handbook_of_self_and_identity_-_second_edition_-_ch._4_pp._69-104_38_pages.pdf

8/16/2019 handbook_of_self_and_identity_-_second_edition_-_ch._4_pp._69-104_38_pages.pdf

1/38

C 4 69-14 f fC

I

Handbool< of

Self and Identity

dited by

Mrk . LrJu Pr Tg

TH UIFR PRNw Yk L


2/38

To Mike Kernis and Fred Rhodewalt,

hose enthusiasm warmh and contribuions

o the psyhoogy of the sef are sorey missed

© 2012 The uilfod PessA v on of ulod iato, Inc.2 Sprg tr, New York NY 2www.gulrdcm

All ght erved

N pa o th bk mJy be proded rnltd, stoed retivl te

tatted any m y any m ea elr, mehal ptoopyrong rorig or oterwse, who wrtt permio fom th sr

Pted i Uited Stae o Ameca

s oo s prtd d-f ppr

as dgt nme: 9 8 6 5 3

Lrr Cgr ogg--Plao D

Hok o elf a ideti edted b Mak Lery Je Pe Tangnd ed . m

lu lograpa rfre d exSB 7-42535- () e. 2. Ideniy (Pshlogy). Leay, Ma Tangne, ue Pice.F97.H45 2222

22


3/38

CHAPTER 4

Self, Self-Concept, and Identity

Dapha OrmaKr EmorGorg Smh

W rr d ri or oly mdh d i? How o ori rio wi h o l i mi? ol li h hy do o d oioly wih h ro d o o hhoi o didi, h h idii roid mimi ho hyo wo hy r, d who hy dr

hr hoi h , ho d ml l nyba d nyongun

Ints r h ri d hrri-, o io, ol, d oi ommrhi h d who o i dii od o h wh do o o h rwh i o o o, or h rh ro o o wih o om, h ro ol olid o y o om or h -o o o m om di roi hy rovid mimil d o o' o o om o ohr r o h immd oOrm 2, 2, 2 Toh-r, idii m o' s-concptvioy drid wh om o midwh o hi o ol ir, 13 r, 2 ryr, 8; Tl,181 o' hoy o o olyMr o, d wh o

i r o ol mir, 18or & Willim, 22 ddiio olo ol lo ow hmlvi oh wy h h lm dli, wll im drw omh oh o h hyod li, wh hy l i il, o hir od i moio Thoh

h wr o h iloliio o wh i m o h l m, 8/12, hy h rivdl ml io Pol l h hyow hmlv, i h h o o - i ih hmlv d h o ooiohi mmoi Fivh, 21.

A w oi i hi h, hi lio owi i imor hoh hmio o whih i i d r oly. i h o ow o i h l o m d mhoi, i h l imor l moiiol d lloyoo Th l o owi o i d r o mio o li h l o oh rydy ly hori oh d mo orml (oil i h-oi o h Y w dri i hod hl o hi hr, h mioo y id y h mily, o iiiy, d dym orio o

9


4/38

7 SS GI G

th slf s mntl nst dntts t th d ms ppl ssm thm t nstd dymly nstdn h mm Cs tht fl dnnn n n stn d n nss-l fl dntynnt n th stn Ths llty s p f wht ms sl sf As nd Wlm Jms(180127, thn s f dn p pmt sns, snsv ttnd t nl ffds d snsn th mmdt snds thhn nssly t s f hs nls n th dmnts nd hv ,hw, 2002, 2007 200 Ppl d ntsmpy spd txt s hth spnss h mdtd nd m

dtd y th ff f ths s n wh hy n th mmnt Osm 2007 200,200 mss, Wl, y 200

n ths hpt, w nsd hs w sssth fln f nwn sf ndt dynm nsn f w n s n mmn W ss tht h slf s nmptn mtvtl tl th sh sf fs l st nh, nd s th dntts th nsttt h sf n , dynmly nstd n n- h slf s sfl s ppl lt th dntts n mn hs nds hs ds std, p

mt, nd tnd th fdns ndnsts f th mmdt txt s w dvd ths hp nt s-

ns n th st st (ttn th , y ptnl wht s mn ysf nd dnty, dw n vwsfm th s nd psyhpspts ( nnl vw nd hl smms w, 1; l,200 200 Ms Wf, 8;Owns, Rnsn, mthLvn, 200Oysmn, 200 n h snd stn (ndstndn ss, w nsd wht thsl s ssmd t stl yt mll

mntl stt, nd wh ps mnn hw h sf s stdd n h thd sn hnn s f n w ddss hss f s, nd n h fthsn ynm nstu w tnpdtns t wh h pmt, std pnl nd mdd nt fmnl pssn mpy f slf d dnttyOu nl sn Wppn p nd Mvnwd pds lltd smmy nd

hhlhts wh w s s mptn nw d-ns

Seing he Sage

A m f ys G d MG88 hflly ntd h th dmlt n th slf s dll vn thh thtp s ntsn thy ths th nM-ds h n vsl f Rmplstltsn'ss, slfshs smw md tspn pls f hy fm t splnd f th p A ntn lt, dsf th ltt m stl sh f th ldn vn f nd dt mn ps f hhnst n nly f psyhlsts, t lsss th s snspsyhsts,slsts nhplss, ptl s-nss, nd vn nmsts m ft slf nd dtty l hl ylds mlln ttns, nd mn fs t pfssnl sh nns { W f nsyNO sll ylds ts f thsnds tls n wh slnp dntty nldd s y wds hs nwdy mssnlds h stds n whh sf nd dntty sstd s plnt s ndn w smhn s mplly ssssd mnpltd nd dsd s sm sptf sf dntty

wt s s slf dntty tht s smpt lf nd dny shs hvn lvd tht th sf s th pdtf sttns d shp f hv nsns n sns f slfh s, ws, d my m, nd thfth pth shd t n th wds sfpj lf nd dnty thsssm h ppl t tmslvs,wn nw wh thy , nd n s hsslnwld t m sns f th wldlf nd dntty pdtd nnwh ppl mtvtd d, hw thyn nd m ss f hmslvs nd th

s, h ts ty t, nd h fsnd ty t n t thmsvs, f npl mdls, s Bmst,8 w, wn, 8 v& 10 ns, 87 8; Oysmn, 2007

n ths sn pvd s f fpnlns O s t pvdsm lty t nm vs s,sf nd dny smtms sd nt


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Self Se-oncept and eiy

hnly nd thr tm d t rr tdirnt thin Sd wht l nd idn-tity rr t dir th r nd withinplitin Thrd thi mt xtndt whthr th nd idntity in th in-lr r prl tht , whthr thr i n rmltip lv, idntit, nd lnptlvnt rviw hlihtin th irm iil prptiv ll-r, 00 wn t l, 00 rm -il idntity prptiv rwr 1llmr Spr & 00 n d rm il nd prnlity pyhly pr-tiv mitr 18 Mr& Wr 8 Sdd & rwr 00Swnn & n, 01 0 prvd m n th rdth th tpi r l ntt ttmpt t rviit l th ridin th rviw t rth prid wrin tn th ntr i rdrt hhiht wy rwrd n rrh LGir nd MGir 188 r l i

t hd lht n th ldwht m thl indipnil t ndrtndin hwppl iv in th wrd m hi ndm mnin thr prn

Basc Operationazaton

Slf

n mmn dir th trm tn r-r t wrm n wrm in thtmthin i t m r "t -ltin n nl i th mmn tiviyd mntl t rqir tht th i n tht n ndr n t ht i mh trm l inld th th tr whthin I m thinin nd th t hinin t m Mrvr th trth i t thin nd wr din A h philphr hn L myrtd " thn, thrr m Awr-n hvn thh mtr

Anthr wy t dnt th thr pthinin, in wr thini nd tin th l n t r thnin t th trm r capacy Kihltrm,r Klin 00 Lw, 0 thrthn tmpt t ditinih twn th

mntl ntnt ( nd th pt thmtl pty thinin ) mdrn th trm inld ll th lmntmtr 1 8 llr, 00 Kihtrmt l, 00 Mr & Wr 87 wn

7

t l 010 Whil thri nvr n thntn tht rlxiv pity i ritil thvin l, thri dir i hw mmry nidrd n rv tnin thl n th n hnd, th l n nid-rd primrily mmry trtr h thtth p l h xitn id prtlr ntt nd il trtrn ntrt, th l n nidrd rimrly ntiv pity h tht whtntitt th pt l i rtdinid nd mddd within mmntt-mmnt ittin Frm th lttr prptiv wht i tl i nt rlld ntt trthr th mvtin t th l t mmnn mmry d t th nt tl

Whil i m wy hlpl th hrthnd n indvrtnty limit ntint n wy nivn th lwht l-tr nd linil pyhlit mht ll nrd nddualc n l Whil tdid ppl n thi thmlvin d irnt wy An individliti prptiv n hw n i pt nd di-rnt rm thr t ppl n l -idr hw thy r imilr nd nntd vrltinhip mtim lld coctsc prp An immrd prptiv n th p l nd rm inidth mind y t ppl n l nidrthmv n thr wy Thy n nidrhw thy mht rm ditn, hwthy miht l rm th tid in th y thr h priv hihliht ddrw tttin t m pt "nd m thr pt l lily t mt mnd

ltrl pyhlit hv d ttn-tin n twnity drn in thlilhd n n th m vrth pt th l Mr & yrmn 18 yrmn Trnd1 8 r xmp Amrin r drid mr ily thn Et Ain t t mprptiv Mr & Kitym 1 nntrt il idntity rrhr dmn-trt tht whthr n t m r prptiv nt xd y tr tnnd y ntt rwr 11 rwr

& Grdnr, 00 006 Mritd pprh dmnt mpirilytht mll hit in ntxt inn whthr nyn Amrin r E Ain tn m r " prpv r rvw


6/38

7 I AWARNSS ONN AND RGUAN

Oymn, 2, in p Oymn , 28 28 Oymn n,2 kin n m n p-piv inl ppn nd mnlpd m nlly, w di in

h i n lnpn ddiin k h pd nd nnd ppiv nh l, pp n l nd hmlvm immd dil ppiv K2 K, Aydk, & Mihl, 25h i, ppl n nid hmlv d y h nd iiJn i, 2 nvly, hyn k p k nd nid hmvm m dil ppiv pl nid wh h mh vi hm i hmlv, w,hh h y h (h Gn,

22 Mm inld h l nd dil ppiv, md d nd obsvs i d i 8 nv mm, h k h ppiv n v, in l mh id hi i n h ldmm, whih m h iinl p-piv h wihin ppivi n h, hk hl m m dil ppiv nin n n' d l d vl(Wklk, m, Limn, p,28 l d minl imnin h l, din h minin

h p K, 2 nd pivd vlpwn h l n w nd h w m (nin, Ovl, Kndy,28

Eily, tw l-ppiv likly d hn n, 22 ki li p-pi n h l i iky wihk m dl ppi h l inld wh h mih i ppid viw h in wl iphil mmy, hw, Oym, & hv, 2Hwv, ppl n ndd k nyminn h ppi, inldinh pniy l mm min p m nd mp d ppiv, linl nd l im-md ppiv h l l hmlv v im nd mmipl ppiv, pp n lhmlv i mlipl dd, p

d hw il inin wil , ndl y in n w h ili nd nd wn n h ,h i n inl mlipl m l mlipl m Rh

hn nid h mlipl lv, w p-p idin h h inlnp, w plin n

Cct

lnp nv uu hn inld nn, id, livjdmn nd d mk n hwd, ni ' , ndp n n i wh (Oy-mn Mk, 18 Th, i h l in " h hik nd m h hnn h hh, impn

p h m n ivlv mnp id wh n i w, ndwill m h mnl np hnn p

Whl w h l p lnp individlii livii, piml immd, dil h, mh h l n nn nd vliv dm, kin wh ppl diwhn hy di hmlv d hw p-iivy hy v hmlv hi n pl vliv jdmn i immn i h n hildn d dln, nd yply ivlv ldd

i l in i dmin ,phyil pp, hli iliy, minl iiy, p nhp, mily -linhip H, hp 3, hi vl-m Mh, 1 Hwv, nn n did ply m vliv jdmn, wih pdd p kin ppl di hi n, id, d hlnp, hi did nd ndidpil lv viw mmn pi lp Oymn y, 26 h m wy, m -h xplil n ljdm ld h ljdmn ypilly pinid lm ly nd dilld vl h pn' n h d mpnin h wld , nd, 1 2k k, hp , hi vlmRn

lnp l di in hw hy d Rh hv dmn


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Self, Sl-Concept ad Idiy

iffrn in hih nt ma arrani th i mpl it hpit an

nat fman

tran i th lih that at f a-tin ar in lfal. ni t

th tutural implatin f h ntti nir Pp may raiz antutr thi lfnpt arn mmai that thr mmnly u t ma hmthir ra r thniity, thinr thi _ i

ht thir a thi _ a a-mi tan hl f h a nfrmat i u t ani lfnpt,ppl may ai t hmai f thmai hih impli hat thy l pr- nfrmatin that la i muiy a finly an mm -tr ha infmatin that ian t ar Can tin, Silai 98

t al impl that ppl il at aythat t thi hma (Oyma 8; Oy-man, iman, Rh ).

