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7/19/2014 Final Countdown for IAS Prelims 2014: Day 1 Ancient History | Halfmantr

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in Afghanistan. The civilization covered the area over 1,299,600 sq km. The following are the extreme endsof the civilization: North- Shatughai South- Malavana (Surat district of Gujarat) East- Alamgirpur (Meerut district of U.P) West- Suktagendor (on Markan coast)

1.2 Important Concepts related to Indus Valley Civilization

Although the term urban civilization is used in context of the Indus Valley Civilization, however it must benoted that out of about 1500 sites discovered till date only about 10 sites contain the urban features. Thusmajority of sites were rural. However, it was for the first time that urbanization appeared in the history of themankind in this part of the continent. Although the Indus Valley Civilization is termed as Bronze Age Civilization yet the majority and tools andimplements were made up of stone and bones. The maximum sites are found in the vicinity of Ghaggar-Hakra river system.

Iron was not known to the people of Indus Valley Civilization The decline of Indus Valley Civilization means that the sites lost their urban characters. It does not mean thatthe sites were completely destroyed. Stone was not used in building of houses in Indus Valley Civilization. The Horse was absent in case of Indus Valley Civilization. Slaves were present in Indus Valley Civilization The major reason for the presence of urban features in the Indus Valley Civilization was the long distancetrade Agriculture and not trade or crafts was the main back bone of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The society in Indus Valley Civilization was patriarchal. Cremation was the most popular way of the disposal of the dead. Indus people had knowledge of decimal and binary system The seals found were mostly square in shape and made up of steatite. Most common animal on seal was unicorn. The Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton

1.3 Theory of origin and decline of the civilization

Different scholars have different views regarding the origin and decline of the civilization.OriginInitially the scholars like M. Wheeler were of the view that the Indus Valley Civilization developed abruptly. Itwas also viewed that the Indus Valley Civilization abruptly reached to a developed phase because of itsinteraction with the Mesopotamian Civilization.However, recent researches have proved that the Indus Valley civilization developed gradually and notabruptly. Although there were extensive trade links and interaction between the Mesopotamian and IndusValley Civilization, yet the impact of the Mesopotamian civilization of the development of the latter waslimited. Thus it is now accepted that the Indus Valley Civilization developed gradually and there were variouslocal factors which paved the way for its developed phase and the impact of the Mesopotamian Civilizationon the development of the Indus Valley Civilization was minimal.DeclineThe decline of Indus Valley civilization refers to the fact that the sites lost their urban characters.There are various views by different scholars regarding the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. According


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to the conventional view the Aryans were responsible for uprooting the Indus Valley Civilization. The termsin Rig Veda referring Indra as Purandara (destroyers of Purs or castles) and the evidence of battle atHariyupiya are regarded as evidences to support this fact. However, this conventional view is refuted by themodern researches and scholars. It is because of the fact that there was a gap of about 250-300 years

between the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization and the arrival of Aryans.Apart from the conventional views the other views about the decline of Indus Valley Civilization are asfollows:

According to Robert L. Raikes the cause of decline was due to tectonic uplift theory As per Lambrick the declined took place due to change in course of river Indus. Fariservis is of the view that ecological degradation was the major cause of the decline.The exact cause behind the decline is still a controversial issue between the modern day scholars; however the plausible causes are related to the ecological imbalances.

1.4 Sites and Archaeological Finds

Harappa

6 Granaries in row, Working floors, Workmens quarters, Virgin-Goddess (seal), Cemetery (R-37, H),Stone symbols of Lingam (male sex organ) & Yoni (female sex organ), Painted pottery, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, Copper-mademirror, Vanity box, Dice.

MohonjodaroGreat Bath, Great Granery (the largest building of civilization), Assembly hall, shell strips, PashupatiMaadeva/Prtoto-Shiva(seal), Bronze Image of a nude woman dancer, Steatite image of bearded man,Human skeletons huddles together, Painted seal, Clay figures of Mother Goddess, a fragment of wowen

cotton, brick kilns, 2 Mesopotamian seals, largest number of seals, Dice. ChanhudaroCity without a citadel, Inkpot, Lipstick, Metal-workers, shell-ornament makers & bread-makers shops,Imprint of dogs paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart.

LothalDockyard, Rice husk, Metal-workers, shell-ornament makers & bead-makers shopes, Fire altars, Terracottafigurine of a horse, Double burial (burying a male & a female in a single grave), Terracotta model of a ship,Dying vat, Persian/Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Painted jar (bird & fox).

KalibanganPloughed field surface (Pre-Harappan), 7 fire altars, decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamiancylindrical seal.

BanawaliLack of chess-board or grid pattern of town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clayfigures of Mother Goddess

Dholavira

A unique water harnessing system & its storm water drainage system, a large well & a bath (giant water reservoirs), only site to be divided into 3 parts, largest Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, Astadium.

Surkotada


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Bones of horse, Oval grave, Pot burials

DaimabadBronze images

1.5 Urban Features

All the cities were well planned and were built with baked bricks of the same size The streets were laid at right angles with an elaborate system of covered drains. There was a fairly clear division of localities and houses were earmarked for the upper and lower strata of society. There were also public buildings, the most famous being the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro and the vastgranaries. Production of several metals such as copper, bronze, lead and tin was also undertaken and some remnantsof furnaces provide evidence of this fact. The discovery of kilns to make bricks support the fact that burnt bricks were used extensively in domestic

and public buildings.

1.6 Trade

The people of Indus Valley Civilization practiced both internal as well as external trade. The trade took place through barter system as there is no evidence of coins. The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluha which was the name given to the Indus region. TheSumerian texts also refer to two intermediate stations Dilmun (Bahrain) & Makan (Makran coast). Susa &Ur are Mesopotamian places where Harappan seals have been found.

There are evidences of the products from the Mesopotamian Civilization found at various sites of IndusValley Civilization. There are both literary and archeological evidences which suggest that there were trade relation betweenIndus Valley Civilization with the Mesopotamian civilization Lothal was the ancient port of Indus civilization There are evidences of the products from the Mesopotamia in the Indus Valley Civilization, however no

product (only seals) of Indus Valley Civilization has been found from Mesopotamia. This suggests that exportgoods from the Indus Valley must be of perishable kind for example grains etc. The existence of prosperous urban sites in Indus Valley suggests that balance of trade must have been in

their favor. The Himalayan sites were the chief suppliers of different medicines and similar products. There were certain areas which emerged as specialized craft centers e.g. Lothal

IMPORTS FROM Gold Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) Silver Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia Tin Afghanistan, Bihar Lapis Lazuli Afghanistan Sapphire Badak-shan Jade Central Asia Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta, Kirthar Hills Amethyst Maharashtra


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Agate, Chalcedonies Saurashtra & West India Carnelians aurashtra & West India

