31
Leigha Jones
Leigha'Jones'
Hand drying systems are for hygienic purposes!
Drying system!Bradley 2902
Aerix!Bradley 2870
standard!Dayton 1GVL5 standard!
EcoSoft Towel 31400!
Functional unit! 1 pair of hands!
Lifetime usage! 10 years! 10 years! 10 years! one time use!
Mass! 3.58 kg! 13.15kg! 12.34 kg! 2.83 g/sheet!
Use intensity! 17s at 1150W! 22s at 2300W! 20s at 2300W! 2 towels!
Manufacturing energy per dryer/towel!
156MJ! 156MJ! 156MJ! 14.7kJ electric, 24.4kJ gas!
Transportation!
Raw material to plant! 250km via truck!
Plant to warehouse! 10500km via ocean freighter+2600km via freight train + 24 km via truck!
249km Middletown, OH to Harrodsburg, KY!
Warehouse to washroom! 1760km via truck!687km Harrodsburg, KY to Kalamazoo,
MI!
Washroom to waste facility! 5km within Kalamazoo, MI!57km Kalamazoo, MI to Marshall, MI!
Additional lifecycles! Packaging!Packaging, dispenser, waste bin, bin
liner!
The$energy$used$during$produc0on,$transporta0on,$and$use$stages$for$hand$dryers$and$paper$towels.$Es0mates$for$manufacturing$(dryers$and$towels)$and$transporta0on$
(dryers)$taken$from$De>ng$2009,$all$other$values$were$calculated.$$
50/50 recycled paper towel has a global warming potential of 15 g of carbon dioxide,
while hot air hand dryers have a global warming potential of 19.8 g of carbon
dioxide
8.142$kWh$per$month$=$$0.68$$
21.045$kWh$per$month$=$$1.76$$
19.147$kWh$per$month$=$$1.60$$
$519.79$$
$489.40$$
$563.35$$
$115,198.00$Yearly$$
$1,656.75$(47$tons$x$$35.25=$$1,656.75)$Yearly$$
10$seconds$ 40$seconds$ 10$seconds$
254%$increase$ 77%$decrease$42%$decrease$
2516'US'adults'surveyed''55%'paper'towel'first'choice'to'dry'hands'
25%'for'jet'air'dryers'16%'hot'air'dryers'
1%'for'cloth'roller'towels'3%'were'unsure'or'did'not'select'a'preference.''
OfS'survey''10'people'paper'towel'
2'hand'dryers.
Results$
So Who Wins?
Future$Research/Sugges0ons$
• Full$LCA$of$hand$dryers$• Research$new$hand$dryers$• Research$commercial$compos0ng$systems$
• Survey$WMU$campus$of$drying$system$preference$
!!
!
Hygiene!and!Environmental!Assessment!of!Hand!Drying!Systems!
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November!2013!!
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Prepared!by!
Leigha!Jones!
Advisor!
Carolyn!Noack!
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II.#Table#of#Contents#
II.!Table!of!Contents………………………………………………………………………………………..……2!
III.!Executive!Summary………………………………………………………………………………….……..3!
IV.!Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………4!
V.!Methodology!and!Data……………………………………………………………………………………...6!
VI.!Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………7!
VII.!Limitations!of!Analysis!&!Future!Work………………………………………………………….14!
VIII.!Conclusions/Recommendations…………………………………………………………………..14!
IX.!Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………………14!
Appendix!A:!Contact!Information……………………………………………………………..14!
Appendix!B:!Reference!Contacts……………………………………………………………….15!
Appendix!C:!Bibliography………………………………………………………………………17!
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III.#Executive#Summary##
Research!has!been!published!showing!that!hand!dryers!are!more!sustainable!for!the!environment!and!cost!effective;!and!one!may!assume!that!due!to!the!technological!advances!of!hand!dryers,!hand!dryers!are!also!more!hygienic!than!paper!towels.!Yet,!that!might!not!be!so.!Recent!reports!have!been!published!proclaiming!paper!towels!the!more!hygienic!choice.!So!not!only!do!we!question!how!we!dry!our!hands!and!its!effects!on!the!planet,!but!also!must!consider!human!health!and!hygiene.!!
The!debate!on!the!relative!merits!of!paper!towels!versus!hot!air!dryers!may!appear!trivial,!but!the!issue!is!imperative!on!a!campus!filled!with!more!than!25,000!people.!Hand!drying!is!an!essential!step!of!the!hand!washing!process,!as!wet!skin!helps!spread!bacteria!(Pittet!et!al.!2006;!Jumaa!2005;!Huang,!Ma,!&!Stack!2012).!In!environments!where!people!are!vulnerable!to!the!effects!of!infection,!like!a!university,!thorough!hand!washing!and!drying!could!reduce!the!transfer!of!bacteria!and!pathogens!(Jumaa!2005;!Redway!and!Fawdar!2008;!Todd!2010).!
After!reviewing!research!in!various!categories!(hygiene,!sustainability,!cost,!noise,!skin!irritation!and!user!preference)!and!researching!the!practices!of!the!makers!of!each!drying!system!used!at!Western!Michigan!University!(WMU),!paper!towels!were!found!to!be!the!least!sustainable!and!most!costly!choice.!Here!we!define!sustainable!as!capable!of!being!continued!with!minimal!longaterm!effects!on!the!environment.!This!includes!the!least!damaging!manufacturing!process!to!the!environment:!emissions,!extraction,!manufacturing,!equipment,!and!chemicals,!etc.!Other!sustainable!practices!considered!are!means!of!distribution,!distance!of!transportation,!use!stage,!and!end!of!life!disposal.!However,!paper!towels!do!excel!in!all!other!categories!(drying!efficiency,!bacteria!removal,!user!preference,!noise,!and!skin!irritation)!compared!to!hand!dyers!on!campus!and!are!equal!with!hand!dryers!in!one!area!of!hygiene.!!!
