Motivation of

Individuals

Organizational Behavior: ManagingPeople and Organizations,Ninth EditionGregory Moorhead, Ricky W. Griffin

Chapter 4

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Chapter Learning Objectives

Characterize the nature of motivation, including its importance and basic historical perspectives.

Identify and describe the need-based perspectives on motivation.

Identify and describe the major process-based perspectives on motivation.

Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.

After studying this chapter you should be able to:

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The Nature of Motivation Motivation

– The set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways– Manager’s viewpoint, the objective is to motivate people to behave in

ways that are in the organization’s best interest. The Importance of Motivation

– Job Performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability (A), and environment (E)

P = M + A + E

- Employee must want the to do the job well (M), must be able to do the job effectively (A) and must have the materials, resources, equipment and information to do the job (E).

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The Motivational Framework

How Motivational Processes Occur– A need is anything an individual requires or wants

– A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need

– Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies

– Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior

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Historical Perspectives on Motivation The Traditional Approach

– “Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes that employees are motivated solely by money. Ex. Piece-Rate Incentive.

The Human Relations Approach– Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that fostering favorable

employee attitudes (the illusion of involvement) results in motivation. Ex. Group decision making

– Wants to feel useful and important.

The Human Resource Approach– Assumes people want to make genuine contributions; managers should

encourage their participation by providing the proper working environment conditions. Ex. IBM new rule

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Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation Need-Based Theories of Motivation

– Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)

– Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.

Basic (or deficiency) needs– Physiological– Security– Belongingness

Growth needs– Esteem– Self-actualization

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Figure 4.2 The Hierarchy of Needs

Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374–396.

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Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer) – Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth

(G) needs

Assumptions:– More than one need may motivate a person at the same

time– (1)Satisfaction-progression and (2) frustration-regression

components imply that a person may not stay at the same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d) The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)

– Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate dimensions:

Motivation factors which affect satisfaction Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction

– Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once hygiene factors are addressed

– Criticisms: May be both method and culture bound Fails to account for individual differences Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions

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Other Important Needs– The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)

The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past

– The Need for Affiliation The need for human companionship

– The Need for Power The desire to control the resources in one’s environment

Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

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Focus of Process-Based Perspectives– Why people choose certain behavioral options

to satisfy their needs

– How people evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals

Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d) The Equity Theory of Motivation

– Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to avoid perceived inequity

Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others

Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly in relation to others

The Equity Comparison– Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)

Inputs (self)Inputs (other)

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Figure 4.4 Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity

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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Victor Vroom)– Motivation depends on how much we want something and how

likely we think we are to get it Key Components

Effort-to-performance expectancy

The perceived probability that effort will lead to performance

Performance-to-outcome expectancy

The perceived probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes

Outcome Anything that results from performing a behavior

Valence The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person

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Figure 4.5 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

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Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)

The Porter-Lawler Model– Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction

and performance– Assumes that:

If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction.

Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic (intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.

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Figure 4.6 The Porter-Lawler Model

Reference: Figure from Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance. Copyright © 1968. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

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Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation Learning

– A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience

How Learning Occurs– Traditional View: Classical Conditioning

A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus

– Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they

learn

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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)

Reinforcement Theory and Learning– Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

Behavior is a function of its consequences Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior

– Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement A reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behavior

Negative reinforcement (avoidance)

The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior

Extinction Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior

Punishment An unpleasant or aversive consequence that results from behavior

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Table 4.1 Schedules of Reinforcement

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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d) Social Learning in Organizations

– Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result

– Conditions for social learning: Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not

intellectual Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed

behavior

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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d) Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)

– The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings

Effectiveness of OB Mod– Varying results in organizational applications– Lack of “real world” use

Ethics of OB Mod– Individual freedom of choice– Employee manipulation