1.7 Religion

The people of Indus Valley didnt worship their gods in temple. No temple in fact has been discovered. Anidea of their religion can be formed from the statues & figurines found. Figures of Mother Goddess have been discovered in large numbers which indicate worship of female deity.This is a remarkable feature as the idol worship and the worship of female figures started after this during theGuptan period (300 A.D). The chief male deity was the Pasupati Mahadeva i.e. the lord of Animals (Proto-Shiva) Animal worship and tree worship were in vogue in Indus Valley. Kalibangan has evidences of fire altars The people of this age believed in life after death

1.8 Script

The script of this age has not yet been deciphered. The style of script is boustrophedon i.e. written from right to left in first line and from left to right in secondline The script is pictographic The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be 400-600 out of them about 50 are basic The inscriptions discovered are short The largest signboard discovered from Dholavira has only 10 signs The script remained unchanged for the centuries in Indus Valley this suggests that the users of script werevery few The origin of the Swastika symbol can be traced to the Indus Civilization

1.9 Polity and Society

The similarity in the pattern of town planning, standardization of weights etc suggests the presence of somecentralized authority. There is no clear-cut evidence about the nature of polity, but it seems that the rulingauthority of Indus Civilization be a class of merchants.The society of Indus Valley was highly stratified. The presence of castle in various sites and Kulli-line likestructures found at Harappa suggests the inequality prevailing in the society. The society was patriarchal innature.

2. Rig Vedic Age (1500-1000 B.C.)The source of information of this period includes the archeological evidences as well as the literary source i.e.

Rig Ved. Unlike the Indus Valley Civilization, whose script has so far not been deciphered Rig Ved is animportant source of information for this period.

2.1 Concepts about Rig Vedic Age


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Although the main source of information of this period is Rig Ved, the people of this age did not know howto read or write. Rig Ved was compiled and written during the later period. Rig Vedic society was much simple as compared to that of the Indus Valley. The main occupation of RigVedic people was cattle rearing. It was only in the later Vedic Age that they adhered to the sedentaryagriculture The houses of this period were made up of wattle and daub and the life of people was nomadic. There is no sign of urbanization during this period

The trade use to take place but was in a very rudimentary stage, unlike the case of Indus Valley Civilization. The impact of trade on the economy was negligible It was altogether a rural-tribal economy Horse and cow were the two most important animals during this period There has been no evidence of horse in the Indus Valley Civilization, however the horse was the importantanimal of this age Indira, Agni and Som were the important gods which were worshipped. There is no evidence of worship of mother goddess or proto-Shiva as in the case of Indus Valley Civilization Red ware was the most popular pottery of this period while, Painted Grey Ware was the most distinctive

In the Rig Veda, the most mentioned river is Sindhu and the most pious river is Saraswati. Ganga andYamuna were the lesser known rivers during this period The system of taxation was not developed during this period and there was no concept of property rightssince the life was nomadic Rig Vedic Aryans had the knowledge about the sea The iron and copper was not used by the Rig Vedic Aryans. It was only during the later Vedic period thatthe usage of iron started Tribal institutions like Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were important assemblies The first evidence of Varna division comes from the Purushsukta sloka in the tenth Mandal of the Rig Ved. The Varna system was present, but it was mobile. The members from the same household can adopt anyoccupation. In a hymn mentioned in the Rig Ved the narrator says: I am a bard; my father is a physician, mymother is a grinder of corn. The cow was considered as a precious asset From the names of rivers, mountains (Himvant i.e. Himalaya, Munjavant i.e. Hindukush) & ocean in RigVeda we have a clear idea of the geographical area in which Rig Vedic people lived. Rig Veda mentions 40 rivers. The Nadisukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers which include theGanges in the east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west. Sapta Sindhu comprises Sindhu & its five tributaries Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas, Parushni & Sutuadri andSaraswati.

2.2 Original home of Aryans

The location of the original home of the Aryans still remains a controversial point. Some scholars believe thatthe Aryans were native to the soil of India and some other scholars believe that the Aryans were migratedfrom outside. The following are the views of different scholars regarding the original home of Aryans:

Scholar Views about home of Aryans

Max Muller Central Asia

Dayanad Saraswati Tibet

Prof. Penka German Plains

Mayor Pamir range


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Mach W. Baltic

B.G Tilak Arctic region

Old name Modern name

Asikani Chenab

Drishadvati Ghaggar

Gomati Gomal

Krumu Kurram

Kubha Kabul

Parushni Ravi

Saraswati Sarsuti

Sindhu Indus

Sutudri Sutlej

Suvastu Swati

Vipas Beas

Vitasta Jhelum

2.3 Economy

The Aryans were in the nomadic stage of life, the cattle rearing were the primary occupation and a greatimportance was attached to herds of cattle. There was no sign of urbanization The items like leather and wool were the items of trade, but the impact of trade on the economy wasnegligible. Cows and gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange. No other coins were known. Various professions like carpenters, smiths, tanners, weavers, potters and grinders of corn were mentionedin Rig Ved Medical knowledge was developed during this period. The art of healing wounds and curing disease andsurgery were in existence.

2.4 Society The Rigvedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Shudra. However the Varna system was mobile and not rigid. The teacher and priests were called Brahamanas; rulers and administrators Rajanya; farmers, merchants and

bankers Vaishyas; and artisan and labourers as Shudras. The members from the same household can adopt any occupation. In a hymn mentioned in the Rig Ved thenarrator says: I am a bard; my father is a physician, my mother is a grinder of corn. The unit of society was family, primarily monogamous and patriarchal.

The age of marriage was 16-17 years and child marriage was not in vogue. A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (Niyoga). The women were allowed to study and they participated in wars. The women were allowed to wear the sacred thread


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Monogamy was the established practice, however there were cases of polygamy as well which werecommon The cases of polyandry were exceptional, however the practice existed There is no evidence of practices like sati or purdah Right to property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and so also inimmoveable property like land and house. Milk and its products curd, butter and ghee-formed an important part of the diet. The meat of fish, birds

and animals was eaten. The cow was deemed Aghanya i.e. not to be killed. Alcoholic drinks, Sura and Soma were consumed.

2.5 Theory of Kingship and Polity

The role of king was to lead his tribe in the war and the protection of his tribe Taxation system was not developed during this period. There was no land tax during this period as peoplewere semi-nomadic

Bali was the earliest known tax but it too was voluntary There was no officer associated with the taxation The kingship was generally hereditary The government was monarchial. Monarchy was normal but non-monarchical polities were present. The election of king is mentioned in the Rig Ved, but it was a formality only The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings): According to Rig Veda, the famous Dasrajan war was mutualstruggle of Aryans. The Dasrajan war given names of ten kings who participated in a war against Suda whowas Bharata king of Tritsus family. The battle was fought on the bank of Parushani (Ravi) and Sudas emergedvictorious.