The!most!important!lesson!to!take!from!this!research!is!to!get!into!a!regular!habit!of!washing!and!drying!your!hands!(Budisulistiorini!2009)!and!that!drying!is!an!essential!step!for!hygiene!measures!(Jumaa!2005;!Todd!et!al.!2010;!Redway!and!Fawdar!2008;!Budisulistiorini!2009).!What!Western!Michigan!University!considers!more!important,!sustainability!or!hygiene,!will!determine!the!outcome!of!this!debate.!Paper!towels!do!better!in!more!categories!than!hand!dryers;!however!hand!dryers!are!better!in!cost!and!sustainability!and!equivalent!with!paper!towels!in!bacterial!transfer.!If!a!viable!composting!system!were!available!on!campus,!then!paper!towel!would!be,!hands!down,!the!better!solution!and!would!clear!the!air!in!the!sustainability!category.!
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IV.#Introduction!
! Restrooms!across!America!have!electric!hand!dryers!with!little!plaques!that!read,!"Thanks!for!helping!us!save!trees".!However,!there!is!an!argument!disputing!the!validity!of!electric!hand!dryers!being!more!sustainable!than!paper!towel!dispensers!in!restrooms.!The!debate!between!hand!dryers!and!paper!towels!concerns!a!lot!of!factors:!convenience,!appearance,!noise,!solid!waste,!greenhouse!gas!(GHG)!emissions,!energy!consumption,!environmental!effects,!lifeacycle!cost,!bacterial!transmission/health,!etc.!!Therefore,!would!WMU!be!doing!the!planet!a!favor!by!discarding!paper!towels!and!installing!hand!dryers?!!
A!true!ecoaminded!person!would!advise!people!to!shake!off!the!excess!water,!wipe!their!hands!on!their!pants!and!be!on!their!way.!Yet,!there!are!pants!that!must!be!dryacleaned.!!Also,!wiping!water!off!onto!pants!raises!health!concerns!and!most!people!do!not!like!walking!around!with!wet!trousers.!!
All!technical!processes!and!products!affect!the!environment!directly!or!indirectly!(Tukker!et!al.!2006).!To!balance!the!benefits!of!technological!developments!while!maintaining!a!sustainable!mindaset,!with!respect!to!hand!drying!systems,!requires!an!analysis!of!the!complexity!of!environmental!impacts!of!product!systems!over!their!whole!life!cycle.!A!Life!Cycle!Assessment!(LCA)!would!suit!our!needs!perfectly.!However,!due!to!inaccessible!information,!a!LCA!hybrid!will!be!done;!essentially!a!LCA!to!our!best!capabilities.!!
A!LCA!is!a!technique!to!assess!environmental!impacts!correlated!with!stages!of!a!product's!life.!We!will!conduct!a!partial/hybrid!LCA!on!hand!drying!systems.!A!cradleatoagrave!Life!Cycle!Assessment!starts!from!resource!extraction!(cradle),!to!use,!and!disposal!phase!(grave)!(i.e.,!from!raw!material!extraction!through!material!processing,!manufacture,!distribution,!use,!repair/maintenance,!and!disposal!or!recycling).!A!full!life!cycle!assessment!will!not!be!done!in!this!report.!However,!the!key!points!in!the!life!cycle!of!these!systems,!a!partial/hybrid!LCA,!will!be!considered.!!!
!LCAs!can!help!avoid!a!narrow!outlook!on!environmental!concerns!by:!
• Assembling!a!record!of!applicable!energy,!material!inputs!and!environmental!releases.!
• Evaluating!prospective!impacts!associated!with!inputs!and!releases.!• Interpreting!results!to!make!a!knowledgeable!decision.!
A!LCA!that!follows!the!LCA!standards!of!the!International!Organization!for!Standardization!(ISO)!14040!and!14044!contains!four!main!steps:!
1. Goals!and!scope!definition!conveying!the!objective,!functional!unit,!and!regional!and!sequential!boundaries!of!the!assessment.!
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2. Inventory!analysis!entailing!the!quantification!of!energy,!water,!and!material!resource!requirements,!and!emissions!to!air,!land,!and!water!for!all!unit!processes!within!the!life!cycle.!
3. Impact!assessment!evaluating!the!human!and!ecological!effects!on!the!resource!consumption!and!emissions!to!the!environment!associated!within!the!life!cycle.!
4. Interpretation!of!results!including!an!evaluation!of!the!impact!assessment!results!within!the!context!of!the!limitations,!uncertainty,!and!assumptions!in!the!inventory!data!and!scope.!
The!environmental!assessment!conducted!here!will!adhere,!to!the!best!of!our!abilities,!to!this!standardization.!
1. Goals!and!Scope!The!objective!of!the!first!part!of!this!study!is!to!compare!the!life!cycle!
environmental!impact!of!several!handadrying!systems!on!campus!using!a!constant!basis.!The!systems!evaluated!in!this!report!are:!
1) Bradley!2902a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!hand!dryer!!2) Bradley!2870!standard!hand!dryer!3) Dayton!1GVL5!standard!hand!dryer!4) EcoSoft™!Controlled!Roll!Towels!31400!!
2. Functional!Unit!For!the!function!of!drying!hands,!it!is!possible!to!use!paper!towels!or!a!
heated!air!dryer.!The!functional!unit!would!be!defined!in!terms!of!the!number!of!pairs!of!hands!to!be!dried.!For!both!methods,!it!is!possible!to!determine!the!amount!of!paper!towel!used!or!the!energy!required!for!the!air!dryer.!Two!paper!towel!sheets!(Dimension!of!1!sheet:!11”!in.!long!x!7!¾”!in.!wide,!Weight!of!1!sheet:!2.83!g.)!and!15a20!seconds!for!air!dryers!will!be!the!material!or!time!of!energy!used!to!dry!hands.!This!data!was!chosen!based!on!measurements!of!the!EcoSoft™!Towel!31400,!preference!of!hand!towels!used!(Gregory!et!al.!2013!and!Huang!et!al.!2012),!and!range!of!all!study!hand!dryers!based!on!technical!data!provided!by!respective!manufacturers.!!