yn partiula apt f tnt, mpp may fl that all apt f th lf arat; thr ma f that many aptf th lf funtin inpnntly (inill,1987) Oraiatin may h t aln, that a prn may mpartmntaliz piti an nati fi uh tha i-n n i a irani ha ntitu th n ha n un f ratlry n aama (Shr Aamn an, 998

pl may ha mutip fnptih m tt ranz a atlattha thr anaji Pnti 1994 Eptin 93; Gral anaj, 989;au Wurf 1987; Oyman , Stutu mat an m lfnp fftily failita lfrulatihra thr la n ulnral t pr-matu alinamnt an attrflin f th an mptn Oyr-ma y, Trry HartJhnn ;Oyrman, Harrin y 1;hinhamm, Stapl lantn 6)

A n in h tin f p

pl an nir thml frm a numrf prptth iuaiti "mf h ltiii " f th tmpall ar " lf th mpralyital "ftr lf th mm "mi-y f th rr "y f thlf. Whil muh f th liatu tmth prp niin ah f

7

h a fp rutu utipl uhrutur a aaal mmy f uthuh ppl ar lil t iffr in hihtrutu ar m hnally ail.Slfnpt ah ha mnt

hat thr pp fu n a rlan rlatinhip iniiua ta anhaatriti· in iin thm pn niantly n hi immiat ituatinal Rarhr an aily primin t m n ay f thnin autfnpt r th th.

Fr xampl jut ain a paaaphth rtpr nula (1 ruplural w us) prnun, unraminnn ith th , r i-in iffn u imiaii t fin a famiy hif lfnpt - Tram Tian t, 99;

Triani 89 f a i f h n, Oyman 7 8a 8)r pimin lfnpt utuin thi ay inlun nt ly h pplthin aut thml h thy thinally Fr ampl in n prmntpatipant pim ith m r urlantpnu h 64 unrat jtn a pa an th ul a trmm hat thy a hy r aly at th ta t uprim partiipantr ttr at th urpi pat f th mm-y ta n h hy r upya a t al h th jt

n th pa (Khn Oyman pim partpat rmm hathy a ut t th latihip am -jt ( al Oyman, Srnn R h, 9)

dnity

rin 19 1 9 8 lp a ily uml f intity lpmt hat fun lpmnt f itity a plratinan mmitmnt. Erin th tmny in ay ynnymu ih hat thr ha tm np Hr, th

tm ny an al nptuaiz aa ay f main f m apt r partf fpt Aam 99 ; 1999; H,; Sp 1987 Sy & ;Tafl Tur, r amp an ha a rliiu ity that ntainrlant tnt an al, uh a hat t hat t au an h t ha


8/38

AWARNSS ONTON A ND RUATON

The soial psyholoial an soiooialientity ieates ontas pesonal an soial etites, also tee coc n (fo a eie Bee Roas, 2001;Ho 2003. Soc n as ene

by Tafel 181) inole the nolee thatoe is a ebe of a op, ones feelnsabou oup ebeship an nolee ofte oups an o status opae to oheoups Thouh this enito oes notfos u o ontent of op ebeship beyon olee, ea a an,othe eiions hae hlite that soiaentities inlue ontent Osean, 2007;Oysean Keeee, Fybe, Bosh Hatohnson, 200) .

Just as thee ay be any selfoeptsietity theoists iffe in ho o oneptaize ho ay ientities a peson is iely o

ae uh as aes 180127 esibeultiple seles peitin hat people haeas any seles as they hae inteation pat-nes ientity an soial ienity theoistsisss ultipe ientities base in ul-tiple siuations enity theoists Sye,80; Stye Be 2000 fous on hoosssiuational stabilty of ientity oneteees Fo ts pespetie, ientties aeistint pats of he selfonept, the inenaze eans an epetations assoiat-e ith the posiions one hols in soial net-os a te oles one plays In onast,soia ientity teoists Abas, 1 O-

oato Tune, 2002 Tafel 18; ajfel une 200 fous on osssituationalaleability In is stones foation soial ientiy theoies pei at in eah eaion peope tae on a iffeent ientitysee Oens et al 200, fo a eie fo asooloial pespetie

In hinin about entity ontet anieniy funtion soia ieniy eseahessoeties fous on onneion to an si-laties ith othe inoup ebes Bee,200; Oysean e al, 200 Othe testey ous on the istintion beteen he in-oup an otoup Bee, 200; Speas,

Goin, isehuis, & Sapel, 200; Stapel Kooe, 2001. he oups ee,naionality, aeehniity, elious eitaeoups, o syea psyholoy ajos onhih ientities ae base ae liely to if-fe in thei oneity an ho psyholo-ally eaninful tey feel aoss tie asiuaions Bee Oysean, 2007

200a; Seiies Bee, 2001 Soialieniy an ientity theoists also stuy oote s of ientities, oe ientties apesonal etites. Ro n efeebeship i paiula oles e, stu

ent, paent, pofessonal tha equie an-othe peson o pay a opeentay ole.One anno be a paent ithou hilen astuent itho teahes o a pofessionalithout iets o pees ho eonize onesole son ns eflet taits ohaatesis that ay fee sepaate foones soial an ole ientites o lne tosoe o al of these ienities fo a eie,see Oens e a, 20 0.

Ths, pesonal enies efe to ontentqute isoophi ih at is ypially e-fee to as oncp in the psyholoiaiteaue. An aanae in usin the te

ny athe ta concp n tis e-a is that i esees the te concpfo boae pespeies, as e isussepeouslyafte all, bei a shy peson isliey to ean soen ffeent enonsiee as pat of hat aes one sepa-ate an iffeent fo ohes iniial-isi selfonept o as pat of hat aesone elate a sia to othes olletisti sefonept}

mm

Self selfonep an ientity a be on-

siee as nese elees, ith aspets ofthe efoin selfoeps an ien-ties be pa of sefonepts Yet sho-as often use he tes s an ny asf they ee synonys Sann & Bosson,20). Soeties the tes ae use in efeene to he poess of ain sense of theo es of hat attes o "e oto te onsequenes of soal ontets on aaiey of beiefs an peeptions abot thesel, o siply to efe to ebeship in sooeoaphi ateoies s as ee osoial ass able, 1 7) Ote ties hats eant is an ipiit sense o a a feel-

n of eleane an inlusion ate tan aol fee of ieleane a eusion see,e.., Daies, Spene, Steee 200; SteeleSpee Aoson 2002) hus, the tesan an ofe ae use to eplain hatit be the poess uney otoesbt iffe aatialy in tes of ha, ifanyhn, is assess o aipulae.


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4. S SelCcp Iy

a sa rs cvr assuma slf slfccp a y c frmsr ar sr mmry, a ma-r. W r s r cr s abuslf a y mn ntrut, sc

odut a o �tn a scssm ur m fl scs Ts,slf slfccp a y ar malcsrucs a ar sap by cxs c y vlp a fuc acW arss ac f s cr s x accma s ry a s frar csr slf ay may mar s f s cap s pras e nd dent s r ral a va usa s a b lrar ar c a spcc rms . s) r rlva

ad Idtty A Mta Cocpts

lf a y rs cvr assr a slf a y ar mal c-srcs a s sm prs ry s capacy vlps arly Ws r facs a rr may clra 8 ms a arly all clr a2 ms uc fras rmva su brusly pruc by smar- s pa fras s rks, s rsps s -rp ma a clr k ay lk lk a k a sm su

b r fras s mabassfrc s lm fac as a rs als c a sckr scrlyplac r ls ls Surf Slaur 2006

us clr sm av sr a v-sual a f y ar mmry sma s ky b u a Frxampl, ppl prfr vsual ma fslvs y ar s s mrra a rrr ma Ma ,& K, Or sss a als -vlv mal rprsas f sf mry. sr a fas b xprc sf as pyscally sc frmcx a as rcay ac spacrs 2000 s vscral ss f slf as a pyscal bjc av by parsa crll ac s uu arlvpm vk C, 18ar a, Mr lak200 acs f slf ar blv xs

7

's ar saur bly psur, a pyscal sac K ub prss us as ar aru by Jas80/12 a s cr slf s pyscaa maral

mr l f scal ursccas amp pp r br slf rss msra ffr l-cas fr slfrla prcss a sasscav vrsus cscus a rfcvr apr 2, s vm; bma200 l spcc f acv parcular ral rs s a cssary faurf sl prfral crx as b assca cscus prcsss, a mal al s yps suppr pr-csss rla spcaspcs fa slf s assm b a . uscurr rsarc prams p fal

lb acvy as lv cv prcsss rla slf Acva arr cula crx s assca rc r a ra s slfrlvar Maca, Ma ar a-l Klly 2004 a rfc s prfrmac ss, la, Passam 20 Mal prfral ac-vy cc slfrprsa asksmay b vsua malspcc a las fs vuals fr a rv s Ma a, 20 a s am s -vals ma pfral aca a -ac fcal ccvy b

mal prfral a vsua crcs ccursur slfums cmpar rjums ra rs ar srar a ar Ma a 20

vr, slfccp rsarc ypcalyfcuss smac mm ra alcaza bra lr apyvlp b aa a cv ca-pacs a s capacs cmlauabas aubrapcal mmrsFus Hamm, 0 Orar mmrs sca rms f amars a ak ss clrca b cra a smac rar avscal ss f slfa s, a s supps Fvs amm1 0 s als arr 200 Harr apr , s vlum . Slccp rsarch asypcally fcus cls capacy scrb a ra msls acrss mulpmss. Fr xampl by sc raclr ca rpr upl mss


10/38

7 AWAR"N=ss GNN AN RUATN

of tr fopt (Ma Ba a& Tidm 84 T a abl to a

a tat t at ad f dit abouttml i dirt ro ad otxt(Hartr ri ou & Witll; oll . mod udrat a impli at t mal op bi tudd i a t of rati dmu fopt ra aum tatpiit lfrpot of t f a a attitudobt i ful impli tat fopt tabl roiall aibl mmorad ad i am wa aro ituato. How a diud i tir to (Tii i for oi) a of aumptio i op to qutio (Swar

2; Stra & Dut 24

and dtty A a Pdu

Sf ad idtit tori or i oud-i lf ad idtit oil otxt o-txtal f o f ma b dialpart prati ool t ultut im a pa i w o li tpri o a ad arl i f otual fft o t f alo ma b prox-imalt poloial impliatio of timmdat tuatio o i i (. or ri Ho 23 2 rma &

Mau 1 8 a &Trr 24Mod diffr wat ot rr to omfou o maroll otx piall titorial po oit ad ultur witiwi o li mpirial ali of fftat ti l a iol itorial ad rooup ompario but i alo amabl toprimal pimi tiqu ( rma & 2 28a 28b -rma & Uul 28 ott a alob a a middl l; t otxt iludam ool ad boood ad tfami pro ad oialiaio pratiwit i o rw up Hr too aal

ma b dripti omparai or xprimtal ( & 2rma & Yoo 2) Fiall otxtma b mor miroll dabdamomttomomt ituatio o xpri bu of rutr a itittio

a of l of aal a ooti bot pooial ad ooloal prpti a dibd a o b Jam(827) ool (2) ad Ma

(3) ool' driptio of t onggs sf apulat am' (8/12)

it a ow ot t lf mati tat rltd appraial wtrt rifor or urm o' lf im-a ar mportat build blo for tlf A lar bod of rar a xamdti aumptio Rult uppot t oaotrutio of lf b oi at popldo rall ioporat wat t thinkotr ti o tm t lf to lfiw a tpall mor poii ta otriw (for ummai ad oriial ra Flo ; Sraur & Soma7