Tribal institutions like Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana exercised the control over the king Women were not allowed to take part in Samiti

2.6 Religion

Rig Vedic period witnessed the worship of male gods unlike Mother Goddess in the case of Indus Valley. The animals and trees were not worshipped during this period. The Rig Vedic people dont believe in life after death. The mode of worship of gods was through sacrifice.

The Rig Vedic people worshiped god for the material gain and protection from the fury of nature. Theconcepts like salvation and life after death were not developed. During this period the gods worshipped were generally the personified powers of nature. Fire was sacred as it was regarded as the intermediary between man and God. The fire cult is the onlysimilarity in the religious belief of Indus Valley people and the people of this age There were nearly 33 gods. These gods were divided into three categories i.e. terrestrial, aerial and celestial. Indra, Agni, Som and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Aryans. Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort) the most important god (250 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him);

played the role of warlord and considered to be rain god. Agni The second most important god (200 Rigvedic hymns are devoted to him); fire god considered to bethe intermediary between the gods and the people. Varuna Personified water; supposed to uphold Rita or the natural order (Ritasyagopa). Surya (Sun) was worshiped in 5 forms : Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan & Vishnu.


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Surya (Sun) God who used to drive daily across the sky in his seven horses chariot. Savitri (the god of light)- The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her. Mitra was a solar god. Pushan was the god of marriage; main function guarding of roads, herdsmen & straying cattle. Vishnu a god who covered earth in three steps. Soma Originally a plant producing a potent drink during courses of Agnishtoma sacrifice could behemp/bhang, called king of plant; identified with the moon later. The 9th mandala of Rig Veda, which contains

114 hymns, is attributed to the Soma. Thats why it is called the Soma Mandala. Other Gods/Goddesses : Rudra (the god of animals), Dyaus (the oldest god & the father of the world),Yama (the god of the dead). Ashwin/ Nastya (the god of health, youth & immortality); Aditi (the great mother of gods), Sindhu (river goddess). The nature of Rig Vedic religion was Henotheism i.e. a belief in many gods but each god in turns standingout as the highest.

3. Vedic Literature Vedic Literature can be categorized into four sections:I. VedasII. The BrahamansIII. The AranyakasIV. The Upanishads. Vedas are called Apaurashey and Nitya i.e. not created by man but God-gifted and existing in alleternity. There are four Vedas-Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda & Atharva Veda. Of the four Vedas, the Rig Veda is one of the oldest texts in the world. The Rig veda (written in verse) contains 1028 hymns, is divided into 10 mandalas The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri. The Sama Veda (written in verse) contains 1549 hymns. All hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the RigVeda. This Ved is important for music; however it is relatively insignificant as a source of history. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri. The Yajur Veda is a ritual veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. Yajur Ved is divided into two parts-Krishna Yajur Veda & Shukla Yajur Veda. It is written in both verse& prose. The Atharva Veda the fourth and the last one, it also contains charms and spells to ward off evils anddiseases. Atharva Veda is the most important source to construct the history of the Aryans. Atharva Veda also contain the evidence of some non- Aryan practices The Brahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature. Brahmameans sacrifice. Various sacrifices and rituals have been discussed in great detail in Brahamanas. Every Veda has severalBrahmans attached to it:

The word Aranya means the forst. The Aranyaka are called forest books, because they were written mainly

for the hermits and the students living in the jungles. The Aranyaka are the concluding portions of the Brahamanas. The Upanishadas are the texts with high philosophical connotations. Upanishads are also called Vedanta i.e. end of Vedas Brihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada. The concept of life after death, for the first time appears here.


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The latest Upanishada was written during the reign of Akbar

3.1 Later Vedic Literature

Literature of the later Vedic period can be categorized into six heads:1. Vedangas2. Smritis3. Mahakavyas4. Puranas5. Upvedas6. Dharshanas Vedang means part of Vedas. They are six in number:1. Shiksha- Phonetics2. Kalpa- Rituals3. Vyakrana- Grammar 4. Nirukta- Etymology

5. Chhanda- Metrics6. Jyotish-Astrology The three texts associated with different kind of rituals are:a. Shrauta Sutras/Shulva Sutras deal with the sacrifices

b. Grihya Sutras deal with family ceremoniesc. Dharma Sutras deal with Varnas, Ashramas & other. Smiritis are related to the social conduct, laws and norms in the society. There are six famous smritis:(i) Manu Smriti (Post Mauryan Age)(ii) Yajnvalkya Smriti (Post Mauryan Age)

(iii) Narad Smiriti (Gupta period)(iv) Parashara Smriti (Gupta period)(v) Brihaspati Smriti (Gupta period)(vi) Katyayana Smriti (Gupta period)

There are mainly two Epics:I. The Ramayana written by Valmiki, it is known as Adi Kavya. At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokasi.e. verses.II. The Mahabharata composed by Ved Vyasa is the oldest epics of the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma Parvan of Mahabharata and ShantiParvan is the largest parvan of the Mahabharata. The Purana means the old. These texts describe genealogies of various royal dynasties. The Upavedas i.e the auxiliary Vedas were traditionally associated with the Vedas :

4. Religious movements (6th Century B.C)The sixth century B.C. was the age of religious unrest in the history of India. This was the time when Vedicreligion and philosophy witnessed churnings and reactions from within and without. The churning from within

the Vedic religion was in the form of Upnishads which gave a serious jolt to the cult of sacrifices; and gaveemphasis on the knowledge as a vehicle to achieve God. On the other hand Jainism, Buddhism and variousother heterodox sects emerged during this period as a reaction to the Vedic religion and philosophy.While the Upnishads philosophy was aimed to rectify the Vedic religion and thus strengthen it, the aim of


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Jainism, Buddhism and various other heterodox sects was to dismantle it.

4.1 Causes of Religious Movements

1. The religious movements were a reaction against the Vedic philosophy which had quagmire into stiff dogmas, superstitions and rituals.2. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriyas reacted against the Brahmanicaldomination. It is not just a coincidence that both Buddha and Mahavira were from ruling clans.3. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in Eastern India using iron implements resulted in availability of agrarian surplus and this gave the leisure time to people to indulge into philosophical discourses.4. The economic status of Vaishayas improved but this did not result into the improvement in their socialstatus. Thus they started patronizing the sects outside Vedic religion which could enhance their social status aswell.5. The Vedic religion gave much importance to the cult of sacrifice which involved killing of animals. By sixthcentury B.C. with agriculture becoming the mainstay of the economy, the animals like ox and other cattle

became important assets in the means of production. Thus it is not just a coincidence that Buddhism and

Jainism gave emphasis on non violence.