!3. System!Boundaries!
This!report!includes!all!major!stages!of!the!life!cycle.!The!United!States,!specifically!Western!Michigan!University!(WMU)!in!Kalamazoo,!MI,!is!the!region!of!focus!for!the!use!stage!of!hand!drying!systems!in!this!report.!!
Bradley!hand!dryers!are!manufactured!in!Germantown,!Wisconsin.!However,!some!components!of!the!models!may!be!manufactured!overseas;!we!assume!Asian!and/or!European!countries!would!be!most!likely,!specifically!China!and/or!Spain.!Dayton!hand!dryers!are!manufactured!in!China!and!assembled!in!the!US.!Wausau!EcoSoft™!recycled!paper!towel!is!manufactured!in!Middletown,!OH!and!distributed!
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from!Harrodsburg,!KY.!The!recycled!fiber!is!made!from!post!consumer!fiber!originating!in!the!United!States.!!
The!use!stage!impact!for!hand!dryers!is!electricity!and!maintenance.!The!paper!towel!use!stage!impact!is!towel!dispensers,!waste!bin,!liners,!cleaning!labor,!and!supply!stocking.!Cleaning!and!maintenance!are!labor!driven!activities!and!are!not!included!in!this!assessment;!yet!are!considered!important!factors!of!each!system.!!
The!end!of!life!stage!for!hand!dryers!are!recycled!under!scrap!metal!and,!currently,!paper!towel!is!disposed!of!in!a!landfill.!However,!properly!source!separated!paper!towel!may!be!composted!in!the!future!once!a!viable!composting!system!is!established!on!campus.!!
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While!a!life!cycle!environmental!impact!meets!the!needs!for!sustainability!objectives,!the!use!of!a!hand!drying!system!is!for!proper!hygiene.!!Hand!washing!has!been!deemed!the!most!important!measure!to!reduce!rates!of!infectious!disease!in!schools,!health!centers,!food!industries,!and!other!institutes!where!hygiene!is!paramount!(Redway!and!Fawdar!2008;!Pittet!2006).!The!most!healthful!procedure!for!drying!hands!should!be!an!essential!component!of!effective!hand!hygiene!procedures!and!must!be!considered!in!this!analysis.!Other!issues!to!review!for!this!report!are!user!preference,!skin!irritation,!noise,!and!cost.!A!narrative!review!of!the!evidence!on!the!effectiveness!of!hand!drying!techniques!will!suit!our!purpose!to!resolve!these!questions.!!
V.#Methodology#and#Data#
This!research!started!when!Michael!E.!Hodgkinson,!Manager!of!Maintenance!Services!at!WMU,!wrote!an!email!to!Dr.!Harold!Glasser,!Executive!Director!for!Campus!Sustainability,!concerned!about!WMU’s!direction!in!converting!paper!towel!dispensers!to!hand!dryers!in!restrooms!across!campus!in!the!name!of!sustainability.!There!was!much!research!to!be!conducted,!a!lifeacycle!assessment!specifically,!in!order!to!compare!the!positives!and!negatives!of!both!handadrying!methods!and!which!method!better!suits!WMU’s!needs!and!aspirations!towards!a!more!sustainably!minded!campus.!!
I!searched!other!LCAs!conducted!on!hand!dryers!versus!paper!towel.!The!papers!were!not!peerareviewed!and!may!be!biased!due!to!commissioning!from!Dyson,!Excel,!etc.!!
I!then!needed!to!know!which!hand!dryers!are!used!on!campus.!I!contacted!Christopher!Caprara,!Manager!in!Energy!Administration,!to!inquire.!He!replied!that!he!did!not!know!which!hand!dryers!we!had!and!that!it!would!take!some!time!to!find!the!information.!He!suggested!that!I!take!a!tour!of!restrooms!on!campus!to!learn!the!makes!and!models!of!hand!dryers.!!
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After!searching!thirteen!different!buildings!on!campus,!four!buildings!were!found!to!have!hand!dryers;!two!of!them!sharing!the!same!make!and!model.!!The!hand!drying!models!found!were!the!Bradley!2902a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency,!Bradley!2870!standard,!and!Dayton!1GVL5!standard!hand!dryers.!!
I!then!consulted!Carolyn!Noack,!Manager!of!Solid!Waste!Reduction,!about!the!paper!towels!on!campus.!Wausau!Paper!was!the!company!that!we!purchased!our!paper!towel!from.!I!located!a!box!in!the!Office!for!Sustainability’s!mechanical!room,!where!cleaning!products,!toilet!paper,!paper!towel,!etc.!are!stored!for!office!use.!I!discovered!that!WMU!purchases!EcoSoft!Controlled!Roll!Towels!31400!from!Wausau!Paper.!!
I!researched!Wausau!Paper’s!sustainability!goals!and!the!process!they!use!to!produce!paper!towels.!I!sent!an!email!to!Elizabeth!Chunglo,!Customer!Service!Representative,!asking!about!Wausau!Paper’s!source!extraction!process,!manufacturing!processes,!and!distribution.!!I!received!no!correspondence!and!dug!deeper!into!the!information!provided!on!Wausau’s!website.!!
All!of!this!research!was!directed!toward!sustainability!and!effects.!However!handadrying!methods!are!performed!for!hygienic!purposes,!therefore!hygiene!becomes!a!determining!factor!in!methods!used.!I!decided!to!add!more!to!my!research!by!reading!peerareviewed!articles!about!the!hygienic!efficacy!of!hand!drying!methods!and!other!associated!issues.!I!found!a!narrative!review!of!many!peerareviewed!studies!performed!concerning!these!topics.!I!looked!up!the!studies!discussed!in!the!narrative!review!article!and!analyzed!the!results!myself.!