Grall pa lf a idtit ar

oal podut i a lat t wa. rtpopl do ot at tm from ar;ratr wa i poibl wat impotatwat d to b xpaid al om fomoial ottfrom wat matr o ot-r Ti ma tat popl a lil to d tml i trm of wat i ati tr tim ad pa: Group mmbrip( lio ra or dr faml olloo oo ataim or atlti prow ould mattr mor or l dpdi owat i aud o' ultur a i opla witi oal iar Sod ba lf rquir otr wo dor ad r

ior o' lood wo affold a tat o lf mattr ad a o fforta produ rult Ti ma tat poploud fl btt about tml mor apab o ataii t oal ad o o iotx tat provid t affold tai ot ta do o Tird t apof o l a idtit tat mattr momt ar dtrmid b wat rlati t momt

Bau tti ot to do o'dtii mar popl a ti bao to t otr to i tm a iw tml (ma 27 2a

2b) A lar wa to ial a idtit oiall i to at i wa tat ar (totpi-all) or wit i. To tt wt tiapp rar a loo for or atituatio i wi a importat dti ambiou or atil undrmi ad if popl ar mor ll to at a tat totp i t irumta. orxamp bla ildr wo ar woridtat t ar ot id a Afa Amr-a ad Aia mria o ar worid


11/38

Sl SCoc d

that thy ar nt v a Arican aych t act ay that hlp th t .T t thi prictin, in n t f tu-i, th cla bhavir, frinhip chic,a chl gra f African Arican anLatn Arican i ch tuntr a yran, Brickan, Byb,& Cliu, 26) Th prctin a thatchilrn h i nt bliv thy lk ikngup br u b r likly tact in ay trtypical cngrunt iththir acia/thnic intity bcau by actinglik a trtypical ingrup br thycul cnvinc thr that th hl th intty I, cpar t ark kintAfrica Arican, light kint AfricaArican rprt fling l cialy ac-cpt. Th flt lack f accptanc tranlat- t actin; thir rprt car h pr acaic attaint a tachr ratth a ibhaving in cla r. Silarffct r fun fr Lat chilrn ha thy nt k Latin. Th ch-rn ch l acaicaly rint pra fri, attain r gra, an rr ikly t ibhav in cla. Frinhipchic iat ffct f king atin acaic prfranc. ittg int thgrup thy prcv a actng trtypi-cally lk th ngrup attr

Rathr than fcu ch bhavir, a-hr t f u fcu f chcGunlan, Chryan, & nin, 2) tt th pictin that ppl ill actin ay that trtpicaly t a abiguu r ur ntity, th auhr

raly aig Aan Arican clgtunt paricipat t thr b lct th tuy ithut ct r t rt buri a t hthr thy r Arca.h qury rgarig thir Arican ittyattr. Aian Arican h r rtak if thy r Arcan ch r pr-ttypicaly Arica f t at an aithy lik th f r than th hr nt rt ak if thy r Arican.Thi ccurr vn thugh th Arcanf r halthy tha th Aa n.Thu, th anr t n f ur pning qutiWant a burgr an fri r ftly

a h an fungia nt butta pn h Aa Arcanintity a cntruct in cntt

ffct ar nt liit t irty grupan can invlv unir a ll a ir

7

ititi. Britih unrgrauat prtitig t rk l alch an t gagi halthr atig urig th cing kaftr bing inuc t hnk thlva Britih rathr than Arica r a Brit-ih pp rathr than cllg tut thlattr grup r trtyp a unhalthyarrant & Butlr, 2 Arica unrgrauat rprt that thy ha cnul ach aftr bg p t yrthat pct grauat tunt gativytrtyp a nry a havy alchl urBrgr & a, 8.

e nd Ideny Are Foces o Acon

A cn th ang f an intitythrt i that th lf attr fr bhavir.Yt trating that h n thik abutnf pruc actin rathr than iplybing acat ith it ha prvn ifcult.A car ay t ntrat that th lf iunc bhavir t aipulat hthran h ppl think abut thlv, ant h that thi inunc thr ubuntbhavir. T ak th lf alt, partici-pat ar ak t it in frnt f a irrrarvr & Schr, 1 7 ) r t thigl t bing th lf t i, uch a ig-ing thir na Kttl & Hubl, n pr),cribing hat ak th ilar r iffrnt fr thr ark, Trat a!., 1 r circling rtprn ingularprnun Garnr, Gabril, & L, Sui & Ha, 7). Each f th paraighift rpn, but th pcic natur f

th cnqunc f akng th lf alintfr actn pn n th intrplay btnhch apct f th lf ar brught t ii th ctt a th ak at ha yran, 27).

T ai th pc r clly,rarchr ftn anipuat th alicf a particuar apct f th f. Fr -apl, in n tuy, participat r pr-vi ith rigg fback t inuc tht bli that thy r grally cp-tnt r incptnt. hi uc thirft, an thir lft inuncthir ubqunt prjuicial rpn t

thr Harnn t al., 17, Stuy .n athr tuy, rarchr rn participat f thir intity a pychlgy tu-nt, th, uing an abrat cvr tryl th t bliv that pychlgy tunt


12/38

7 I. AWARNS ONTON AND RGAON

r ntr (r lss nt tn cmprsngrup (cnmcs stunts) Stunts ctn ys tt t tr psyclgy stuntntty bn prsnt t tm clrngmr ntly tr rng strs but nt-

nss stnsby rttn by psycgy stu-nts n mr mssly ts strs rttrbut t cnmcs stunts (Sprs tl 200)

Sm rsrcrs g byn cumntngcts cntxt n scncpt r s-cncpt n br t prct tt cntxtcts br by ctng slcncptcntnt (scncpt cng mts t n-unc cntxt n br Fr xmplJng n Al 2009) mnpultcntx by xpsng Hng Kg nsprtcpnts tr t rs n numbrsrlt t ng luc (.g "ucy, numbr

strngs cntnng 8) r t nt ng luc(g "unuc, numbr strngs cntn-ng ) tr submnlly r suprlmnllyt rty cr strs. Ty mnstrt tt bt srtng " m lucyprsn (Stus n 2 n rs prr-nc (g prrrng cnc t s mnyr sur tng Stuy r sgncntlygr r prtcpnts rnmy ssgnt t lucy rsus t unucy cntnMrr n bt slrtng n rsybr cc r msur t smtm t ffct cntn n rs prr-nc (.g, ngnss t py t prtcpt

n gmb s mt by cng nsrtng (Stus n ) Exprmntssuc s ts cry tt smll cngs ncntxts st t lst sm spcts ss n s r prmsng trn rt Wl ncssry rtcl nnt ttmptng t rtcult t xctly smnt by us t trms self r identy,xprmnts ts typ mnstrt cntxts nunc mmntry prcptnsbut t s n ntty

T ncrs cgcl lty sm x-prmntrs cnuct l rsrc n tct nty n cntx n y t xmn cts cntxt n br s bysng ppl t cnsr n ntty trbr r tr ty ngg n n nttyrnt br (ysrmn nt &Agr, 199 5 Stuy 2 ysrmn t l 200Stus n . Antr pssblty s tsubty prm prtcur br s trlnt r rrlnt t cr ntty suc

s gnr (Elmr & ysrmn n prss rr cllg stunts ns mr St &ysrmn, 201)

r xmp n numbr stus s stunts t cmplt nl mt ts

tr br r tr s tm buttr rcltnc ntty (t t s, t tmns n tr ry ls n ts stu-s, Arcn Amrcn Hspnc n Nt Amrcn (Amrcn nn clrnmstly scrb tr rcltnc nttyn trms cnnctn t t ngrup. Sms scrb cnnctn t rgr sctygnrly r spcclly rprt tt scttnmnt s prt tr rcltncntty s scrb cnnc-n t lrgr scty n sc ttnmntr rr n t mt ts spclly ty t ts tr rst cnsrng

tr rcltnc ntty (ysrmn t l1 995, Stuy ; Stuy T rsults ts xprmntl mnputn nttysnc r rplct t Arb Isrml n g scl stunts (ysrmnt l, 00 Stuy .

Ueaing Poce

As mnstrt n t prus sctncty mstrtng tt t sl nuncs ctn tn nls mnpult-ng c slcncpt r ntty cms t

mn Prps n t rsns tt suc stus ts ntur xst s tt mnytrs ssum tt sl s rltly st-bl Stblty cn b ssum t mrg rmrly plstcty tt s, scl cntxts mysp t sl s t s lpng but c -lp t sl m b cult t cngStbty cn b ssum n n trtclprspcts tt rtcult slcncpt nntty s mmry structurs tt r upt n rs t c us n ts sc-tn cnsr ppls xpnc tsl s stbl n s t c tr sr mllbty n nmc cnstructn

Expeence abty

A cnunrum r stuy n unrstn-ng sl n ntty prt s tt n sl n ntty cng, ppl cn sl n xprnc stblty s slrprtmy nt b pul. nsr ts nlgy


13/38

4. Sel Sele ad diy

o a hp ho onr mn an rpar trpac plan a n. tually allth plan ar rplac. I t th am hpDpnn on ha h qutonr manth anr cou b y or no ha

th hp uco a aay o t th amhp hoh all h compon arn o t a rnt hp. h l may bconr n th am ay. r m lan ntt o thr ob. L Plato hpthat p or abo atr hl tn hm hr h o o l a n-ty o hr job o man man ocu- attnto an uann oaloclrulaton. u at th am tm l thrchann plan hat l a nttyma may b yamcaly conruct Aa rul hat on ocu o hat ooal appar to b a ho o or to

a thm chan a ll Sl an tycontn o ucton thu ln th amn thouh h con chan ramatcally. Thu a ln o ably can rhthr popl ha a motaton to prch l a abl or no

The Self as a Stable Essence

opl aum tha popl thml n-cl ha a tabl nc or cor thaprc thr bhaor tha ho thy arematt or ha hy o an that hat thyo rfct ho thy ar Ar Kaaz0; Jam 19019. Th aumptotha pr c coran urac a-tr or psychologic essetialism a baccont ora chma that at thcor o catoraton M & rtony99

prchool chlrn a nrtably o tra n nanma an boloca cator rom a lttl a on amplor r Glman 1999; Glman Druc 999. For nanc hy nrha amo bu not bat thr younmah up oo ar larnn that lamo an bacbr ar n th am catorybr an bn o onc that blacb thr youn mahup oo. y a chlr nr that both boocal . hamlaon an pychooca (.. looprty charactrc ranr acrontanc o a ocal catory (Druc&lror 011 y a 0 chrn ar aln a ault to u pronaly rat

(. nrou to prct bhaora con-ncy o nua or m (Ao 199;Kalh 00; Rhol Rbl 194.

nc tablh th noton o ncl uly obou an ault ar quc

to nr th xtnc o nun po-on moan popl bhaor Ro19 an to nr trat rom thr bhaor Carlon & Soron 1994 Poplotn crb thml n trm o tablrat . ncrty an acto . loo chan o homl popl (Coun99 nh Chn 011; Sm 009h nal n o l appar ural athouh hthr popl u ajctor acton rb to crb thr trat ahhr hy aum hr trat apply th partcuar tuato or acro tuatomay ay crocuturally Enlh Ch

011 Smn 009; alo Cro GorChaptr th olum

Is the Sel Stable?