4.2 Buddhism

Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhismm was born, was born in 563 BC at Lumbinivana in Kapilvastu inthe Sakya Kshatriya clan. His father Suddodhana was the king of Kapilvastu and mother Mahamaya was a princess of Kosaladynasty. Mahaprajapati Gautami was the step mother of Gautama. He was married to Yasodhara (Princess of Kolli dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul. At the age of 29, he renounced home this was his Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth) and became awandering ascetic. His first teacher was Alara Kalama. Another teacher was Udraka Ramputra. At the age of 35 under a pepal tree at Uruvella ( Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river Niranjana (modern nameFalgu) attained Nirvana (enlightern-ment)after 49 days of continuous meditation Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (Dear park) to his five deciples, this is known asDharmachakra Pravartana (Turning of the wheel of law). Ananda and Upali were his famous disciples.

Sujata was the farmers daughter who gave him rice milk at Bodha Gaya He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar. This is known as Mahaparinirvana Eight great places associated with Buddhism are Lumbini, Sarnath, Sravasti, Rajgriha, Bodh Gaya,Kushinagar, Sankisa and Vaishali. Patliputra is not associated with Buddha Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhism, called 3rd Buddhist council & sent mission comprises of his sonMahendra & his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka. Palas of Bengal & Bihar were last great patrons of Buddhism

Buddhist Architecture(i) Stupa Relices of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved.(ii) Chaitya Prayer hall(iii) Vihara Residence of monks and ascetics

4.3 Doctrine of Buddhism


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Four Noble Truths1. This world is full of sufferings2. Desire is the root cause of sufferings3. The cessation of sufferings is attainable4. The cessation of sufferings can be attained by following the Eight Fold Path According to Buddhist philosophy the ultimate aim of life is to attain nirvana, the eternal state of peace and

bliss, which means liberation from the cycle of birth and death

According to Buddhist philosophy the world is momentary The interesting fact about Buddhist philosophy is that while it believes in cycle of birth and death it does not

believe in the concept of soul The Middle Path of Buddhism states that man should avoid both extremes Triratna i.e. Three Jewels of Buddhism arei. Buddhaii. Dharmaiii. Sangha

4.4 Buddhist literatureMilindapanho (i.e. Questions of Milinda): A dialogue between Milinda (identical with Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint Nagasena is the only text in Sanskrit.Pali Texts1. Tripitaka: Pitaka literally means basket and it was called so, because the original texts were written on

palm-leaves and kept in baskets. Tripatika refers to three commentaries, these are as: Sutta Pitaka It contain the sayings of Buddha. It contains the five groupsi. Dighgha Nikaya

ii. Majhim Nikayaiii. Sanyukta Nikayaiv. Anguttar Nikayav. Kshudraka Nikaya Vinay Pitaka It contain the monastic code, the most important is Patimoksha Abhidamma Pitaka It consists of the religious and metaphysical discourses of Buddha2. Dipavamsha & Mahavamsha The great chronicles of Sri Lanka.3. Visshudhimagga by Buddhagosha

4.5 Buddhist councilsFirst CouncilThe first Buddhist council was held at Rajgriha in 483 B.C. under the patronage of Ajatshatru. It took place

just after the death of Lord Buddha. The compilation of Sutta Pitak and Vinay Pitak took place during thiscouncil.Second CouncilIt took place after 100 years of the death of Lord Buddha i.e. 383 in B.C. It took place in Vaishali under the

patronage of king Kalashoka, it was presided by Sabakami. The schism took place in this council on the issueof rules and discipline. As a result two groups, Mahasanghika and Therivadi (Sthavirvadin) were formed.Third CouncilIt took place in Patliputra under the patronage of Ashoka. It was presided by Mogliputta Tisa. It is alsoknown as the council of Therivadins. Katthavattu was added to the Abhidhama Patika during this council.However, none of the Ashokan inscription gives us the information about the council.


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Fourth CouncilIt was held in Kundalgrama in Kashmir. The president of the council was Vasumitra and the vice presidentwas Ashvagosha. Mahavibhasha, the doctrine of Sravastivadin was written in Sanskrit in copper plate andenclosed in the stone boxes.During this council the two sects of Buddhism i.e. Hinayana and Mahayana were formed officially.

4.5 Sects of Buddhism

The three sects of Buddhism are Hinayana, Mahayana and VajrayanHinayana(i) Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.(ii) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.(iii) Followers of this do not believe in idol-worship and historicity of Buddha.(iv) This sect treat Lord Buddha as a teacher and not as God(v) The literature of this sect is mainly in Pali.(vi) It is known as Southern Buddhist Religion, because it prevailed in the South of India, e.g. Sri Lanka,

Burma (Myanmar), Syam (Thailand), Java etc.(vii) There were two sub sects of Hinayana i.e. Vaibhasika and Sautantrika.Mahayana(i) Its followers believed in the historicity of Buddha.(ii) They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha & Bodhisatva(iii) This sect believes in idol-worship.(iv) This sect treat Buddha as God(v) The literature of this sect is compiled in Sanskrit language.(vi) It is known as Northern Buddhist Religion, because it prevailed in the North of India, e.g. China,

Korea, Japan, etc.(vii) There were two sub sects of Mahayana1. Madhyamika or Shunyavada: Founded by Nagarjuna2. Yogachar or Vijananavada: Founded by Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga.Vajrayana(i) Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power i.e. Vajra.(ii) The sect developed in Tibet(iii) The sect believe in worship of female deities(iv) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.(v) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

4.6 Jainism

Facts related to Mahaviras life: Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundgrama near Vaishali in Bihar. His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jnathrika Kshtriya clan under Vajji of Vaishali and his mother Trishala was the sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, who had married Chellana, the daughter of Chetaka. Mahavira was married to Yashoda and their daughter was Anonja Priyadarshini whose husband Jamali,

became the first disciple of Mahavira. At the age of 30, after the death of his parents, he renounced his family, became an ascetic and proceededin search of truth.


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He was accompanied by Makkhali Gosala, but later due to some differences Gosala left him and foundedAjivika sect. At the age of 42, under a sal tree at Jimbhikagrama on the bank of river Rijupalika, Mahavira attainedKaivalya. From then he was called Kevalin (perfect learned), Jina or Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses),

Nrigrantha (free from all bonds), Arhant (blessed one) and Mahavira (the brave) and his followers werenamed jain.

He delivered his first sermon at Pava to his 11 disciples also known as 11 Gandharas. Later, he founded aJain Sangha at Pava. At the page of 72 in 468 BC, he passed away at Pavapuri. 36 republics celebrated his salvation The two sects Shvetambaras (white clad) & Digambaras (sky-clad).The schism in JainismIn 298 BC, there was a serious famine in Magadha (South Bihar) leading to a great exodus of many Jainmonks to the Deccan and South India (Shravanbelgola) along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya.They returned back after 12 years. The leader of the group, which stayed back at Magadha was

Sthulabhadra. When the Jains (Bhadrabahu & others) returned from South India, they held that completenudity be an essential part of the teachings of Mahavira, while the monks in Magadha began to put on whiteclothes. As a resut two sects were formed:1. Shvetambaras (i.e. those who put on white robes) under the leadership of Sthulabhadra2. Digambaras (i.e. those who were stark naked) under the leadership of Bhadrabahu.