VI.#Discussion#######
! Inventory!Analysis:!!
1) Bradley!2902a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!hand!dryer!!• stainless steel; satin finish • aluminum • nickel chromium wire!
2) Bradley!2870!standard!hand!dryer!• cast iron; porcelain enamel!• nickel chromium wire!• rust-free diecast aluminum!• steel grillwork
!3) Dayton!1GVL5!standard!hand!dryer!
• cast iron; porcelain enamel!• internal parts not available!
4) EcoSoft™!Controlled!Roll!Towels!31400!!• natural white • 100% recycled
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• minimum of 50% post-consumer waste (PCW)
Energy#
! A!fair!amount!of!energy!goes!into!the!manufacturing!of!metal!and!mechanical!parts!to!produce!electric!hand!dryers.!Hand!dryers!have!the!potential!to!last!between!seven!and!ten!years!(Koerner!2008),!if!properly!maintained.!The!major!impactadriving!factor!of!hand!dryers!is!due!to!electrical!consumption!when!in!use!(Gregory!et!al.!2013).!The!average!watt!usage!of!all!three!dryers!compared!in!this!study!is!1,917!watts!([(1150W!+!2300W!+!2300W)/3]!=!1,917)!when!switched!on.!If!you!dry!your!hands!for!18!seconds!(average!of!the!three!dryers’!drying!times![(15s+20s+20s)/3=!18s])!three!times!a!day!for!a!year,!then!you!use!10.5!kWh!of!electricity!every!year!([(1917W!x!5.5hrs)/1000]=!10.5kWh).!According!to!Carbonfund.org,!electricity!sources!emit!1.222lbs!CO2!per!kWh,!which!translates!into!12.8!pounds!of!carbon!dioxide!emissions!(10.5kWh!x!1.22!lbs!CO2)!per!year.!
Paper!towels!can!be!environmentally!cleaner!if!composed!of!recycled!material.!The!production!of!recycled!paper!requires!40!percent!less!energy!than!making!virgin!paper!(EPA).!It!should!be!noted,!however,!that!paper!towels!are!not!themselves!recyclable!and!end!up!in!the!trash!stream!after!a!single!use.!
Detting!conducted!a!lifeacycle!assessment!at!the!request!of!Excel!Dryer,!the!company!behind!the!XLerator,!in!2009.!The!study!took!into!account!energy!used!to!mine!raw!ores!and!to!chop!down!trees.!It!was!concluded!that!recycled!towels!consume!460!kilojoules!(0.13!kWh)!of!energy!per!use,!assuming!two!paper!sheets!per!use,!while!standard!dryers!consume!222!kilojoules!(0.06!kWh)!of!energy!per!use.!By!halving!the!consumption!of!paper!towels!from!two!sheets!to!a!single!sheet,!the!energy!expended!is!basically!nonexistent.!
The!energy!intensity!of!pulping,!the!process!of!turning!raw!timber!into!material,!is!significant!and!can!contaminate!water!near!and!downstream!of!a!paper!processing!plant!(Broten!and!Ritchlin!1999).!Recycled!paper!is!manufactured!through!a!pulping!process!and!therefore!has!the!potential!to!contaminate!water!supplies.!However,!Wausau!advocates!sustainable!principles.!Wausau!has!an!outline!of!procedures!and!goals!to!aid!them!in!source!extraction,!manufacturing,!and!distribution.!Sustainability!efforts!and!considerations!are!outlined!in!their!company’s!values!as!well.!Some!sustainable!practices!of!Wausau!are:!membership!in!the!EPA’s!SmartWay℠"program,!sustainable!management!of!more!than!100,000!acres!of!timberland,!water!use!reduction!at!factories,!elementally!chlorine!free!pulp,!reduction!in!carbon!dioxide!emissions,!and!Green!Seal!approved!products.!All!of!these!efforts!have!lowered!Wausau’s!overall!energy!use!by!over!10.6%.!!By!using!Wausau!as!WMU’s!paper!towel!provider,!the!use!stage!and!end!of!life!disposal!are!the!factors!rendering!paper!towels!the!least!sustainable!choice!based!on!the!energy!use!reviewed.!
!!!!!Table!1:!The!energy!used!during!production,!transportation,!and!use!stages!for!hand!
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dryers!and!paper!towels.!Estimates!for!manufacturing!(dryers!and!towels)!and!transportation!(dryers)!taken!from!Detting!2009,!all!other!values!were!calculated.!!
Drying system
Bradley 2902 Aerix
Bradley 2870
standard
Dayton 1GVL5
standard
EcoSoft Towel
31400 Functional unit 1 pair of hands Lifetime usage 10 years 10 years 10 years one time
Mass 3.58 kg 13.15kg 12.34 kg 2.83 g/sheet
Use intensity
17s at 1150W
22s at
2300W
20s at
2300W
2 towels
Manufacturing energy per
dryer/towel
156MJ
156MJ
156MJ
14.7kJ electric,
24.4kJ gas Transportation
Raw material to plant
250km via truck
Plant to warehouse
10500km via ocean freighter+2600km
via freight train + 24 km via truck
249km Middletown, OH to
Harrodsburg, KY
Warehouse to washroom
1760km via truck
687km Harrodsburg, KY to
Kalamazoo, MI Washroom to waste
facility
5km within Kalamazoo, MI 57km Kalamazoo, MI to Marshall, MI
Additional lifecycles Packaging
Packaging, dispenser, waste
bin, bin liner
Environmental#Impact#
Research!conducted!by!Massachusetts!Institute!of!Technology!(MIT),!looked!at!seven!handadrying!methods!commonly!used!in!public!bathrooms!and!deduced!that!the!Dyson!Airblade,!part!of!a!new!generation!of!hand!dryers!using!a!12asecond!drying!cycle,!had!the!lowest!environmental!impact!(Montalbo,!Gregory,!and!Kirchain!2011).!For!almost!all!hand!dryers,!the!majority!of!the!impact!comes!from!the!actual!usage!stage,!with!the!drying!time!and!the!energy!of!the!machine!contributing!to!the!majority!of!the!environmental!impact.!A!small!part!of!the!environmental!impact!of!the!standard!hot!air!dryer!also!comes!from!motor!spinadown!time!that!uses!energy.!