Spara rom popl prcpton t mraonabl o a hhr h l a ablmal contruct. ot comprhn ocalcnc hor o h l artculat bothtablty an fuy a apc o th l.Thu ntty a ocal tty thorcrb h a nclun both a tablt o auat taar an a fu r-chan crpon th momnt (Turnr196. In om ormlao both tablya chanabty ha bn a paro manann a abl a pot n otm (Tr 9; Tr Campbll 19 or a tabl n o l mor n-ral (San 19; Sann uhrmtrChaptr 19 h olum. Snc manana lma rqur o ac or oconc ohr o on lprntaton(Goman 959, propon o om ocoloca prpct ha aru or ablyo th l or m a a rult o tabltyo ocal ntracto Srp 9 Sryr

9 0 . Thr om uppor or th nr-prtato o xampl Srp 19 ountha col tunt o ary ho hyra col ro ntt (. cour-or an or hr ata pot n thrrt mtr o co prumaby bcauh conx coll rman th am

n ay o a h quto hthr ahalhy or ct l ntal abl


14/38

I AAR NSS ONTON, A ND RATON

an naiant acss tm an stuatns.Sm psychsts ha au tha ths isth cas, ntn that th slf ptcts tslffm chan f s, s Gnal, 980 as & Kuna, 986, chann

nly hn th cntns f lif u tGcas, 98 Khlstm & ant, 984;Rsnb, 979 Sann 983, 98). Ifthis is th cas, thn th shul b ini-ual iffncs in slfstabilty, an thsffncs shul b cnsqntia. In,Kns an cllas (Kns, nl, Sun,By, & al, 993 Knis, Paais,Whta, Whatman, & Glman, 000psnt inc that ppl ff in hstabl th slfstm s an that stablty sasscat th llbin. ln that thslf s nt stabl s n fact n th anstic cita f bln psnaty s-

b, Zanan, Schmahl, inhan, &Bhus, 00).T amn sstanc t chan, sach-

s can manpulat fbac pimntaly fll ppl tm cmpa -spnss f ppl acss a ups t manfncs abut tm. pimntal mth-s typically nl t stps. Rsachsst btain sfatns, thn p un-pct fbac h a is t s hthppl fus accpt fbac that sn th sfma. npimntalmths als in m than n stp. -th th sach tacs th sam patc

pants tm sampls patcpans atiffnt as pnts n thi lf cus tma nfncs abut stablty.

pmns typcally nicat that ppl at lnths ptct th mas thyha f hmsls, nn ntptn cntacty nfmatn an stancn thmsls fm th suc f such n-fmatin as, 9 Sann, 983,985) Smla stabilty is nf fmlntuna an csssctna stus. amp, ash an hs cllaus haamin th stabty f manspccslfcncps, asn chln, ascnts,

an yun aults t spn t a baty fslfpt masu atns f th ablitisn a numb f mains .., schl, patinshps, an pblm sn. Rptsa latly stabl in that th patcpantslat ans man smla tm Thyals sh sm ctuatn, such that hhatns a pt n aa by chln

an lat ascnts ath than mil a-lscnts ash, 989 ash, an, &bs, 998)

Rsach n ntty lpmnt isn, 95, 968 assums th ta

stablty; hat s, thh chin ha intts, th ascnt t aulth tansitnis thi as inln aminatn fmptant inttis Aft tin n auspssblts, alscns an yn aultsa pict t sta a clam t an intty that thn mans stabl. Athh c-niant that ntt is a cnttpnntmntal cnstuct, sach n ths tatnmanpulats nth sca cntt t st ffcts n ntty n intity t tst ffcts nbhai. nsta, th fcus is n mpcallytstn hth ntity chans tm aspct an, nc an intity is cmmtt

t, hth t s stabl. Rsachs fcusn patnalin th pcss f cmmttn t an ntty an tstin hth thspcss is bst scb lna pssta ntity cmmtmnt cyclicayplatn an cmmmnt fll by -tun t platn .g., Bsma & Kunnn,00 atman, 999) Rath than tstf stablty by assssn th tnt t hchchln, ascnts, an yu alts atth slfcncpts f ablits in as -mans cnsstntly m, ths sachs s clsn scals f slfpttnt f platn an namnt ith

in spcic ntts ., thnc inttis;On, uRl!, & Phinny, 00) inntty as a hl .., ctti, Rubn, &us, 008).

Sca sta this f ntty -lpmnt pst a atttu abt thslf, smthn that is ifct t cumntn th atttu as a hl n attitus,s Schaz, 00). n, ths thisha naly fal t n suppt hntst tim ss, Smith, & Payn,00) hat s, ppl h sm t b atn sta f ntty lpmt ftn -pt bn at an ali sta at at pnts

n tim ss t a., 00 Stauss & ss,005). , sta thy sach cn-tns. ampl, sach n acal anthnic intity cmmnly ass hth a-lscnts m fm patn t cmmtmnt, as ul b pct by th thy(, Kan & uln, 009 atsunaa,cht, , & Nay, 0 0)


15/38

4. Self, Se-Concep and Idntiy

The Self as Context Sensitive

Even though lay and theoretcal perspectivesfocus on stablity it is possible tha a stabesef s ot necessarily an effective self o

the extent that the self s a too for meaningmakig maintaining sense of worth adegulatig behavior then an effective selfsould be sensiive to new nformaton ands e malleable an vran across chage features of the exernal (time situationad iternal (motivaion environmen heappearance of stabilty in empirical studiesay be decepive Self and identty ma ap-pear uite stale o qe changeable depend-g on how tey are assessed Fo examplef featues of he situation matte and f hesituaon is stable self and identiy wll ap-pea stabe making it impossible o earn if

they are contextdependent oeover sncepeople tend o experence the self in contextthey may experience stability even thoghwhch aspecs of the self are salient may de-pend on what makes one distinctive n themoment (McGuire & cGuire 9 88 whatmaes oe similar to othes in the moment(rewer 99 ad one's immediate feelingsabout eing simiar o distinct (arkus Knda 198)

mpirically it is possible to dsentanglesituaiobased narance from siuationbased vaiance y manipulatng situatonspror to assessng self and identy Effects

can be sble In an ealy es aus andnda 986 used an elaborate cove soyto manipulate wheher heir whe femaleAmerican college stdent paricipants ex-perienced their tastes and preferences (egabot colors objects clothes as being dif-erent from or just like the tastes and prefe-ences of others like them hey were thenshown words and asked o click a buttonmarked me if the word descrbed themand a button marked not me if it did notixed wth neutal words were wods evokg difference (eg. nie differen andsmilarity (eg average follower Lastparticipants wee asked to provide their as-sociaons to six wordsthee reevant tobeng dffeent and three reevant o beingthe same as others The manpuaton didnot inflence how people rated hemsevesThey chose ust as many smarity wordsad just as many difference words as mewhether they had ust experienced thei

81

tastes and peferences as beng dfferen orust ie others If the reseachers had oymeasued the number of "me responsesthese results wold suppot he prediconhat selfconcept is stabe Indeed most evi-

dence that selfconcept is stable comes fromrepeated assessmen using a measure such asthat used in ths study

But the researchers in this study also obtained reaction time (how long t took to re-spond me or not me The manipulationdid nflence speed of response Partcipantsmade to feel similar to others were faster toendose "me words reaing to being dis-tnct Wha comes to mn d ickly may wellinfluence behavior in the momen moe thanwhat comes to mind more slowy so thatreacton time may matte n reawold set-tings Yet if he goal of research is to make

predictions abot how the sef and identityfuncton in real ecologies it migh be usefulo sudy rea stuations rather than articalones

Studing context sensitivity i schoolfor example would reuire sampling students as they enter varying stations (egthe hallwa homeroom afterschoo activi-ties see Oyserman & Packer 1996) or movethrough hei social netwoks (eg Kinder-mann 9 93 ) aturalistic studes often ndsurprising staility in selfconcept contentand high predictive power of his conentover tme Fo example Atschu yser

man and Bybee 6 found boh stabl-ity and predictve power n their assessmentof three elements of racial/ethnc identity(connectedness awareness of racism em-bedded achievement over four measure-ment points Their data collection covered 2school yeas and the transton from middleto high school Not only were the three e-ements of racial/ethnic identity stale overtime bt higher endorsement of hese threeelements of racial/ethnic identity predctedbette perfomance over tme (contolingfor prior performance In another study(Oserman 008), content of aca/ethnicidenity in ninth grade peiced academicperformance and inclas behavor 4 yeaslater (controlling for prior peformance andbehavo.

These studes clearly demonsrate that selfand identity matter for behavior but do theyalso mean hat self and idetity are basicallysabe and not context sensitive? We argue


16/38

AWRENS S, COGNITON ND R EGULATION

tat natralsti stus typialy o notao infrns about ontt snsitvty orontt insnsitivity t is possible at ra-ial/en intity as assess in ts stuis is ly snsitive to ont but tat tontes not f psooally ffr-nt vn to assssmnts r obtanaross ifft assooms soos ansool yars Eperiments allo resarrs to manipulat tos aspts of ontetpre to b psyooiay maninf natal sttns o not. s natra-isti an primnta resar on intyprovi information on iffernt questionsDos t slf appar stabl an an t slfb ma to ane?

How rong Is Emprca ppor?

A i array of soial sine tors as-sumes tat t self matters fo lif oisan bavior b a simary robus boyof ven tat is is so as yt to b as-smbl teoryevin ap manstat to at slf an intity tors mayor may not provi robust mols of atsl an ientty o an o tey funtions probm as bn not n some e..Banai Prnte 1994; Baumistr 998arkus Wurf 97) but not all rvse. allro 2003 Stets Buk 200).over ivn t lar nmbr of publia-

tons vokin slf an intity as panaoy fators faln to atten o t toryine ap mans tat t as a olas not mae as mu prorss as mit bop n unrstanin slf an ientity asmnal onstrus an as fors for aton.is mans tat onte ffts on slf anintty may o may not ork as teorssbe tm an slf an ntiy may bmore or less poerfl as mannmakinlnss an motivaos of ation an teorsesribe. At orst te sf may no mattrat al.

Wl rsa on autoapia mmory

s ontiuin to ro Fvus 20) struure of slfonepts in memory is lessunerstoo rna Banai 99; -onnll 20 A man tnson is btntoris tat assum a sinl iraiallyoraniz slfonpt an toris tat onot. e altatve to a sn sef ierar-ial oani in memor ol b tatpopl ave multple only loosely assoiat

sfonpts sor in mmory Bt it oulalso b tat pople ynamally rat a nselfonept a im one is ale for. Wileappalin o a lay sens tat t slf must ba sin ntity a sinlestrutur mol oesnot t it o mmory an onionok nrall Strak Dus 2004Wyer Srull 99) as onsir in tetir setion. rfor rater tan fouson o a sinle f-cocpt mit be stu-r n mmory m of t ltatu nofoss on okin onne o "atvslfonpt ons salint tory about on-slf in t moment or fouses on a partularselfonpt otent ratr an attemptinto stuy all selfonpts . for rvisse sba Fuson 200 Oysrman2007 Smstrs et a. 200 Wr Darre 2009) By rootn ter fomlationof te sf n situa an soial onitionprsptivs Sar 2007 2009 200Sm Smin 2004 2007 Wye Srl989 ts torists ampt to lvrae soial sin knole abot o t minorks to make pritions about t slf asa mntal onstrut Oysrman 200 Oys-rman Dstin 200 ler Darr y 200)

Soial Comparon a Coa

A lare boy of resear as eamn t

onttualiz natr of sefvaluatons bysttin up soial omparisons ay formu-lations assume ta popl neraly ontrast tmslvs it otrs an tat tisan la to bter or os slfvaluationsfor evis s Blanton 200 ollins996. A ar nmbr of piments ran-omy assn peopl o a noomparisonontrol an upar omparison ontonsomon mor sussful or a on-ar omparison onition somon lsssussf ompare to noomparisonpartipans tos in t par ompai-son onton repot mor nat slf-

vauations ssilr Rter Epste2004 aylo obl 989, il osn e onar omparson oniionsrpo mo postv sfratns .. Pel-am Wasmut 995).

s sults t t soial ientty to-rsts arumnt tat onar outroupomparisons ontrbut postivly to soialntity Tafel 98) an imply at pop


17/38

4. Self, Sf-Concpt and Idetiy

may be motivatedto nd donard com-

parsons. But, as t tus out, peope donot aways contrast themselves with oth-

ers Consider the experiments conducted byLckwood and Kunda 1 99 7) , who radom-

l assiged participants to either read materals about a superstar studet or not, andthen judge thei current and future selves Ifpeople alwas contast themsees to others,ten the superstar comparson should haveresulted in more negative selfevalationshether consderng oneself now or in thefuture ndeed, students in the superstarcondtion did rate their current self morenegatively. However, these same studentsrated their future possible self more positivey. Why were the resuls different whe considering oe's futre possible self rather thanones curent self? One possibity s that inthe present, partcpants coud clearly seethat they were ot like the superstar, so thesuperstar was then a comparson standard.oweve, in the uture, he superstar mightbe a role model that is, participants mightbecome like the superstar, so the superstarcould be included in ther selfjudgment (seealso esser & Collins, 988; esser, Martin,& Cornell, 996 ).

Incopoatng Others ito th Slf

Rather than assume that people contrast

themselves with others, a more appropriate estion is under what circumstancesare people ikely to contrast themselves withothers and uder what circumstances arethey likely to icude others n their self-judgments Consider te social context oschool. n many urban school districts, failue rates are so high that studets are likelyto be aare of many other students who aredoing poorl in school If people routinelyconast themselves with others, then stu-dents in these schools should hae plentyof downward social comparison opportui-ties and consequently judge themseves qute

positiey. Oyserman and colleagues 995,Study 3 tested this predction in a sample ofstudets attending an rban middle schoo.Boys n the cotrol condition (not assigedto a social comparison) did indeed jdgethemselves quite postively, rating themselves as highly likely to succeed in schoolin the comng year Academc identities werejst as highly positve for boys assigned to

83

imagine someone they kew who was succeeding in school and how they were smlar to this student assimilate positive or toimagine someone they knew who was failingin school and how they were dfferent from

this student (contrast negative) Effects wereless clear o girls, who seemed more likelsimpy to include others in their selfratngs,reporting less optimism when consideringothers who were failing and more optimismwhe considering others who were succeedg.