Three Jewels of Jainism1. Right faith2. Right knowledge3. Right conductFive Vows of Jainism1. Ahimsa (non-injury)2. Satya (non-lying)3. Asteya (non-stealing)4. Aparigraha (non-possession)5. Brahmacharya (chastity).The first four vows were laid down by Parshwanath. The firth one was added by Mahavira.

Instruments of Knowledge

1. Mati Jnana- Perception through activity of sense organs, including the mind2. Shruta jnana- Knowledge revealed by scriptures3. Avadhi jnana- Clairvoyant perception4. Manahparyaya jnana Telepathic knowledge5. Keval jnana- Temporal knowledge or Omniscience.

Jain philosophy1. Rejected the authority of the Vedas and Vedic rituals.2. The Kalpa Vriksha is associated the Jain philosophy3. God is not responsible for the creation of this world4. The world is eternal and universe cannot be destroyed5. Jain philosophy is close to Sankhya philosophy6. They believe in soul.7. They believe in emancipation of soul by penances


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8. They believe is cosmic cycles9. Did not believe in the existence of God.10. Believed in Karma and the transmigration of soul.11. Laid great emphasis on equality.12. The Saptabhani or Sayavad or Anekantvada philosophy is associated with JainismJain literature1. The original language of associated with the language of Mahavira is Aradhmagdhi.

2. The oldest texts associated with Jainism are called Purvas, they were 14 in number.3. The literature is written in both prose and verse4. The other important texts are(i) 12 Angas(ii) 12 Upangas(iii) 10 Parikarnas(iv) 6 Chhedasutras(v) 4 Mulasutras(vi) 2 Sutra-Granthas.

Jain CouncilsThe first councilThe first council was held at Patliputra in 367 B.C under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. This council was

patronized by Chandragupta Maurya. In this council 11 Angas were compiled. The 12th Anga namedDrishtivada was declared lost.The second councilIt was held at Mathura and was presided over by Aryaskandilya.The third councilIt took place in 455 A.D. at Vallabhi and was presided over by Devaradhi Kshamarasana. In this council theliterature was given a written form.Royal Patrons of Jainism1. Nandas; Bimbisar, Ajatshatru and Udayin (Harayanak dynasty)2. Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Samprate (Mauryan dynasty)3. Pradyota (Avanti)4. Udayan (Sindhu Sauvira)5. Kharavela (Kalinga).6. Ganga Dynasty7. Kadamb Dynasty8. Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta Dynasty).9. Siddharaj Jai Singh and Kumarpala (Chaulikya / Solanki) were the last great patrons of Jainism

5. Mauryan Age (322 185 B.C.)

5.1 Sources of information about Mauryas

Literary sources1. Kautilyas Arthasastra2. Megastheneses Indica3. Visakha Dattas Mudra Rakshasa: although it was written during Gupta Period, it describes how


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Chandragupta Maurya get Chanakyas assistance to overthrow the Nandas.4. Puranas5. Buddhist text Jatakas potrays a general picture of socio-economic conditions of Mauryan Period.6. Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by Ashoka in spreadinBuddhism to Sri Lanka.7. Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts to spread Buddhism

Archaeological Sources1. Punch mark coins2. Wooden palace of Chandragupta Maurya3. Northen Black Polished Ware (NBPW)4. Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions: There are Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts and Cave inscriptions located atseveral places in the Indian sub-continent.5. Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman6. Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription in Gorakhpur district7. Mahasthan Inscription in Bogara district of Bangladesh.8. Inscription from Taxila informs about the officer name Romeodeto

Ashokan EdictsAshokan inscriptions were unearthed from 45 places. They are 150 in number. They are expressed in 181versions.All pillar edicts are carved out of Chunar hills and from there they were dispatched at different places.

Language of EdictsThe inscriptions are mostly in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. In North western region they are written inPrakrit language and Khroshti and Aramaic script.

In Afghanistan they are written in Aramaic script and Greek language.At Sabhazgarhi and Manshera the script is KhroshtiAt Kandhar, the edicts found are bilingual.At Yerraguddi, the minor rock edict has been recorded in Boustrophedon.

Contents of Major Rock Edicts1. Prohibition of animal sacrifices & festive gatherings.2. Measures of social welfare, medical mission sent everywhere.3. Respect to Brahamanas. Mention about Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradeshika4. Courtesy to relatives, elders, consideration for animals.5. Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras & their duties.6. Need for efficient organization of administration (orders to Dhamma Mahamatras).7. Need for tolerance among all religious sects. All sects dwell in peace.8. System of Dhamma-yatras.9. Attack on meaningless ceremonies & rituals.10. Conquest through Dhamma instead of war.11. Explanation of Dhamma-policy.12. Appeal for tolerance among all religious sects.13. Kalinga war, mention five contemporary Hellenic (Greek) kings.

14. Inspiration to spend religious life.15. 1st separate Rock edict at Dhauli talks about All subjects are my children.

5.2 Origin of the Mauryas


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Buddhist text describe them as Kshatriyas, according to Mahaparinirvan Sutra Mauryas were Kshatriyas of Pipalvhan. They were also associated with the Mora tribe associated with peacock tamers. According to Jaina texts Mauryas were neither of higher nor of lower origin The Puranas and Bhramanic literature describe them as Shudras. Mudrakshasa of Vishakhadatta uses the terms like Vrishal or Kulhina Justin describes Chandragupta only as a man of humble origin. The Junagarh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (150 AD) has some indirect evidence, which suggest that

the Mauryas may have been of Vaishya origin.

Chandragupta Maurya (322298 B.C.)

Chandragupta dethroned the last Nanda ruler Dhananand, he first captured the region of North West Apianus tells us that in 305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Selecus Nikator at the bank of river Indus,who surrendered a vast territory including Aria (heart), Arachosia (Kandhar), Gedrosia (Baluchistan) &Paropanisade (Kabul), in return for 500 elephants. After the treaty with Selecus Nikator, the boundary of empire reached up-to Hindukush. Megasthenese was a Greek ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Selecus Nikator. Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, Sravanbelgola (Karnataka) with Bhadrabahu,where he died by slow starvation. Under Chandragupta Maurya, for the first time, the whole of Northern India was united.

Bindusara: (298 273 B.C.) Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. He is known by different names like Madrasar, Simhasena and Amitrochates According to Smith and Lama Taraknath, Bindusara conquered the land between the two seas. King of Syria Antiochus I sent his ambassador Diamakus to the court of Bindusar. Antiochus I asked for

sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist. Wine and figs were sent but sophists were not. Bindusara patronized Ajivika sect. Pingalvastava was the astrologer in the court of Bindusar.

