 22 May 2013
http://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-
linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.[citrdon May 22, 2013]
http://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.%5bcitrdhttp://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.%5bcitrdhttp://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.%5bcitrdhttp://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.%5bcitrdhttp://brillonline.nl/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/juba-arabic-COM.%5bcitrd7/28/2019 hafiz saeed and his group 786.docx
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Available at; URL:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_Arabic[citedon May
21, 2013]
Available at; URL;
http://pernille.typepad.com/uganda/2007/05/i_learned_some_.html.[citedonMay 20, 2013]
Giles, H. ;Bourhis, R.Y.; and Taylor, D.M., 1977. Towards a theory of
language in ethnic group relations.In Language, Ethnicity and Intergroup
Relations, edited by H. Giles. New York: Academic Press.
Available at; URL.http://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-
and-Phrases. [citrd on May 20,2013]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_Arabic%5bcitedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_Arabic%5bcitedhttp://pernille.typepad.com/uganda/2007/05/i_learned_some_.html.%5bcitedhttp://pernille.typepad.com/uganda/2007/05/i_learned_some_.html.%5bcitedhttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/3751607/Juba-Arabic-Verbs-and-Phraseshttp://pernille.typepad.com/uganda/2007/05/i_learned_some_.html.%5bcitedhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_Arabic%5bcited