One possibility is that the girls were moreikely to perceve themselves as conectedand related to others (ie, have a reation-al selconcept Cross & adson, 997;arkus & Oyserman, 989) his interpretato was supported in a number of studieswith college students in which women tended to icorporate others' academic outcomesinto ther academic identities (Kemmelmeier& Oyserman, 200a, Studes and 2).Women, whether samped from an rbancampus wh predominantly rstgenerationcollege students or from an elite public uni-versity, rated ther academic identities morenegatvely if they were randomly assignedrst to consider their simlarities th someone they knew who had failed rather thanconsider their dffeences from this targetother or make no comparison at all heseefects were especally strong if the compari-

son other was also a woman. Effects were inthe same direction but weaker for meno est the possibility that these effects

were due to relational selfconcept, Kemmelmeier and Oyserman 200b) assessedparticpants' relational selfconcept (sampleitem: "y close reaoships are an important reflection of who am) before assigning them to either an upward comparisoncoditio or a nocomparson control. heexpected gender difference in relationa sefconcept was obtaied (femaes reported bengmore relatona than males. owever, whatpreviously seemed to be a gender effect was

realy a relational selconcept effect. elational selfconcept fully moderated the effectof upward comparison Among participantslow in relational selfconcept, those in theexpermental conditio ( Thik of someonewho is succeeding in school) rated them-selves more negatvey than those in the con-trol (nocomparison condition. he reverseoccurred for participants high reational


18/38

AWARENESS OGNON, AND REGUAON

sefnpt; ths the xpmntal n-t ate themseves me pstve thaths the ntl ntn

Thse fts e epate usn a pm

n paam Stapel & Kmen200

Afe ln the s I m an my n apaaaph unsaml sentes u-n thes s papas e qu tfus n ffns eten themseves anthes h evese u afte lnhe s we, our an us n a paaaph nsamn seenes nun heses; ten patpants ee que tfus smates en thmselves aths When pme t nse thmsvselana patpats nlu neaveas ll as pstve nfmat aut theth n the selfumnts. When pme

t ns themseves nvualstapatpans exlue pstve as ell as atve nfmatn aut te the fm theselfumnts Thus effets t sem te mtvate a es t hane fe at th self

Outse th laat pepe ma autmaall ne ths th value at-ues n self a entt F exampl al-n a hs lleaues (9) tae llstuents v a ss f fta eens.O ns n hh the team n stuents ee m lel t ea shthemeh a f t th unvst as e

O eees hh h team ls stu-ents lss lel t a shlthemeth a ee me lel t efe t thunvest as the. ple have een fun lu n h sf sussful spts tamsBnhat, Das, Fee & ut, 998;Ben Vaesla & Fes 2002 n-n pas Ben Vansae, an-ae, et a., 2002 an suessful matesAnett Gema, & Hut 200 Whle nthse stus pple nlu suessfu annt fae ts n sefnepts, as ente eae hn ma t fl nnete,pepl nue th pstv an natve

fatues f thes n h self.

ary

Sef an ett hae ee au t sta, as el a s xt sesve. venf th pes s avalale. Y smplpvn supptn evene es t aess questns au pss. We ave ust

summaze eve ha pp smetmesassmla hes n the sfneps antts a th tmes ntastn mpa themsvs t these thes an at st

the tmes sem t eth. Thus, eeal quest sems t n hethe -text nflunes selfnept a ntt uh ths happns. T ass thes ssus tn t the tn that thnn s f an atulate hat s n ausa ntn as levant t the tas fpet h a hen ntexts nstutne enttes an h thes tessap eav

Thg Is fo Dog

A euent theme thn sal pshs that nt s pamat ntextual-, an stuae; that s pepl thn ne ath n thns s pfunlshape th ptns avalale an hat s tn t (Fse 99 Pplethn texts that a mae up f theshuman atfas phsal spaes tass anauae Smth & Semn, 2004 Pep aesenstve t mannfu feaus f th mmat nvnment an aust the thnn an n t hat sms txtualeevant Fusn & Bah 2004 s,992) aen tte s means tat fa

fm e eas ptale fm p attues an mnts uman ument seat nfluene the fmatn aessle at the mment es manan hat hat nman s a t manSha 2007 th umts,uments aut nesef ae stuate.

eve menal nsual matts; ppe at as n h a stuatn feels anhat t sems t e aut esa, Gat,& Hns, 2004 Hs 99 Sha200 Shaz Bss Wn & Wnlman 2003 Sha Sanna Sun &Yn 200 Ths mpes at en

tt mes t mn an a t mans s amal nstute Wh xpemtsmanpuate salent nfmatn t est patua psses utse th aat,nfmat an eme aess thuhap assatve nets a spean atvatn as ell as thu leave efletn n maes smant tntals ules a feelns eeman 2007


19/38

4 l cept d et

ck & Dtch 24 w ic nt ction on l pocing ptyc intit m com pt of thocitiv ntwok n o com piycc howv, ft of h immit itton nflnc which oth lmn

f th ocitv ntwok c. h,ht n ntiy cty mn i liky toff fom tton to ition

Cognti n hvio jtmnt toht contt m to ot oftn tomtic n oti of concio wnmith & Collin 2 mith & Cony, mith & mn 24 2) himn tht pop my pinc lf nintity tl, filing to notic ntivjtnt of ntity to pgmtic of thitton. Howv th ffct of conttly lnt nfomtion on gmnt cn pofon chwz t 2 Wy &

989) mpliction fo lf n ntity ch thogho hn th n cton

Inson-Eon

n th pvio cton w viw vi-nc tht popl omtim comp thmlv to oth n ncopot oth intointity op w m to othtomticly tn of compont th vinc i not ppot th -mpion pop omtim nc nomtim cl oth fom th g-

mnt. o ntn whn popl nccontly lnt infomtion into thigmnt ot hmlv n whn thyc thi nfomtion ing t to fom tn gnt which to jg thmlv,w now tn to th oci cogniton litt h nclusonxcluson modl mkpiction fo whn ch poc l iky toocc Bl & chwz, 2 lo tmth ssmloncons modl-Bton,2 chw . 23

h inconclon mo mk thgnl piction tht nfomton tht fllvnt to th gmnt tk cn infomting th tn fo jgmnto th tgt of jgmnt tf opl lky to incl oci infomtion nto fjgmnt nl th ocil infomtion imk iffnt nogh fom th ftht it com cl n i conting tn. fcnt iffnc

fom h lf my c y mtonth i nonnomiv o tm n ynfomton fing to ptic n-tnc o mp h thn octgoy vn tht pcc oth pon not onf popl incl pcc oth

n hi fgmnt ony if th oth flclo o imi to onfConi pon litnng o lct.

h gin to won ot hlf o whttnt h h n ccf n f o fn how lkly h o cc n th f-t? Whtv com to mn iky to n h lfmnt vw inB n chwz 2 th iction ofth contt innc cn ci mton o contt Assmlon occwhn th impliction of lnt infomtionh poiv tionhip wth th tingjgmnt Cons occ whn th impl

cton of lint infomton h ngtivtonhip with th lting gmntRtning to o mp contly

nt infomion my nnc thwht h ntn succss to mn inth momnt th tn of compion)o whch lttit com to min nmking th jgmnt pc of th tgt). Infomton tht infom th tnlt in mnt poc of conttngth gt with th infomtion tht comto min. o mpl, h pk my oing o intting th inc my folloing ong vy o noing off p-

thtcly. f h i t o ov th tnt y th foc of h ttntion h wll cc iky fo h n c hpt ng pty ccf wl In-fomtion tht nfom th tgt lt in mntl poc of miltng th tgt toth infomtion tht com to min. n thic, h m pk n nc itwil incl into h own jgmnt. omp th inc my nc tntfom h cohot o h mo; th pkmy n lmn of th m ng-t intitton h i o thy my hoth ttit ithy intl fvoitcoo) tht fciltt imilton hn thpk vitty n th nc cpcitcn nfom h o hlf h whth pon conttl nfomton contting tn on whch to g thf o milt contt nfomtoninto lfgmnt no ft of th n


20/38

AWASS COGON AND GAON

omato but rather a reult o ow the iomato i otrue the momet Oeimportat way i whih th ha ee tie b emotrat that people are morelikely to amilae we prime to ue a ol

letiviti relatoal u eloet aare more lkey to otrat whe prime toue a iiviuaiti eparate me eloept Olie ee o ietity i mportatly iuee by whether ormatio ithe tuato i ilue or otrate withthe ietity

Metaogntve Experence

Mcgniiv pincs eelithat emere while thiki, a oe' i-erpretaio o thee eeae aohermajor oure o otrua People aume

that eeli o unc eae or disunciulty tha arie i the jume otext are ormative or the jumet itel.Ote thi may be the ae However ule provie a reao to oier ourepeople are o eitive to the oure o theirmetaoitive experiee. hi mea thatthey are likely to ue ee irrelevat metaoitive experiee to iom jumetShwar, 2; Shwar & Clore, 99.

For exampe i peope experiee ilty thiki o reao they are atie withtheir marriae they ier that they are otatie; hey experiee iuly reaia reipe they ier that it i more iult tomake; i tey exeriee iulty reaia queio they ier that they ae ot oet o the awer Shwar 2; So& Shwar 28a, 28b While theeieree may ote be ore, i theeexperimet iulty wa maipulate tobe exteral to a irreevat or the jumet: Sometime the prit ot wa iultto rea, other time partiipat were aketo lit may reaoa taa eiatiomore ha the averae pero otherwiewoul. Ti wa iult. However uleteir attetio wa ra to te exraeououre o their expeiee iulty peopleaume that their metaoitive experieewa iomative

Muh a metaoitive experiee iee jumet i other omai metaoitive experiee i ikely to matter ijumet o el a ietity he meai

attibute to uey a uey mattea luey a iuey ave ieret e-e o jume about el a ietityepei o how thee eel are terprete What eel riht i te momet ote

take o te arateriti o a perept;that i beaue it i eortley eperiee,i ee eearly tue hi eel o eortlee tur lea to a ee thatoe ha aee a true apet o el oretity, with the impliatio hat the eli table. A outlie i the ext etioo ualproei moel, thi eel oeortlee may arie a a reult o ao-iative Sytem reaoi rather ha thetruth value o the oie ietity mpliatio o metal otrual o ietity areraw out i eail i the etio DyamiCotruto.

DuaProceng Mode

While ot e i theorie o e a etity u alproe moel o automati aotrolle oitio have bee propoe iealy every other omai o pyholoyChaike & Tope 999 ualproeimoe tiuih betwee two poeiytem oe hat i eortu a otrollea aother that i eotle a automatiChaike & rope, 999. The eortle xi ytem ivolve aoative lk thatare ure o via preai ativatio. Theeortul rci ytem ivolve yteati a equetal proei o iormatio ieberma 27 Strak & euth,2 Thee ytem have bee varioulylabee Sytem a Sytem Staovih &Wet 2) iuitio a reaoi Kah-ema 3 a impulive a eetiveStrak & Deuth 2) amo otheterm

Earier ormlatio ote potulate tathki our i oe or the other ytem.hi let ope the quetio o how thikwoul ht rom oe ytem to the other.