Ashoka The names of Ashoka from different sources are as:Ashoka Maski minor rock edict.Devanampriyas Ashoka Rajas Gurjara minor rock edictRaja Ashoka Nittur minor rock edictRaja Ashoka Dewanampiya Udegolum minor rock edictPiyadassi Raja Magadh Bhabru-Bairat minor rock edictPiyadassi Raja Barabar cave inscriptionPiyadassi Kandhar major rock edictAshoka Maurya Rudradamans Junagarh rock edictAshoka Vardhan Puranas.

According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa,the youngest one. This war of succession accounts for interregnum of four years (273-269 BC), and only after securing his

position on the throne, Ashoka had himself formally crowned in 269 BC. Radhagupta a minister of Bindusara helped him in fratricidal struggle and capture throne Fa-Haien called him Chanda Ashoka Puranas calls him Ashokavardhan In Puranas Ashoka is mentioned as any other ordinary king


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According to Huien Tsang, Ashoka founded Srinagar The queens of Ashoka were Assandhimitta, Kaurvaki and Padmavati. Devi was his first love but she never got the status of queen. Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the sub-continent,leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control. Ashoka fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC in 9th years of his coronation. The King was moved by massacrein this war and therefore abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest.

According to the Ashokan rock edict the Bherighosa was replaced by Dhammaghosa. Ashoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas, and five states ruled by Greek kings (Antiochus II, Syrina; Alexander, Epirus). We also know that he sent missionaries to Ceylon (SriLanka) and Suvarnbhumi (Burna) and also parts of South-East Asia.

Ashokan Dhamma Ashokas Dhamma was different from Buddhism. Dhamma propagated the tenets of tolerance as well asmoral and ethical conducts. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order as with the expansion of Mauryan Empire the

population had become heterogeneous, diverse and multi-racial. It ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks and showmercy to slaves and servants. He held that if people behaved well they would attain Swarga (heaven).

Later Mauryas (232 185 B.C.)

The Mauryan dynasty lasted for about 137 years. The three Mauryan rulers ruled for 90 years and later Mauryas for only 47 years Ashokas death was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts-Western and Eastern.

The Western part came to be ruled by Kunala and then by Samprati for a short while. Eastern part came to be ruled by Dasaratha. The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BC by his commender-in-chief, PushyamitraSunga, who established his own Sunga dynasty.

5.3 Mauryan administration

The Mauryan government was a centralized bureaucracy with king as fountainhead of all the powers.However, he was assisted by the council of ministers i.e. mantri parishad.

The Mauryan administration was highly centralized, the officers even up to the lowest level were appointed by the centre and these officers were accountable to the centre. According to Kautilya/ Chanakya, there are 7 elements of states (Saptanga theory)- Raja (the king),Amatya (the secretaries), Janapada (territory), Durg (fort), Kosha (the treasure), Sena (Army) and Mitra(Friend). The state during this period actively took part, as well as regulates the trade and commerce. The officers were paid salary in cash

Important Officials during Mauryan periodIn 2nd, 3rd and 4th Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka, there are references of officers. Arthashastra and Indicaalso throw light on the officers in Mauryan age. These texts mention about 18 tireths (ministers) and 23(adhyakshas) heads.

Local and Municipal Administration:


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The provinces were divided into districts which were known as Vish or Ahara The three officials mentioned in Ashokan edicts i.e. Yukta, Rajjuka and Pradeshika were associated withthe district administration The Gramika was the head of village Nagaraka was the chief officer responsible for the law and order in the city. Kautilya devotes a full chapter to the rules of the Nagarak i.e. city superintendent. His chief duty wasmaintenance of law and order.

The municipal administration of the cities was excellent during Mauryan period. Megasthenese gives an account of the committee system of administering the municipalities in the cities.There were 6 committees of five members each. The functions of these six committees were:1. Industrial Arts2. Entertainment of Foreigners3. Registration of Births & Deaths4. Trade & Commerce5. Public sale of manufactured goods

6. Collection of taxes on the articles sold

Army The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintenance of a huge army. Kautilya permitted all the four varnas to serve in the army According to Pinly, Mauryas maintained an army of six lakh soldiers. Mauryans also maintained a Navy. In the Mauryan period, there were two types of Gudhapurushas (detectives) Sansthan (stationary) andSanchari (wandering).

Economy State took active participation in economy Shudras were involved in agriculture for the first time Crown land was called Sita There were provisions for irrigation by the state The normal taxation rate was one sixth of the produce The weight and measures were regulated by the states Tolls were also levied on commodities brought to town for sale and they were collected at gate. The state enjoyed monopoly in mining, forest, salt, sale of liquor, manufacture of arms etc.

Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.) copper plate inscription & Mahasthana (Bogara district, Bangladesh)inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted during a famine.

Previous Year Questions

Indus Valley Civilization

Ques 1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (2011)

1.) It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate thescene.2.) During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?a) 1 only


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b) 2 onlyc) Both 1 and 2d) Neither 1 nor 2Ans. cExp: Both the statements about the Indus Civilization are true. First, the Harappans, though had their ownreligious beliefs as evident from archaeological evidence, did not religion to dominate their public life. Second,they were probably the first in the world to produce cotton.

Ques 2. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer: (2002)List (Ancient site) List II (Archaeological finding)A. Lothal 1.) Ploughed fieldB. Kalibangan 2.) DockyardC. Dholavira 3.) Terracotta replica of a ploughD. Banawali 4.) An inscription comprising ten large size3d signs of the Harappan scriptCodes:A B C Da) 1 2 3 4

b) 2 1 4 3c) 1 2 4 3d) 2 1 3 4Ans. bExp: Lothal is the only Indus site with an artificial brick dockyard. It must have served as the main seaport of the Indus people. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall, probably as flood protection, Lothal hasevidence for the earliest cultivation of rice (1300BC). The only other Indus site where rice husk has beenfound is Rangpur near Ahmedabad. Fire altars, indicating the probable existence of a fire cult, have beenfound. A doubtful terracotta figurine of horse is found here.Kalibangan has pre Harapan as well as Harrapan phases. There is evidence of mud-brick fortification.pre-Harrapan phase here shows that the fields were ploughed unlike the Harappan period, Archaelogists havediscovered two platforms (within the citadel) with fire altars suggesting the practices of cult sacrifice. Wheelconveyance also existed here as a cartwheel having a single hub is found here.Dholavira is the latest and one of the two largest Harappan settlements in India, the other being Rakhigarhi inHaryana. The other Harrapan towns were divided into citadel and the lower town, but Dholavira was dividedinto three principal divisions two of which were strongly protected by rectangular fortifications. There are twoinner enclosures the first are hemmed in the citadel (which probably housed the highest authority) and thesecond one protected the middle town (meant for the close relatives of the rulers and other officials). The

existence of middle town apart from lower town is the real exclusive feature of the city. An inscriptioncomprising ten large sized signs of the Harappan script has been found here.Banawali also saw two cultural phases Harappan and Pre-Harappan like Kalibangan, Amri, Kot Diji andHarappan. Human and animal figures, clay bangles and statue of mother Goddess are found here. Largequantity of barley, seasum and mustard have been found here. Terracotta replica of plough is also found.