In!2009,!the!Harvard!University!Office!of!Sustainability!assessed!the!total!environmental!impact!associated!with!hand!dryers!and!paper!towels.!The!experiment!calculated!the!total!net!cost!to!manufacture,!transport,!use,!and!dispose!
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paper!towels!and!hand!dryers.!The!assessment!concluded!that!hand!dryers!used!less!natural!and!financial!resources!than!paper!towels.!Greenhouse!gasses!released!from!factory!machinery!and!log!transportation!during!manufacturing!render!paper!towels!as!an!unsustainable!choice.!The!manufacture!of!hand!dryers!emits!less!greenhouse!gasses!than!paper!towel.!Product!distribution!of!hand!dryers!is!a!oneatime!expense!as!compared!to!onagoing!paper!towel!distribution.!!
Paper!towel!emits!relatively!higher!amounts!of!greenhouse!gases!than!hot!air!dryers!(1377kg!vs.!1337kg!of!carbon!dioxide)!(Budisulistiorini!2009),!we!can!therefore!consider!this!difference!minuscule!and!negligible.!50/50!recycled!paper!towel!has!a!global!warming!potential!of!15!g!of!carbon!dioxide,!while!hot!air!hand!dryers!have!a!global!warming!potential!of!19.8!g!of!carbon!dioxide!(Montalbo,!Gregory,!Kirchain!2011).!!However,!WMU!purchases!100%!recycled!paper!towel,!which!would!lead!to!an!even!lower!global!warming!potential!for!paper!towels.!Paper!towels!and!warm!air!dryers!are!therefore!comparable!in!carbon!dioxide!releases.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
Hygiene#
Hygiene!is!broken!down!into!3!categories:!drying!efficiency,!bacteria!removal!and!bacteria!transfer!from!paper!towel!or!hand!dryers!to!the!surrounding!environment.!
Drying#Efficiency#
As!found!in!two!separate!studies,!Redway!&!Fawdar!(2008)!and!Knights!et!al.!(1993),!paper!towels!and!jet!air!dryers!are!equally!efficient!at!drying!hands.!However,!it!was!found!that!hot!air!dryers!need!40!seconds!of!drying!time!to!reach!the!same!level!of!dryness!as!the!10!seconds!it!takes!for!paper!towels!or!jet!air!dryers.!!Another!study!commissioned!by!Dyson!Inc.!also!found!in!favor!of!paper!towel!in!drying!effectiveness.!Dyson!hand!dryers!were!equivalently!effective!as!paper!towel!achieving!90%!dryness!in!10!seconds.!Warm!air!dryers!in!the!Dyson!study!took!over!4!times!as!long!to!achieve!90%!dryness.!In!the!category!of!drying!efficiency,!paper!towel!is,!hands!down,!the!winner.!
Bacteria#Removal!
!A!study!conducted!earlier!this!year,!in!part!by!Dyson!Ltd.!(Snelling!et!al.!2011),!found!that!rubbing!with!paper!towels!appeared!to!be!the!best!means!of!reducing!bacterial!loading!on!the!fingertips.!The!findings!of!the!Dyson!study!are!consistent!with!the!results!of!an!earlier!research!overseen!by!the!University!of!Westminster!in!London.!The!study!found!that!participants!who!used!paper!towel!reduced!the!number!of!bacteria!by!up!to!77!percent,!whereas!air!dryers!increased!the!number!of!bacteria!on!hands!up!to!254!percent!for!hot!air!dryers!and!42!percent!for!jet!air!dryers.!The!study!suggests!that!bacteria!in!the!air!gets!sucked!into!the!air!dryers’!ducts!and!is!then!propelled!onto!the!person’s!hands.!!
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Redway!and!Fawdar!(2008)!assessed!bacterial!removal!from!hands.!Paper!towel!were!found!to!reduce!all!types!of!bacteria.!Conversely,!hot!air!and!jet!dryers!increased!all!types!of!bacteria!on!hands.!However,!the!number!of!bacteria!was!not!as!extreme!in!jet!air!dryers!as!hot!air!dryers.!!Another!study!by!Snelling!et!al.!(2011)!found!that!drying!hands!with!paper!towel!was!the!best!method!of!removing!bacteria!from!hands,!followed!by!jet!air!dryers,!and!hot!air!dryers.!!
Bacteria#Transfer#
Three!different!studies!(Hanna!et!al.!1996;!Ngeow!et!al.!1989;!Redway!&!Fawdar!2008)!found!that!jet!dryers!disperse!hand!contamination!to!two!meters.!Paper!towels!and!hot!air!dryers!do!not!disperse!bacteria!throughout!the!restroom!and!beyond!to!the!extent!of!jet!air!dryers.!Hot!air!dryers!and!paper!towels!were!comparable!in!cross!contamination,!other!than!directly!below!the!dryer!where!hot!air!dryers!have!higher!bacterial!contamination.!!
Cost#
Hand!dryers:!Energy!use!and!cost!for!hand!dryers!will!be!determined!using!kilowattahours!for!each!of!the!three!types!of!hand!dryers!used!on!campus.!The!three!hand!dryers!used!are:!Bradley!2902a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!hand!dryer,!Bradley!2870!standard!hand!dryer,!and!Dayton!1GVL5!standard!hand!dryer.!These!hand!dryers!can!be!sent!to!a!scrap!metal!facility!when!they!have!reached!their!end!of!life.!!