Emeri evee larie that thkiou imultaeouly i boh yem; thai Sytem te relexve ytem, i alwayat work Sytem 2, the reetive ytem mayor may ot be ate. t beome atve wheoe ha the time reoure a eie tooier areully Strak & Deuth 2) We both ytem ae wok, eah pro


21/38

4 Sel -Cnept nd dey

cesssi s w syl d w judg- ci is pducd pcssigucm ysm wil dpd w ci s pc immdil mg csis

ssciiv xv ig -sls sm 1 sig ls uiivspus ss s jus l i i my gu ids ugs.I cs civ iig suls sm sig s ul li sul iig u d ppig s us xplici sgs sv m ug ui sig issmims sscd wi uisic pcss-ig wi s i judgm sigd wi misd d wi c-scius pcssig w ssms di i csciusss ccucy u i spdxiili d i sms i ul ws ivlvd Km 3 Li-m

Bcus xiv pcssig sms ccu wiu i i s clld ntu m s Km 13 ul ssssms icludssssm psicl pis g sidisc ludss s wll s ssssm sm sc ppis cudig simili cus ppsi supisgss c-iv vc .g w smg is gd d d md K m dic

2002). s ul ssssms im-mdil vill s ss cc dci.

cs i lciv sysm v is licid s csuc dc-s pcss. s dcsi pcss is ssumd xpccyvlumw 1 us cig ps c ig mid wmc cm is vlud d w lilci is pduc ucm cicis mui is csis wi um psclgic is u gl pusuiicudg s sd ci j

& s 177, s pd v jz 1, is gl psi lwi u & Oig 4llwi Kic 1 slccs Bdu 1, d xpccvlu is Eccls l 13 dsci w sl is ivlvd i ci. s ci il smims ppl

ull csid w igls d w y suldd i mm civ ysm pcssig Hw i s sms ll pp g i lw ypiclimid my suddl g g jumpgi ssciiv w ig m-m iclud m d li d gy xi ysm pcssigc ysm is lwys wig d s-m s ppl ud cgiivld pcss l wi sm uss mvd d wis ppsi pcully imp slgl cms mid

Dulpcssig mdls m pdics mmmm pcssig imi y mm i im xiv d civ pcssig m ccuig. is c i ccdcwi s di ulil cdu ulss cm md mm. Wil pld iis c lly p civ sysm vic is m i sysm ll pcps i xl lly imgidlssl d umicly cu cscd spdig cvi pcps sd mm d ssciiv d cu- pcp. W cms mid s li dpd wic ssciiv ls v cly cvd xmp sig

mlss wm c cu imgs sw m d uu img slwi s cim B v d lciv sysms ivlvd pcssig s mi. Wi sws iiill pdcd cd il ssms vd cv ssm ul vdc w suggss sl is lcd ul sysms ivlvdwi lxiv d civ pcssg s dulpcssig mdls wuld pdicLm mims ppl u csd w idi dscismdwig c m mm d

pig vi s w dw w cm O ims ul pcssig ds ccu is - puc li y quic ssciivpcssig. s siuis idiysscily cud ug spdig civ-i il ld vi ls ig cx


22/38

AWAR OGTO A RGUAO

mmary

gmt ontextuled nd situted ppohes mke two itil points. istognitive poesses e ontextsenstive

nd seond ontext senstivity does notdepend on onsous weness hinkingnd tion e nuened y wht omesto mnd nd eels eevnt in the momentWht omes to mind is suset o l onesexistent knowledge his mens tht psy-hologll meningul sittons inlu-ene ognition Cogntion emeges ommomentymoment intetion with the en-vionment the thn poeeding n n utonomos invnt ontextee shionmth & emin 2004 p. . hinking sinuened y the ontext in whih it ousinluding physil nd sol etues o the

extenl ontext s well s the expeieneo thinking tsel Humn thnking is notinvint nd ontext ee the peopethink lexily nd e esponsive to the im-medite envionment he ontext sensitv-ity highighted y situted ppohes doesnot depend on onsious weness o thempt o psyhoogilly meningul etues o situtions on ogniton Not only dositutionl eets not euie explit ustiton ut lso dwing ttention to the po-tentil nluene o ontext n hnge theesponse e.g. ske 2; hw 20072010

he pgmti ontextulie nd situted ntue o ognition nd ts eline ondul poessing hs nume o impotntimpitions o sel nd identty Fist wpeople think out themselves is inluenedy meningl etues o thei mmediteenvionment. Like othe judgments judgments out the sel e omed n the moment. etues o the envionment simutneously ue ssotive nd moe systemtipoesses oth yieldng lues s to who oneis nd why tht mttes in the moment e-ond the ehviol onsequenes o slentspets o ientity e inuened y whtthe sitution seems to e out Both theontent nd ehviol impitions o nonline ientity e dynmilly onstutedn the moment he implitions o dynmionstution o how selonept nd identities mtte e tiulted in moe detil nthe next setion

Dynamic Constructio

We egn ou hpte with nume ooe peepts noting tht sel nd identitytheoies onvege in sseting tht the sel

selonept nd identity e metl onstuls soil poduts n oes o ton tht eel stle yet e mlele Weoutlined how the tems hve een used povided exmples o the evdene mshledo eh nd lled into question the eldsility to move owd it does not etteintegte with emeging ndestndng ohow the mind woks s otlined in the pevious setion hinking Is o ong nthis setion we onside the possiilty thtselonepts nd identities e not only ml-ee ut tully ynmilly onstutedwith eh se nd the implitions o this

possility o the impt o seloneptsnd identities on how peope think n d whtthey do. We summie ou thoughts usingthe identitysed motivton model s ouogning mewok Oysemn 2007200 200

IdenttyBaed Motivaton

eople intepet stutions in wys tht eonguent with thei uently tie iden-tities pee identityonguent tions oveidentityinonguent ones nd ntepet nydiuties they enounte n light o identtyonguene When tion eels identity onguent expeiened diulty in engging nelevnt ehvios simpy highlights tht theehvio is impotnt nd meningu Con-vesey when tion ees identity inongu-ent the sme dulty suggests tht enggng in these ehvos is pointless nd noto peope ike me hese peeptons hveimpotnt downstem eets on menngmking nd ehvio oth n the momentn ove time.

he dentitysed motvtion model hsthee oe postultes tht n e temed d-nm nsucn, on nd dudnss nd nn s nddf. Fom the st postulte dynm-i onstution omes the pedition thtwhih identities ome to mind wht theseientities e tken to men nd theeoewhih ehvios e onguent with theme dynmilly onstuted in ontext even


23/38

Sl SlC, d Idt

thugh identities eel stble nd septem ntexts. m the send pstultetin nd pedul ediness mes thepeditin tht identities e edness t tnd t mke sense the wd in tems

the nms vlues nd behvis elevnt tthe identity Whh tins e elevnt ndwht sense t mke situtins depends nidentity ntent, whih itsel is dynmillynstuted

he thid pstulte, ntepettin esend diulty, invlves tw spets Wthegd t the metgnitive expeene ese, the peditin is tht ese n bingngt mind n identity in peming behvi will be intepeted s ming theentity the identity nd the identity elevne the behvi it eels ight tmust be the tue me Untuntely imp

tnt identities e nt lwys esy t ing tmind, nd pesistently engging in identity-eevnt behvs is ely simple. hus, stightwd peditin m the identitybsed mtivtin mdel s tht, l thingsbeing eql peple will ten il in theipusuit selhnge Whiheve identitiesme t mnd n the mment nd whihevebehvis e esily lnked t them e thenes pesn will pusue Hweve, the send spet metgnitive expeene isthe intepettin expeiened diulty.n identitybsed mtivtin mdel peditstht the nsequene expeiened di

ulty will depend n the questins n ex-peene diuty s used t nswe, sdetiled next

Dyamc Costucio

he identitybsed mtivtin mdel p-ses tht peple e mtvted t ntepetsitutins nd t in wys tht eel ngu-ent with the identities. But identities edynmilly nstuted, s wht n iden-tity mens depends n hw it is mes tmind in the mment nd wht diultieswking n it e tken t men Cnside il/ethni identity On the ne hndidentity ntent is ssited with lgesil stute F exmple, study the eltinship between neighbhd el-tive segegtin nd il/ethni identitymng lwinme n mein ndtin uth in etit und tht sege

9

gtn is ssited with ntent il/ethni identty Osemn & n, 200)iving in neighbhd with highe thnityvege segegtin ws ssited wthless endsement nd ling in neighb

hd with lwe thn ityvege segeg-tin ws ssited with me endsement the thee mpnents il/ethnidentity elevnt t demi pemnennetedness weness ism, ndembedded hevement

On the the hnd, wht il/ethniidentity is tken t men s ls tive nstuted n the mment, s demnsttedin the llwing study. In this study lsinvving lwnme students esehesndmly ssigned hilden t ttend theiegul eetve lss n ltentive ele-tive twie week ve the st weeks

the ll ming peid Oysemn, Bybee& ey 200). Childen n the ltentiveeletve ptiipted in gup tvites de-sgned t dynmly ete eeing thtshlused pssible identities wee nguent with the imptnt identtes nd mens t ttin desed nd vid undesieddult identities s pedited the shlused pssible identities nd nguene these identities with il identity in-esed in inteventn nt ntl yuthnd these shlused pssible identities pedited hnge in behvi nesedshlsed pssible identities pedited

me inss ptiptin, me tme spentding hmewk nd bette gdes nd ttendne

nthe set studies ls invlving lnme n mein nd Ltin hlden detly tested the impt dynmily eting sense tht shlusedpssible identites e mens ttiningdesied pssible selves Destin & Oysemn, 00, tudies nd 2 n st study,winme students wee sked t nsdethemseves 10 yes in the utue. Respnseswee ntentded whethe they epted ttinng thei utue sel s dependent n independent shl tudents wh swthei utue sel s depending n shl suess wked hde in shl nd gt bettegdes n the send study, new smple winme students ws ndmly ssignedt eeive eithe Census inmtin shwing the nnetin between edutnl t


24/38

90 I. AWAREN ESS COGNI ION, AND RE GULATION

tanment and average earnings in their stateor Census nformation on aveage earnngsfor top athletes �nd entertanrsthe futureselves descrbed Study as dependent ofschool success As predicted, compared with

chldren i n he educaton-independent futureself conditon, children n the educatondependent future self conditon not onlsad that they would spend more tme onhomework that night but they were asoeght imes more ikey to actuay hand nan etra-cedit assignment

Thus which dentites come to mid andwhat they mean in context is a functionof both chronc and situatonal cues wthsome stuations more ike to cue particuaridentities or constellations of identities thanothers People's nterpretation of cued identities (or dentity constelations) depends on

the pragmatic meanng of these dentities inthe particular context.

he identitybased movaton modelshares with socia dentty ajfel & urner2004} selfcategoiation urner Hogg,Oakes Reicher, & Wetherell 987) andsymbolic selfcompletion (Wicklund & Gollwe 19 theories the notion that peopleact to increase fe similarity to salent socaidentities paticuarly when membershipmigt feel threateed ike many theories icultua psychology riandis, 989, 1995he identtybased motvation mode predictsthat differences dentity epression relect

diffeences in the elatve salence of orgaizing self-concept structures, includng indvidua and collective self-concepts

However by aguing fo dynamc construction te identity-based motvationmode m�ves beyond tese pror formulations in a number of ways It predcts thatwhat an dentity means and thereforewat is conguent with it is dynamicalyconstructed in the moment and can motvate bot positive ad selfudermingo even self-destructive behaviors t asopredicts tat wen behavior feels identitycongruet, te experi

nc

of dfculty

in

woking o the behavr IS likely to be m-terpeed as meaig that the behavior s animportant part of the process, not an indcation that the beavior s impossible or unnecessary

Evidece for the rst pemise comes from aseres of studies examning the shifting effect

of identty on ealth (Oysema Fryberg,&Yoder, 2007 n a seies of studies we Oyseman et a 2007 Studes 1 and 2 demonstrated that minority and majority groupsheld the same baseline belefs about the ef

cacy of a healhy lifestle in reducing heathrisks evetheess, minoty group memberswee more ikely to identif unhealthy beavors suc as eating fried foods drinkingsoda and adding salt as ngroup behaiosand less likey to identfy as ingroupdeninghealthy behaviors such as fossg teeth orexecising as an adult. ese differenceswere striking because partcpants were coege studets at an elite prvate uversity.More impoant their perceptions of whatis or is not an group thing to do made theircorrect baseline beliefs about the efcacy of aheathy lestyle vulnerabe to identitybasedmotivatonal concerns

In follow-up studies we primed minoriy(e.g, atno African American, or American ndian and owcome identities andfound that when these detities were salient paticipants' access to informationabout heath and beief i the preventive capacity of health behaviors was undeminedLatno and Afrcan American childenrandomly assgned to consider their socialidentities reported higher fatalism abouttheir future health as adults than childrenin the contro group Oyserman Fryberg ea 2007 Study 3 hey were also less successfu in accessing te health knowedgemakig more mistakes on a health knowledge qui than childe in the control goufor whom soca denttes were not primed(Oyserman, Frberg, et al, 2007, Stud4 Moreover smoking, weight ga andhigh sugar consumptio were rated as eslikey to egatively nuence heah amonAfrican American and Native Americapartcipants randomly assigned to a sociaidetitysaient coditio rather than a conto condtion Oyserman Fbeg e a2007 Studies 7

Action and Procdual Radiness

When an identity is cued what comes tmind is not simply te content of the iden·tty but aso relevant actios and ways o:thnkig about the wold Consder eseademonstating that cronic or momentaril