Ques 3. Which one of the following animals was not represented on the seal and terracotta art of theHarappan culture? (2001)a) Cow

b) Elephantc) Rhinocerosd) Tiger Ans. aExp: The chief male deity in Harappan Period was the Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva), represented in


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seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded byfour animals elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo, each facing a different direction, and two deer appear at hisfeet.

Ques 4. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of (2012)a) Bhakti

b) Image worship and Yajnas

c) Worship of nature and Yajnasd) Worship of nature and BhaktiAns. c

Ques 5. The dharma and rita depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India. In this context,consider the following statements: (2011)1.) Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of ones duties to onself and to others.2.) Rita was the fundamental moral governing the functioning of the universe and all it contained.Which of the statements given above is/are correct?a) 1 only

b) 2 onlyc) Both 1 and 2d) Neither 1 nor 2Ans. cExp: Both the statements about the Vedic Civilization are true. First, the term dharma meaning law requireseveryone to be dutiful and law-abiding, and in course of time developed into the Varnashrama Dharma.Second, the term rita meaning cosmic order required nature and morality to function properly. The Vedicgod Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of this rita.

Ques 6. What does Baudhayan theorem (Baudhayan Sulva Sutras) relate to? (2008)a) Lengths of sides of a right angled triangle

b) Calculation of value of pic) Logarithmic calculationsd) Normal distribution curveAns. aExp: Baudhayan Sulv Sutra (1000 BC) is today known as the Pythogorus theorem, which states that in aright-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. InBaudhayan theorem, this has been expressed as follows: in a Deerghchatursh (triangle), the chetra (Square) of rajju (hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of squares of the parshvamani (base) and triyangmani (perpendicular line).

Ques 7. Which one of the following Vedas contains charms and spells? (2004)a) Rig-veda

b) Yajur-vedac) Atharva-vedad) Sama-vedaAns. cExp: Rig Veda is a collection of 1028 hymns of a member of priestly families. It is divided into 10 Mandalas

or books. Books II to VII are considered the oldest. Book I, VIII and X seen to be later additions. It iswritten between 1700BC-1500BC when Aryans were still in Punjab. Books II to VII are also called asfamily books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeva, Atri, Bhardwaj, Vashistha, Kanvaand Angiras. The IX Mandala is dedicated exclusively to Somma. The X Mandala contains the famous


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Purushukta hymn that explains the origin of four Varnas.Sam Veda has its root in Saman which means a melody. It is thus a collection of melodies. Its a collection of 1603 hymns. Except 99, all others were derived from Rig Veda.Yajurveda is ritualistic in nature and is divided into Shukla Yajurvda and Krishan Yajurveda. It is written in

prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices and contains rituals as well as hymns.Atharva Veda is collection of 711 hymns and is divided into 20 Kandas. It contains magical charms, spellsand folk traditions. Atharva Veda is book of magical formula. It contents throws light on the practices of

Non-Aryans. Atharva Veda is the latest veda.

Ques 8. The term of Aryan denotes (1999)a) An ethnic group

b) A nomadic peoplec) A speech groupd) A supporter raceAns. cExp: They are called Aryans after their language.Pre Maurya

Ques 9. Between which of the following was the ancient town of Takshasila located? (2006)a) Indus and Jhelum

b) Jhelum and Chenabc) Chenab and Ravid) Ra vi and BeasAns. aExp: Taxila is located in Western Punjab, 20 kms north-west of Ravalpindi and was a centre of education inancient India. Science of Medicine and Surgery were taught at Taxila University. Panini and Kautilya studied

here. The master of Ayurveda, Kumar Jeev and Jeevak were the alumni of this University, Ambhi, who alliedwith Alexander the Great had his capital at Taxila.

Ques 10. Who among the following was not a contemporary of the other three? (2005)a) Bimbsara

b) Gaautama Budhac) Milindad) PrasenjitAns. c

Ques 11 . The practice of military governorship was first introduced in India by the (2000)a) Greeks

b) Sakasc) Parthiansd) MughalsAns. bExp: Military governor are called STRATEGOS.

Ques 12. Which one of the following dynasties was ruling over North India at the time of Alexanders

invasion? (2000)a) Nanda

b) Mauryac) Sungad) Kanva


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Buddhism and Jainism? (2012)1.) Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment.2.) Indifference to the authority of Vedas.3.) Denial of efficiency of ritualsSelect the correct answer using the given code below:a) 1 only

b) 2 and 3 only

c) 1 and 3 onlyd) 1, 2 and 3Ans. bExp: Jainism believed in extremism

Ques 17. Lord Buddhas image ins sometimes shown with the hand gesture called Bhumisparsha Mudra. Itsymbolizes (2012)a) Buddhas calling of the Earth to watch his meditation and to prevent Mara form disturbing his meditation.

b) Buddhas calling for the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Marac) Buddhas reminder to his followers that they all arise from Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth, and thusthis life is transitory.d) Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context.Ans. b

Ques 18. The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by (2011)a) Universal Law

b) Universal Truthc) Universal Faithd) Universal Soul

Ans. aExp: The Jain philosophy is dualistic in nature, holding that the world consists of two eternal, uncreated,coexisting but independent categories, viz, jiva and ajiva. There is no separate Creator or Preserver, exceptthe Universal (Natural) Law.

Ques 19. Anekantavada is a core theory and philosophy of which one of the following? (2009)a) Buddhism

b) Jainismc) Sikhismd) VaishnavismAns. bExp: Anekantavada means that there are several aspects of truth. This is the core doctrine of Jainism.

Ques 20. With reference to ancient Jainism, which of the following statements is correct?(2004)a) Jainism was spread in South India under the leadership of Sthulabahu

b) The Jainas who remained under the leadership of Bhadrabahu were called Shvetambaras after the Councilheld at Pataliputrac) Jainism enjoyed the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharavela in the first century BC.d) In the initial stage of Jainism, the Jainas worshipped images unlike Buddhists

Ans. cExp: By the end of fourth century BC there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley leading to a greatexodous of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India (Sravana Belgola) along with Bhadrabahu andChandragupta Maurya. They returned to Gangetic valley after 12 years. The leader of the group which stayed


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back at Magadh was Sthulbahu. Sthulbahu was the leader of the Swetambaras. Jainism worshipped images inits later phase. Swetambars were more liberal and supporters of change than Digambers.

Ques 21. Consider the following statements: (2003)1.) Vardhaman Mahaviras mother was the daughter of LIchchhavi chief Chetaka.2.) Gautama Buddhas mother was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty.3.) Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, belonged to Benaras.