Technical!specifications!and!prices!of!each!hand!dryer!were!acquired!and!averaged!from!various!dealer!websites.!The!websites!provided!material!description,!nominal!power!in!watts,!and!drying!time.!The!Bradley!2901a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!uses!a!nominal!power!of!1150!watts!and!has!a!15!second!drying!time!plus!a!two!second!delay!shutoff.!The!Dayton!1GVL5!uses!use!2300!watts!and!has!a!20!second!drying!time.!The!Bradley!2870!uses!2300!watts!and!has!a!20!second!drying!time!plus!a!two!second!delay!with!each!use.!!Operation!costs!are!calculated!with!an!estimate!of!75!people!using!a!bathroom,!daily,!in!an!academic!building!on!the!WMU!campus!during!a!oneamonth!period,!five!days!per!week.!!
E!(kWh)!=!P!(w)!x!t!(hr.)!/!1000!was!used!to!find!the!kWh!for!one!use!of!each!hand!dryer![E=energy!in!kilowatt!hours,!P=power!in!watts,!t=time!in!hours].!WMU!has!its!own!natural!gas!power!plant!located!on!Stadium!Dr.,!which!generates!energy!for!campus!use.!!A!cost!of!$0.084!per/kWh!was!determined!from!a!phone!conversion!with!Christopher!Caprara,!Manager,!Energy!Administration!at!WMU.!After!one!month,!five!days!per!week,!with!75!uses,!the!Bradley!2902a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!hand!dryer!operates!at!8.142!kWh!per!month!with!a!cost!of!$0.68.!The!Bradley!2870!standard!hand!dryer!operates!at!21.045!kWh!per!month!with!a!cost!of!$1.76.!Dayton!1GVL5!standard!hand!dryer!operates!at!19.147!kWh!per!month!with!a!cost!of!$1.60.!Average!online!pricing!per!unit!for!the!Bradley!2901a2874!Aerix!High!Efficiency!hand!dryer!is!$519.79,!the!Bradley!2807!is!priced!at!$489.40,!and!the!Dayton!1GVL5!at!$563.35.!!
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Paper!towel:!WMU!purchases!paper!towels!from!Wausau!Paper!Products.!WMU!purchases!the!EcoSoft™!line!of!paper!towels!for!hand!drying!in!campus!bathrooms,!specifically!EcoSoft™!Controlled!Roll!Towels!31400.!Wausau!is!located!in!Wisconsin!and!is!a!member!of!the!U.S.!EPA’s!SmartWay℠!Transport!Partnership.!EcoSoft™!paper!towels!are!made!from!100%!recycled!content!with!a!minimum!of!50%!postaconsumer!recycled!content;!this!exceeds!EPA!guidelines.!The!reprocessing!of!paper!fiber!requires!large!amounts!of!water.!However,!recycled!paper!still!uses!less!energy!and!water!and!results!in!less!destruction!to!landscape!than!virgin!paper!products.!!
Each!paper!towel!roll!is!8”!wide!and!800!ft.!long!weighing!4.5!lbs.!Each!roll!has!the!potential!to!dry!437!pair!of!hands!if!two!sheets!are!used!for!each!drying!(800ft=!9,600!inches,!9,600!In/22!In!(the!length!of!two!sheets)=!436.36!In).!!There!are!six!rolls!per!case!weighing!27!lbs.!The!University!purchases!3,474!cases!yearly!at!a!cost!of!$115,198.00.!Therefore!the!campus!community!generates!93,798!lbs.!or!roughly!47!tons!of!landfilled!paper!towels!each!year.!!
Using!data!from!an!ongoing!student!research!project,!waste!audits!in!the!Office!for!Sustainability!(OfS)!found!paper!towels!accumulated!to!2.5!lbs.!per!week!in!an!office!of!30a40!employees.!The!OfS!is!researching!the!feasibility!of!composting!bathroom!paper!towel!via!vermicomposting.!However,!based!on!visual!inspections!of!the!bathroom!paper!towel!compost!receptacle!in!the!OfS,!contamination!is!present!and!poses!issues!with!compost!quality!and!the!possibility!of!human!pathogens.!Paper!towels!are!not!recyclable!due!to!the!lowagrade!paper!quality.!However,!we!can!vermicompost!paper!towel!if!not!soiled!by!chemicals,!oils,!grease,!and/or!bodily!fluids;!such!contaminated!towels!are!unhealthy!for!worm!consumption!and!must!be!disposed!in!the!landfill!receptacle.!
It!is!estimated!that!16!a!20!of!the!2.5!lb.!bags!of!bathroom!paper!towel!compost!would!fill!a!two!yard!dumpster.!A!two!yard!dumpster!with!only!paper!towel!weighs!40!–!50!lbs.!WMU!owns!frontaend!loader!waste!trucks,!which!empty!all!campus!landfill!dumpsters!regularly.!The!dumping!fee!at!the!landfill!is!$35.25!per!ton!and!labor!cost!for!the!truck!driver!is!$28!per!hour,!confirmed!by!Monica!Orsolini!via!phone!2013.!A!trip!from!WMU!to!the!Orchard!Hill!Sanitary!landfill!is!80!miles!round!trip.!Yearly!dumping!fees!for!only!paper!towel!would!total!$1,656.75!(47!tons!x!$35.25=!$1,656.75).!This!cost!is!for!dumping!fees!alone,!it!does!not!include!the!$28/hr.!labor!costs!of!the!driver,!truck!fuel,!and!maintenance.!!
Other!factors!that!are!not!addressed!are!plastic!garbage!bags!and!paper!towel!dispensers;!we!assume!these!to!be!miniscule!and!insignificant.!