25/38

4 S SC Iy

pimed relationa us selcocept restsi assimilatig others' characteriscs aspart o the sel Kemmelmeier Oserman00a tapel Koomen 200 More generally primg people to cosider themselves

a separate and distct inlences how theyprocess inormation geeraly The idea istat what comes to ind when an dentty isced is not simpy content t also a generalway o making sense o the world ecaltat selconcepts ca be strctred to ocs me or s to ocs on the actors per-spective minds eye or the obsever's per-spective eye o another dentites take otese strctral aspects

hs idetities are predicted to icldeot oly content bt also a mindset or waof makig sense of the world People askedto descrbe how they are separate and dis

tict rom their amily and riends or to cir-cle singlar me or plra us rstpersopronos in a paragraph do ot st describerelevant personal or social elational se-traits ad characterstics, they also apply theprimed mindset or selconcept strctre toother tasks Oyserman et al, 009) hosepimed wth a collectivistic mindset are better at tasks in which integrating helpstheyremember where obects were located inspace bette tha those primed with a individalistic mindset Those prmed with aidvidalistic mdset are better at tasks iwhch separating helpsthey are qicker at

troop tasks reqirig that oe ignore somepercetal ces while processing otherssaying ot lod the color in whch the wordd is printed reqires igoring the semanticmeaning as irrelevant)

O corse everyone has an array o denti-ties some persoa me selconcepts andothers social s seconcepts At the sametime as discssed n previous sections thereis some eidence o chronic betweengropdierences n the propesity or me ands selcoceps to be well artclatedMarks and Oyseman 9 89) reviewed andsynthesied the extant literatre on geder dereces in mathematical and spatalabilities Men and wome they ond diered in how they navigated and made sense threedimensonal space. Me were morelkely to report mental mager searatedrom their ow perspective seeing the worldas the crow flies rather than as they tra

9

versed t These gender diereces mappedoto diferences in perormance on tasksthat volved rotation o oects i three-dimensional space

Mars and Oyserman 989 proposed

that selconcept strcture cold predic these eects Althogh both men andwomen can have socal identties based ingender men and wome may dier i thepropesity to se social ad relational inor-mation in artclating identities and therefore te likelihood o accessng me ors selcocepts Men were pedicted tobe more likey to dene the sel as separatedro contexts and relationshps ad womenwere predicted to be more likely to denethe sel as embedded in cotexts and reatonships ender diferences in selfconceptstrcre shod have implications or which

cognitive procedres are accessible, and thisin trn shold predict diferences in spataltasks beneting rom deret cognitiveprocedres In particar separae meselstrctre shold make separating cogni-tive procedres generally accessible whichshold make context easier to ignore andthereore tasks iolving hreedmensionalrotation in space easer

Whereas Maks and Oysermans 989)argment was based on a review o the gen-der literatre on cognitive style, sbseqetocs shited to crossnational diferencesarguing or cltral difereces in persona

verss socia ocs o selconcept Marks Ktayama, 199) At the same timecossnational dierences in dgment anddecison makng that were also emergingseemed to parallel the prevosly describedgender derences in selfconcept strctreor a revew see Oyserman, Coon Kem-meleier 2002) or example ropeanAmericans seem to ocs on the gre andgnore backgrod i processing visal inormation generally whereas Chinese Nis-bett, 2003 and Japaese Kitayama Dfy,Kawamra, arse 2003) people seem toocs on he reationship between gre adbackground congruent with a social ideti-ty focs on the sel as connected ad relatedWhie none o these models directly testedmediaton al mplied an mportant role ofselconcept strctre

Triands and his coleagues Tramo etal 19 9 riandis, 9 89 ) provided an itial


26/38

9 AWAEESS OGTO, EGUAO

monaon a ff may b o ynami onrion of ini hymona a hy ol liay ir ol ol mo ona ooal inii o ib hml by

ifing ariian nhmomn foon hml a im ar o or ffrn fomfin an famiy hy alo o haon a rona or oial iniy fo a in on aion i a likly o b again in anor aon n a 2ya bai ning ha bn liang a aiy of iaional , oinga ol n Ea an W ibml ing mor o fr oial inii nng on hih i in a ginaon fo a , Oyman L28a 28b

Ho iniy i ma fo bha-

o h an o on of or onng q-on"o abo offring a brib o ina onraha bn mona oary ning on hhr ol on-r qon af bng im iha "m or an " lfon Maa &Aggaral 211, Sy 2 ol anomly agn o a a aagah anirl "m on ingar o "ron ral onon hy ook onh ol of a al agn omng againor agn o in a ona an a oi h o off or no o offr abrib ho in h "m oniion l

lky o o o h ia aoronary analy of lag onaionalaa hong a bribry mo om-mon in oi oma o ina oni Maa Aggaa 2Sy if in iniy fo hifan o a, n in ay o gnray a ion

Intptton of Dcu

h fomlaion of niy a iningboh onn ha on hink abou hnon hink abo onlf an nraionof aomaning maogni ro -flion on ho hnking fl aarn h rng of Wllam Jam 8 9/192 7o nly oa ognion ra amonra h imoan of onirngbo onn of ogh an manng ab o flng of a o iflyaoia h og Sar

22 2 2 mag of onfangrn an fr ni ar iniablylink i fling of a o ifly ana h flng man n on qon on ak onf in rgar o h

fling f h qion i " i imorano m hn n ifly may bnr a mang a an iY i imoran o m Oihy am oking o ar Conrly f qon " h ra m nrin ifly may b inra maning ha h an i "no afling of a a ommonly inr ar an gninn

Common inraion of fl iflyar a if i i a o hnk of o a o o,hn i l ky o b Hggin 998 Sa Clor 199 hi ol imly

ha n of maogni ifly an aily b noo o man no fo m Ho a nmb of ia omn ha ohr inrraionar oib Sha 2 21 Sooi abon naion of hmaning of rin ifly g, "Noan no gan an n o k ying g, "Yo mi 1% of h o yoon ak Smilary hn aming oaain a oolfo iniy ma-ogni n of fly i gnayin a no h m b ol inr o man o hing if-

l an b a a norma a ofh o g "Su i % iniaionan 99% iaion ifly an alooi n of og g "h moan hing in lif a h on yo aya o ork fo f ify an fairalong ay ar i a ial o na n ifly in ofing

h man a inrraion of ifly i ial f ni a aaly o n-fn baio o im Coni b-aior rqir o aain a "goo niniy o a alhy on iniy o bo bom a goo n on ol nno ony o ay aon n la brng oman o homork ak no an y foam b ao o foak o a a maiii ha migh inrfr ih hhoi Wha ify man n onh qion in of ify iam o anr Conir "goo


27/38

4 Sl SCocp y

dn dniy A sudn xprinin diuy in shlwrk mih sk numbr qusins I h qusin is Hv sudidnuh? hn diuly uld b kn mn h n hd n sudid nuh In

his s diuly shud rsul in inrsdr i h qusin is Is his rlyh ru m hn diuly uld b kn mn h n nn bm d su-dn In his s, diuly shuld rsul inrdd r

s his nin, lmnry shl hidrn n n rshl prrm r hildrnih diulis in shl wr rndm s-sind n w ndiins diulywhu nrpri, diuy wih inr-prin), skd dsrb hr pssiblslvs r h min yr, nd ivn nvlmh sk vi Osrmn unpub-lishd d Al hidrn wr mindd hhy wr priipin in h rshlprrm. n h ninrprin ndiinhildrn wr skd iv n xmpl im h sh sk ws du rhm. n h nrpin ndiin, hi-drn wr skd iv n xmpl mh sh sk ws diul r hm buhy kp ryin bus sh is imprn hm As prdd inrprin md. Childrn n h inrprin ndi-in dsibd mr pssibl svs nd wrm prsisn h nvl mh sk.

h mmn nrprin diuys mnin w bily s wll wih Amri-ns bli h inllin nd mny hrbiliis r xd rhr hn mllblwk 2002) r mr, nmus biv h biiy is mllbl ndn b inrmnlly impd rhr hnbliv i s sbl ri r ny Dwk2002) udns hldin nrmn hris r mr ikly prsis vr ims d sudns nvind hld n inr-mnl hry wk, 2002). h dniybsd mivin md prvids rm-wrk wihin whh undrsnd niy nd

inmnl rmuins s niv hrisxplinin wh diuly mns I rmrs inrmnl hry bliy, hnuly is ikly b inrprd s mnin h mr is ndd Hvr ir ds n mr n niy hry biliy) hn diuly is ikly b inr-prd s mnin h biliy is lkin sr shud b suspndd

9

mmay

Idniybsd mivin is rdinss n in idniynrun in {Oysr-mn, 200 Oysrmn Byb, ., 200

Oysrmn, ybr 2 00 n d usdniynrun mindss i n mkin sns h wrld Oysrmn . 200). Alhuh n xprind s sbl, idniyis hhly mllbl nd siuinsnsiiv,s whih sp idny ms mind is dynm prd h whh is hrni-lly ssib nd h wih is siuin-ly ud Mrvr bus wh is ud s nr minds rhr hn spi nn lis, dniy's imp n in nd prdurl rdinss is iky ur usd nsi�s wrnss nd wihu sysmprss

Whn siuins u n idny , -ml wh h ud idniy rris wih is n xd lis ris . wrm nr-i hr h d idniy rris wihi nl rdinss nd mk sns h rld in idniynrun rmsinludin h nrms vlus, sris, nds ssid wih h idniy, s wlls h nv prdurs rvn i.Wh xly his rdinss lks ik s d-pndn n wh h ud idni ms mn in h artcuar cn in whh iis ud in ml is likly mn dirn hins n dirn nxs binrvw d, n ppinmn hisln his ds n impy h idniis dn prdi bhvis vr im bu h hprdiiv pwr n idniy dpnds nh sbiliy h nxs in whih i sud. us difrin ns u dirn sps n idniy nd dirin insins wih hr idniis, h idniybhvir lnk my b pqu h n idniy will b sbl vr im hxn h individuls rpdly nunr psyhlilly ismphi siuinsbus in h insn h siuin will

nndr rdinss k h sm insr rd disussin h sbiliy iuds s hwr, 200) On hibms dny lnkd i is umid. i ls idniysnn, i ls rih ndds n rquir urhr lin On hhr hnd, i i ls nnsyni idni i ls wn nd his lin s dsn invi urhr rlin


28/38

AWARN SS OGTI O AD R G LATO

Wappg Upad Lookig Forward

W gn h h wih h inh lf n iny fl l hugh hy

ly n y in h wyl in h h inii ynily n in n Wgu h h n liy nn yni nn hlful En iliy lw l k iin n hi n hhy knw hlv n in hiwiingn inv in hi wn fA h i n yninn fi niiv nnf h nl ffn nnin W iu hw h ighhn y uing h iniy v-in l

W l uiz ningh whi sn dy fn n-hngy liy n iny ning h f n nu wih s nng scops ing whnh lf n d ing whn lfn h f h f-v iy h iliy n nf n n w h n ing i h gi ( h f i uzzy nu. Th

n h l hv n h hyknw wh h lf i vn hugh why i f iff f iuin iin. J vy fn finl hn h hy lh n nl nl nlwy h u in niwy ll h Thugh n y i-n n h ni f n y gnz lf i h ili-i f n f n n vn y Ii n knw I h i in n ill f n f y ngnlf in y iffn nii hvng

ui nl n i ni f f nl illn

Th nl nn in in h vi lv n ll cocp lf-n in nn w uun vui ugn h vluivgn h f yilly sm scc lf n

ffy h in Ainfn h f ny y uh l h nw n unllylfn uu h n i n nu f wy u w in lin f -

h fu n wh w mdss nhrrch. Hihy h whh in h v nn h lf u in hihyn f n f nlyi f vlu-iv gn u h lf in n y fnn in Th gl i inwhh lfn n vling illy hgn nnnf n nh h h n uuin u f v n ngivfn nn n liy n- f lfiv lfn inWhil n nning w n hihy

h nly iing n h n n nh f h n fnu whih w mds rsrch

Mn h h hv uli lf iingih yffn n gnizng f nn nwn nqun f gnin n hv hi h n y h y f nivilii vi fn l iu h n iv king l n l f nf h n n i iuyng nw fn f lf h -

u i n h l hv lfn u vll hh n ily u u ff in hnn n nqun. ln inivii in ni n nyuing lngg inlf n hnking f nlf n iin i l h nqnf in n n n -illy n nivili in inh kh h n h w w iv h hn ln h nl nfn w u n f n ignly h hn il in f-gn.