Which of these statements is/are correct?a) Only 1

b) Only 2c) 2 and 3d) 1, 2 and 3Ans. cExp: Vardhaman Mahavira was born in 540 BC at Kundagrama near Vaishali. Siddhartha was his father,Trisala his mother was the sister of Lichchhavi Chief Chetaka, Yasoda was his wife and Jameli was thedaughter. Mahavira attained Kaivalya at Trimbhikagrama in eastern India at the age of 42. He died at the ageof 72 in 468BC at Pavanpuri near Rajgriha. Mahavira was also called Jina or JItendriya and Nirgrantha.Gautama Buddha was also known as Siddhartha, Sakyamuni and Tathagata. He was born in 563BC atLumbini, near Kapilavastu, capital of the Sakya republic. He left home at the age of 29 and attained Nirvanaat the age of 35 at Both Gaya and delived his first Sermon at Sarnath. He attained Mahaparinirvana atKushinara in 483 BC. Gautam Buddhas mother was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty.Parshvanatha was the twenty third Tirthankara fo Jains and belonged to Benaras. Mahavira was the twenty-fourth Tirthankara while Rishabhdev was the first Tirthankara.

Ques 22. In ancient Indian Buddhist monasteries, a ceremony called Pavarana used to be held. It was the(2002)

a) Occasion to elect the Sanghaparinayaka and two speakers. One of Dhamma and the other on Vinaya b) Confession by monks of their offence committed during their stay in the monasteries during the rainyseasonc) Ceremony of initiation of new person into the Buddhist Sangha in which the head is shaved and yellowrobes are offeredd) Gathering of Buddhist monks on the next day to the fullmoon day of Ashadha when they take up a fixedabode for the next four months of rainy seasonAns. b

Ques 23. A: The emphasis of Jainism on non-violence (ahimsa) prevented agriculturalists from embracingJainism.R: Cultivation involved killing of insects and pests. (2000)Ans. aExp: There were five main teaching of Jainismi) Non-injury (ahimsa)ii) Non-lying (Saryai)iii) Non-stealing (Asateya)iv) Non-possession (aparigraha)v) Observe continence (Brahmacharya)The first four principles are of Parsavanath and the fifth one was included by Mahavira.

Ques 24. Many of the Greeks Kushanas and Shakas embraced Buddhism rather than Hindustan because(1998)


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a) Buddhism was in the ascendant at that time b) They had renounced the policy of war and violencec) Caste-ridden Hinduism did not attract themd) Buddhism provided easier access to Indian societyAns. d

Ques 25. The concept of the Eight-Fold Path forms the theme of (1998)

a) Dipavamsa b) Divyavadanac) Mahaparinirvan Suttad) Dharma Chakra Pravartana SuttaAns. dExp: Dharma Chakra Parvartana Sutta means sermon of the turning of the wheel of law. This gives NobleEight Fold Path and also Four Noble Truths which were accepted as basic categories of all Buddhist sects.Eight fold path includes:i) Right Understandingii) Right Speechiii) Right Livelihoodiv) Right Mindfulnessv) Right thoughtvi) Right actionvii) Right effortviii) Right concentrationThe four noble truth were:i) The world is full of sorrowsii) Desire is the root cause of sorrowiii) If desire is conquered, all sorrows can be removediv) Desire can be removed by following the eight fold path.Maurya

Ques 26. The ancient Indian play Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta has its subject on (2002)a) A conflict between Gods and Demons of ancient Hindu lore

b) A romantic story of an Aryan prince of a tribal womanc) The story of power struggle between two Aryan tribesd) The court intrigues at the time of Chandragupta Maurya

Ans. dExp: The machination of Chanakya against Chandraguptas enemies are described in detail in theMudrarakshasa.

Ques 27. A: Ashoka annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire. (2000)R: Kalinga controlled the land and sea routes to south India.Ans. a

Ques 28. The following person came to India at one time or another: (1999)1.) Fa-Hien

2.) I-Tsing3.) Megasthenese4.) Hieun-TsangThe correct chronological sequence of their visits is:


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a) 3, 1, 2, 4 b) 3, 1,4, 2c) 1,3, 2, 4d) 1, 3, 4, 2Ans. bExp: Fahien (399-414 AD) was a Chinese traveller who visited India during the time of Chandra Gupta II.His main aim was the study and pursuance of Buddhist texts. He did not mention the name of Indian kings in

his descriptions of Buddhism and India. His descriptions about India are considered to be most authentic andvaluable. He wrote that people of India were prosperous and happy and India was quite rich. He also wrotethat crimes were minimum, people did not domesticate hens and pigs, did not eat onions and garlic, did notdrink wine, Chandals were socially boycotted and Buddhism was flourishing in India at that time.I-Tsing (673 to 695 AD). He was a Chinese traveller and he studied for many years at Nalanda. He wrote a

book entitled Details of Buddhism about the condition of Buddhism in India and Malaya. His descriptionsare not as detailed as that of Hieun Tsang yet they tell us about religious, social and economic condition of India and much about methodology of teaching and studying at Nalanda University.Megasthenese (305 BC to 297 BC) He spent 9 years in the court of Chandra Gupta Maurya and was an

ambassador of Selucus, the king of Babylone. He wrote the book Indica in which he gave a valuableaccount of the administration of Chandra Gupta Maurya and social and economic condition of India at thattime.Hieun Tsang (629-640 AD) He was also a Chinese traveller who visited India during Harshavardhans rule.He travelled throughout India. He stayed on the court of Harshavardhan at Kannauj, for some time. Hecompiled his experiences in the book Si-yu-ki. His description like Fahien is obsessed by religiosity, yet incomparison to Fahien his description are more factual, from historical point of view.

Ques 29. Which one of the following ancient Indian records is the earliest royal order to preserve food grainsto be utilized during the crises in the country? (1998)a) Sohogaura Copper-plate

b) Rumminidei pillar-edict of Ashokac) Prayag-Prasastid) Mehrauli pillar inscription of ChandraAns. a

Ques 30. A: According to Ashokas edicts, social harmony among the people was more important thanreligious devotion.R: He spread the ideas of equity instead of promotion of religion. (1998)

Ans. a

Ques 31. The Ashokan major rock edicts which tell us about the Sangam kingdom include rock edicts(1998)a) I and X

b) I and XIc) II and XIIId) II and XIVAns. cExp: The edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as bouldersand cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty. These inscriptions are dispersedthroughout the areas of modern day Pakistan and northern India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of oneof the most powerful kings of Indian history. According to edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during


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the period reached as far as the Mediterranean and many Buddhist monuments were created. In theseinscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as Beloved of the Gods and King Priyadarshi. The identification of king Priya-darshi with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915. The inscription found ineastern part of India were written in the magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. In the western part of India were written in language closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharosh as the script, one extract of Edict 13 inthe Greek and Aramaic. The Ashokas major rock edicts II and XIII tell us about Sangam kingdom.

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