User#Preference#
A!2009!national!online!survey,!conducted!by!Harris!Interactive,!of!2516!US!adults!found!that!people!prefer!paper!towel!to!hot!air!dryers!for!hand!drying!methods.!55%!of!the!respondents!selected!paper!towel!as!their!first!choice!to!dry!
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hands,!followed!by!25%!for!jet!air!dryers,!16%!hot!air!dryers,!and!1%!for!cloth!roller!towels.!3%!were!unsure!or!did!not!select!a!preference.!!
In!a!quick!survey!at!an!office!meeting!in!the!OfS,!10!people!preferred!paper!towel,!while!2!preferred!hand!dryers.!!
People!may!use!paper!towels!for!more!than!drying!their!hands.!Paper!towels!are!used!to!touch!door!handles!and!water!faucets,!wipe!faces!and!spot!clean!clothing!—!tasks!that!an!air!dryer!simply!cannot!do.!Air!dryers!have!alternate!uses!as!well!such!as!drying!hair.!!
Noise!
# Redway!and!Fawdar!(2011)!conducted!a!study!examining!noise!levels!of!hand!drying!systems.!The!mean!decibel!level!of!a!jet!air!dryer!at!a!distance!of!0.5!m!(1.64!ft.)!was!94!decibels!(dB),!which!is!4!dB!louder!than!a!train!whistle!at!500!ft.!90!a!95dB!is!the!level!at!which!sustained!exposure!may!result!in!hearing!loss.!When!2!jet!air!dryers!were!used!at!the!same!time!the!decibel!level!at!a!distance!of!2!m!(6.56!ft.)!was!92!dB.!!
The!noise!level!of!a!jet!air!dryer!is!greater!than!a!hot!air!dryer.!Constant!or!frequent!noise,!especially!in!an!office,!classroom,!or!learning!space,!should!be!of!particular!concern.!!
Skin#Irritation#
! Hot!air!dryers,!when!used!frequently!and/or!excessively,!can!irritate!the!skin!on!a!person’s!hands!(Huang,!Ma!&!Stack!2012).!Also,!many!people!suffer!from!skin!sensitivity!and!even!light!to!moderate!use!of!a!hot!air!dryer!could!possibly!cause!skin!irritation.!Hot!air!dryers!can!dry!out!skin,!causing!it!to!be!excessively!dry!and!rough,!and!trigger!a!burning!sensation.!Skin!irritation!is!an!effect!to!take!into!consideration!where!hand!hygiene!practices!are!paramount.!!
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VII.#Limitations#of#Analysis#and#Future#Work#
Limitations!of!this!life!cycle!and!cost!benefit!analysis!include!the!short!notice!and!time!period!to!work!on!the!research.!It!was!difficult!to!get!email!and!phone!responses!from!company!and!sales!representatives!and!from!the!WMU!community.!A!full!life!cycle!analysis!of!hand!dryers!and!paper!towels!will!take!much!more!time!to!conduct.!As!this!research!project!began,!the!issue!of!which!is!better,!paper!towel!or!hand!dryer,!went!deeper!than!expected!into!subacategories!of!research!projects.!Acquisition!of!raw!materials!for!hand!dryers!needs!to!be!reexamined!for!a!fully!clear!life!cycle!analysis.!!
Future!work!to!be!done!is!a!full!LCA,!a!time!consuming!endeavor,!research!on!and!possible!implementation!of!a!commercial!composting!system,!and!research!on!more!sustainable!hand!dryers!that!have!low!hygiene!health!impacts.!!
VIII.#Conclusions/Recommendations!
There!is!no!straight!answer!for!when!someone!asks!which!better,!paper!towel!or!hand!dryer.!There!is!a!lot!of!research!that!must!be!done!to!properly!answer!and!is!dependent!upon!the!criteria!considered,!how!the!data!is!calculated,!and!how!they!are!weighted!in!the!final!analysis.!The!conclusion!is!not!a!one!answer!fits!all.!The!company!that!produces!the!paper!towel!or!hand!dryer!and!the!production!process,!fiber!content,!recycled!or!virgin,!where!the!hand!dryer!is!made,!of!what!materials,!how!much!it!costs,!disposal,!hygiene,!etc.!all!come!in!to!play!and!affect!the!answer.!Sometimes!a!hand!dryer!for!university!A!is!best,!while!paper!towel!suits!university!B!better.!So,!there!will!never!be!a!clear!cut!‘winner’.!One!method!may!triumph!in!fewer!categories,!yet!those!categories!may!be!more!important!to!the!values!of!the!researcher!and!the!university.!!!
My!conclusion!and!suggestions!are!to!set!up!a!commercial!composting!system!and!keep!paper!towels.!Wausau!Paper!is!an!ecologically!minded!company!that!produces!paper!products!sustainably.!WMU’s!disposal!of!these!products!is!the!issue!here.!Until!then,!hand!dryers!are!the!more!sustainable!and!cost!effective!solution.!However,!more!hygienic!hand!dryers!should!be!researched!and!put!into!service!on!campus.!The!hand!dryers!currently!in!use!on!campus!are!severe!offenders!of!hygienic!efforts!and!should!be!recycled.!!
XII.#Appendices#
Appendix!A:!Contact!Information!
Name" Phone"Number" E/mail"Leigha"Jones" (616)"318/9339" [email protected]"
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Appendix!B:!Reference!Contact!
Carolyn#Noack#
Manager!of!Waste!Reduction!Services!!
Western!Michigan!University!!
Eamail:[email protected]!!
Phone:!(269)!387a8165!!!!!
Office!for!Sustainability!
#
Steven#D#Gilsdorf#!
Director,!Building!Support!Services#
Western!Michigan!University!
Email:#[email protected]!
Phone:!(269)!387a8085!