Mving wh n y niy wgg h ds inlu nnn n n y n k ning Prs d n' i hii n iu gl n vl n y f ing


29/38

Se Se-Ce ad d 1

ofly, t ar of trmd v t ocal cc ltratr. Soc idnit ar a pro rol, trproal ra-op ad rop mmbrp, ad ra, caracrc, atrbt, oal adval cort w rol, raop ad mmbrp

o bttr drtad wr dt com fom ad ow ty matr fordmt ad bavor bot t momta ovr tm, w propod a bttr tra-to of dy of lf, lfcocpt addty w t td of mtal procr cor prdcto mr from ao, wc w trm dyamc coco, aco ad procdral ad,ad trpato of a ad dfclty Acard by modr dalpoc modlof coo k vov bot rlx-

v ad rctv poc flxv, ym 1 proc rapd ad ffortl, rt of pad acvao of aocatvok form of proc potdalay b opra t bacrodyld ck rpo a fl ot form of proc rctv, or y-m 2 proc lor ad mor ffort-fl t rlt of ytmac codrao ofco ad applcato of l formof proc oprat popl av tm motvato, ad mtal capacy o -a

v at popl av a lar tor of

aoborapcal owd mmoy,almot ay aocav twok lkly totaly l to om apct of atobo-rapca kowd. mpl tat r-xv proc lkl o yld a aocato om apct of f, o ta adtty or apct of dty wll frtlycom to md a par of oo ym proc wtr or o ytm 2 poc ad owvr wat ta dttyma t momt dpd ar pao at alo com to md mo-mt of rxv proc. Mot forma-to amd to b vat ad popl a

mlat wavr com o md to trol dtty dmt, fo-mato a a adard to d t lf olydr crta crcmac a , oca dtty com to md tro xvpoc, wa ma dpd o o ormao a com to md cotx T formato cldd

dy l r rao to t a atadard of compao fo t dy.

tr to t da toc at maklf, fcocpt ad dty l trt- rcommd tr av for ftr rac t, lf, lfcocp, addy ar tt bca ty mto prdct bavor ovr m ow do acally app cod lfcocptad dty ar tt bca atvr com o md fl ral ad abl yt,a av dmotratd, lfcocpt addty ar ly mallabl ad ca vb dyamcaly cotrctd t momt,o tabty oft mor m ta ralow do wo xprc coxt addr wa ccmtac do awar offt maaby, ad dyamc cotrco mprov lb rd, lfcocpt

ad dtty ar trt bca lfx ovr tm op ca ad do mat lf cot ovr tm ad from cld-ood ca ma om dd ad drd ftr dtt o pop om-tm v crrt ffot o atta fr dtt, of y drpfomfa o atta t aprao prapbca ty mtrp fl of df-cy a ma a oal ar mpoblor fl of a a ma ta doo d o ry Wat pct crrt -vtm t fr f, wtr artclar f dtt o t llb of t

ftr lf mor aly , av fomt, practc aly lfyl tordc ftr k t a td mportatv for fr rarc

cknedgent

Te u suo o he Ala o ubol oudao o h Oysra s aully acold

efeences

Aba D 4) Soca suao [Scalsu: h sl a h colc Personalityand Socia Psychoogy Buetin 47483

Aas D 9) Socal y a socalcoo Abas & M A o socia identity an d ocia cogniion ( 1972) Ma MA acwll


30/38

96 WR CONN RUL"

Ajzn 988 ttituds prsality ad bhavir o: Dosy ss

Ajzn & Fhbn, M 19 Attud

bhvo tos: A tho nyss dw o pl sh. PsychlgicalBullti , 888-918

Alos P A (199. t onmton d dsonmon: Th dvlopmnt o tttonbss jural f Eprimtal Child Psy-chlgy 5, 17-193

Althl, ysmn D & Byb, D 2006lthn dny n mddol:ont d s dtos o gdshild Dvlpmt 11169

As, H , & ds, J 2011 ntt tos o bhvo n B so & vnds) Itlligc aalysis Bhaviral d

scial scitic fudatis (pp 14-168shgton D: onl Ads PssAnt D Gmn & H, 200 T

dny sln odl o loshp mtn ss Jural f Marktig 89-0

B M & Pt, A (1994 T s sol ontts Aual Rviw f Psyhl-gy 5, 297-2

Bd, A 197 ly Towd nyg hoy o bhvo hng Psychlgical Rviw 19-21

Bnd A (2001 ol ogtv oy: Ann psp ual Rviw f Psy-

chlgy 52, 1-26Bms F 998 T sl n D T Glb Fs & G ndy Eds), Had- f scial pyhlg 4 d pp 680) w o: MGwHll

Bngsson Don, & Pssnhm 201 Pm o sst sth onong o ons ow omn S-ial Cgitiv ad Ativ Nurscic 4142

B, & nd 20 08 htn sgnls tohl hlth sn dnty sgnln to dsy hh bhvos ual f sumrRsarch 5, 09-18

Bhd P Dbbs, J M, Fd J A& t (1998. Tsoston hsdung os ns o nnng ndlosn mo ns spo vs Physilgy ad Bhavir 962

Blnton 2 00 vltn sl n th ont o o: Assmlon nd ons s n ol omon n G B oowt(d, gitiv scial psychlgy h Pric-t ympsium th Lgacy ad Futu f

ial giti p 7-87 Mhwh Jlb

Blss, , & Shwz 200 Mtl on

nd h g o sslo nd ots s: nlson/lso modlAdvas i Eprimtal cial Psychlgy, 39-373

Bon , F nbsl & Fys, J (2002 Bvo osns o ton gop sss: An n sd o so ural f cial Psychlgy , 79678

Bon F Vnbs, Pnd, MDw, Dz B nw B, t 2002 olts nd bsngntdgloA ldstdy n Fnds asi ad AppliScial Psychlgy 20214

Bosm , & Knn, 200 Dtm·

nns d mhnsms n o dny dvopmn: A vw d synthss DvlpmtRviw 2 39-66

Bon, M & o, J 998 bb hdl oh tht ys s Natur 756

Bw M B 199 h sol sl: n bnth sm nd dnt sm m Psaliy ad cial Psychlgy Bulli 47-482

Bw M B 200 1 nop dno dntgop on Wn dos ngoup ovbo oop h Rutgrs Sris lad cial dtity 17-4

Bw M B & Gdn W 996 ho s

hs w vls o olltv dnty dsl sntons ural f Prsalityad cial Pychlgy 8-9

Bw, M B & os, . 200. ndvdl vls sol dtty, nd opml dstntn n dds & M Bwds, dividual sl rlativ sl cllctivslf pp. 219-27 Phldph: PsyhooyPss

Bonso M B 2000 lfrgulati i arlchildhd: Natur ad urtur. w Yo:G od Pss

Bown J 1998 h sl Boston: Gwll

llo, P ) T soooy o th sl A-ual Rv iw f Silgy 11-1

lson D , & owons, 1 994 ns n ng o oon svdn o sonto nn ntonural f Prsality ad Scial Pychlg6, 8086

, & h, 978 osns o dsoso slnsosss,mo sn d dn sn Jur


31/38

4. Cop d dey

w o Peonay an Soca Pycholoy 242

Cave, C. & Scheier, M (19 90) Principles of

selfregulatin: Actin and emtin. In E T M rrnin (d), anbooomoaon an conon Vol ouna-

tions of social behavior (p 3-52). New York:

fd PrCri, , Gr H, Hiin . (24)

ry nd rn: Trnfr rfin rih journal o Pronaly an So-al Pychooy , -4

Cin, , p (d) (1) Dualroce heor n ocal ycholoy wr: Gid Pr

C X, Chn H (21) Chidrn fnnn nd jn in h nin

Chin iy In K ibr XC ), Socal chan an hman el-omn once an rl (p 2-22)hd , C:

Cid, , Brdn, hrn, A Wr,M, Frn , n, ( ) Bin rd ry oua o Peronay anSoca Pycoloy , 12222

Ch D, G, A. (22 A y h : Prpv f i h d in rin f nrd Wrnr Pycholocal Scnce ,55-5

C, 1 Fr br fr w:

Th p f wrd prn nfvin Pycholocal Bulln 5-

Cy C (12) Human nar an he ocalorr e : rbnr

Cin (1) Cr nd prpinin n nd h nd Jornal o Pr-onaly an Socal Pycholoy 124

Cri, bini M, M, W (2)Cprn h dyn f diy frn hni r: Dpn didin f rdi d Jor-n o olecn 2-222

Cr, dn ( 1 ) Md f h

f: fnr nd ndr PycholocalBlln 5-

Cr W E r ih, , Pyn, 22).B idniy A rprir f dy . In P B Pdn, G Dr nr, Tib (d) ounelnacro clur 5h d, p -1) Thd , CA:

Dvi P G, pnr, , C M(25) Crn i: Idy fy d

r h ff f ryp hr n wn' dhp pirin ournal o Peronaly an Socal Pychooy, 22

Din , yn D 21) Innivii dn hwr invn, hr ournal o ErmenalSocal Pycholoy , 4-4

Dindr G dr (2 1) W idrn nfr fr i r oneDeomn 2, 1112

Dw, C 22) T dvn f iynpi In A. id (d),Delomn o achmn moaon(p ) n i, CA Ad Pr

, Adr T, Frn, , Gff K C M 1 ) pi,v nd di hvi In pn

d), cheemn an achemn mopp -4) n Fn: Fr, A (21) onc o h l C

bri, K Poy Prr, pr D, B (22 f

nd dniy nnua R oPychol-oy , 11-

r K C yr, (n pr) If"w n d n I: Idnybdin nd nr in on-morary Eucaonal Pychooy

n, T, C, 2 ) n niy nd r: T dffri f w f niny Pronaly an

Socal Pyholoy Bulen 4pin (1) fp id

hy f ry mrcan Pychoo, 44-1

rn, H 151) hlhoo an ocyw r: n

Erin, H (1) eny Youh an cr.e o oon

hr (12) caon an acon:Ecancyaue moel n holoyHd,

Fn, B (1) wh) i f:Hw ff fpri In (d) Pychoocal ec on h l

(V 4, pp 12) Hd , : bFrn, M, Bh, (2) i i

dn: ff f pi n iin ornal o Peronaly an SocalPycholoy 55-2

hbh, A r, M (2) T osu in i pyhy In A W Ki T. Hii (d) oca ychol-oy anboo o bac rnl nd d,pp. 451 5) w r: ifrd P


32/38

98 I AWARENES GNN AND REGUA

T 12 Tining i fo dong oti of ocil cogniion fo dgoypto lphoo ul f ernlt n Sl hl 6 7-

Fiv, (201 h dvlopn of tobio

gphic oy nnul Reew f hl- 2, 55-2

i , & Hond, . (10 Aobiogphic oy co h pchoo yTowd concpiing childood ni Fivh & Hdon d) Knwnn rememern n un hlren: mrSmp n Cnn Vol. pp 22-24w Yo Cbidg nviy .

Fog J ., & illi, K D d) 2002he l elf Cnte nerpernl, nnterrup perpete w Yo: ycology

Fbl, D Gnd cil hnic, l

nd c idni nnul Reew f -hl, 1162

Gd, Gbil & A Y 1 v o bu w v ltiohip: lfcontl piing io cltldiffnc in dgnt hll S-ene, 21-26

Gc V 12 Th fconcpt nnul Re-ew f Sl, 8 1-.

Gln h o o nili nchidn concpt. ne n Chl eel-pmen n Behr 2 55-

Gln A, & Dndc G (1h' in concp Cont vibiiy dpychologicl ii ig deelpment f mentl repreenn: he-re n ppltn pp 7-1 MhwhNJ lb

Goffn, 15. The preentn f elf neer lfe Gdn Cy, ody

Golwi, , i K & tign G 2004nning nd th iplnttio of go n B & K D Voh d Hn f elfreuln Reerh, ther, npplcn pp 21-22 w Yo Glfod

Gollwi , & ichhof, h willfl pi o idtity n Hcn & CDwc d) tn n elfreulnr he lfepn pp -42 w YoCbidg ivy

Gnwld A G 10. T otin go:Fbicion nd viion of pon hioymern hlt, 5 6061

Gnwld A G & Bni M (1 hlf oy yt: owf b odi

ny jurnl f ernlt n Sl hl, 4154

Gndln, M Chyn & Monin B2011 Fitting in bt gting ft dntitht n xpnton fo dity dc

ong ign gop hllSen 22 5-67

HonJo , ion , Gnbg yzczyn T oloon, & McGgo, H(17 To ngn hoy d lft: vdnc h ncd lftdc otiy ic fct jurnl ernl n Sl hl, 2, 246

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