Building!Custodial!and!Support!Services!
#
#
Christopher#Caprara#
LEED!AP!O&M!
Manager,!Energy!Administration!
Western!Michigan!University!!Eamail:[email protected]!
Phone:!(269)!364a9653!
Facilities!Management!–!Engineering!
#
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Harold#Glasser#
Executive!Director!for!Campus!Sustainability!!
Western!Michigan!University!
Email:[email protected]!!
Phone:!(269)!387a0944!
Office!for!Sustainability!
#
Elizabeth#Chunglo!
Customer!Service!Representative,!Canada,!International,!Michigan!and!Hawaii!
Wausau!Paper®!
Eamail:[email protected]!
Tollafree:!(800)!723a0008!
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Michael#E.#Hodgkinson,#CBCP##
Manager,!Maintenance!Services!!Western!Michigan!University!!
Phone:!(269)!387a8505!!
Facilities!Management!Operations/Engineering!Division!!
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Monica#Orsolini#
Budget!Analyst!!Western!Michigan!University!!
Phone:!(269)!387a8524!
Facilities!Management!!
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Appendix!C:!Bibliography!
Broten,!D.!and!Ritchlin,!J.!1999.!The!Pulp!Pollution!Primer.!Reach!for!Unbleached.!1a12.!http://www.rfu.org/navigation/Librarydocs/PulpPrimer.pdf!!
Budisulistiorini,!S.H.!2009.!Life!cycle!assessment!of!paper!towel!and!electric!dryer!as!hand!drying!method!in!the!University!of!Melbourne.!http://staff.undip.ac.id/env/budisulistiorini/files/2009/08/LCAaPaperaTowelaandaElectricaDryer.pdf!University!of!Melbourne.!
Carbonfund.org.!How!we!calculate.!http://www.carbonfund.org/howaweacalculate.!!
Detting,!J.!2009.!Comparative!Environmental!Life!Cycle!Assessment!of!Hand!Drying!Systems:!The!XLERATOR®!Hand!Dryer,!Conventional!Hand!Dryers!and!Paper!Towels.!Excel!Dryers.!!
Hanna,!P.J.,!Richardson,!B.J.!&!Marshall,!M.!1996.!A!comparison!of!the!cleaning!efficiency!of!three!common!handadrying!methods.!Applied!Occupational!Environmental!Hygiene.!11(1):37–43.!
Huang,!C.,!Ma,!W.!&!Stack,!S.!2012.The!hygienic!efficacy!of!different!handadrying!methods:!a!review!of!the!evidence.!Mayo!Clinic!Proc.!87(8):791a8.!
International!Organization!for!Standardization.!2006.!ISO/FDS!14044!Environmental!managementalife!cycle!assessmentarequirements!and!guidelines.!!
Jumaa,!P.!2005.!Hand!hygiene:!simple!and!complex.!International!Journal!of!Infectious!Diseases!9:3–14.!
Knights,!B.,!Evans,!C.,!Barrass,!S.!&!McHardy,!B.!1993.!Hand!Drying:!An!Assessment!of!Efficiency!and!Hygiene!of!Different!Methods:!A!Survey!Carried!Out!by!the!Applied!Ecology!Research!Group!for!the!Association!of!Makers!of!Soft!Tissue!
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Papers.!University!of!Westminster;!London,!UK.!
Koerner,!B.!2008.!Electric!hand!dryers!vs.!paper!towels:!how!to!keep!your!paw!clean!and!green.!The!Slate!Group.!http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/the_green_lantern/2008/06/electric_hand_dryers_vs_paper_towels.single.html!
Ngeow,!Y.F.,!Ong,!H.W.!&!Tan,!P.!!1989.!Dispersal!of!bacteria!by!an!electric!air!hand!dryer.!Malaysian!Journal!of!Pathology.!11:53–56.!
Paper!towels!prove!most!hygienic!in!restroom!study.!http://www.csdecisions.com/2009/06/08/paperatowelsaproveamostahygienicainarestroomastudy/!!
Pittet,!D.,!Allegranzi,!B.,!and!Sax,!H.!2006.!Evidenceabased!model!for!hand!transmission!during!patient!care!and!the!role!of!improved!practices.!Lancet!Infectious!Diseases!6:641–652.!
Redway!K.!and!Fawdar!S.!2008.!European!Tissue!Symposium:!A!Comparative!Study!of!Three!Different!Hand!Drying!Methods:!Paper!Towel,!Warm!Air!Dryer,!Jet!Air!Dryer.!http://www.europeantissue.com/pdfs/090402a2008%20WUS%20Westminster%20University%20hygiene%20study,%20nov2008.pdf!
Snelling,!A.M.,!Saville,!T.,!Stevens,!D.!&!Beggs,!C.B.!2011.!Comparative!evaluation!of!the!hygienic!efficacy!of!an!ultraarapid!hand!dryer!vs!conventional!warm!air!hand!dryers.!Journal!of!Applied!Microbiology!110:19–26.!
Todd,!E.C.D.,!Michaels,!B.S.,!Smith,!D.,!Greig,!J.D.,!and!Bartleson,!C.A.!2010.Outbreaks!where!food!workers!have!been!implicated!in!the!spread!of!foodborne!disease,!part!9:!washing!and!drying!of!hands!to!reduce!microbial!contamination.!Journal!of!Food!Protocol!73:1937–1955.!
Tukker,!A.,!Huppes,!G.,!Guinee,!J.,!Heijungs,!R.,!Koning,!A.,!Oers,!L.!Suh,!S.,!Geerken,!T.,!Van!Holderbeke,!M.,!Jansen,!B.!and!Nielsen,!P.!2006.!Environmental!impacts!of!products.!European!Commission!EUR!22284!EN.!
United!States!Environmental!Protection!Agency.!2013.!Wastesaresource!conservation..!!
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