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    1. Non Literal Materials for the knowledge of the Eschatology of the 2 temple.

    Ossuaries were manufactured by the Jerusalem artisans in the late 1 st century. It is like a

    response to the local demands. The skills for sculpturing were used by this artesian forthis work before the destruction of the temple in 70AD.

    With the wars, the ossuaries makers scattered in Jerusalem and the quality of the workalso diminished and ossilegium was gradually abandoned in the mid-to late third Century.The dating of the beginning of ossuaries is a bit difficult but following excavations inJerusalem, ossuaries were found in tombs with Herodian lambs, which is dated to the firstcentury by Avigad and with grooved bodies and elongated noozles ( the latter is dated tothe reign of Herod). Thus, ossuaries may be said to have been introduced in Jerusalemca.20-15BCE.20BCE-70AD hard limestone ossuaries especially in Jerusalem and softlime stone was

    used for soft carved ossuaries-also found some 25km away from Jerusalem. Jericho wasalso a good environment for the manufacturing of ossuaries especially copying fromJerusalem.

    70-135CE the manufacture of ossuaries after the destruction of Jerusalem ceased. Thosefound were either manufactured by unskilled artisan who escaped the disasters followingthe war-famine, slaughter and captivity or bought before the war. One of those found ismade of clay. This is unique for this period. Cheaper ones were manufactured in SouthernJudea from softlime and the decoration was by fine incision. The culture of ossuariesspread round and this is probably effected by the influx of refugees from Jerusalem tothese ares- Jaffa, Emmaus Gezer e.t.c. they were characteristically low quality and cruely

    incised ornamented executed in free hand.Motifs: nefesh and domed tomb inspired by local sepulchral architecture.The population of the Jews diminished after the second war against the Roman, thus therewas no serious need for the ossuaries anymore unlike the preceding period. The ones inuse this time were mostly plain and diagonal-cut feet; the lids are either flat or voltedform. There were old patterns of decoration. Soft-lime Ossuaries were also found inashlar-built tombs. These probably pre-date 135CE and may be even 70CE.

    There is a limited use of ossuaries this period in Galilee and the culture was probablyintroduced after 70CE- ca80 or 90CE. They were crudely fashioned, plain may be forlack of artisans. One found in Tiberias in an ashlar tomb was with a voulted lid, similarto those found in Judea. Various materials were used in Gelilee for the ossuaries.

    Late 2nd- ca. Mid 3rdCE.Clay ossuaries were used in Gelilee Acre, Nazareth and Kafr Sajur unto the mid of the3rd CE. May be because of the influx of refegee from Judaea after 135CE.The last groups of stone ossuaries are found in Judaea where those who returned lived orretained their land. From this date an awkward relief-carve rosette was also found. By the

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    mid 3rd CE, the wide use of ossuaries by the Jews diminished because of political,religious and social changesAfrica- some ossuaries were found in Africa- Alexandria, having simple incisedornamentation similar to the once found in Jericho. It is speculated to have been broughtfrom Jerusalem before 70CE.

    Carthage-Late 2nd

    CE, Cyrinaica-1st

    CE. One found in Algeria is taken to be Christianreliquaries, even though it had the same chip-carved decoration.

    It is noted that these ossuaries are decorated. Thus the plane ones are very few.

    Decoration:

    One long side is ornamented this is considered to be the front. Only rarely is the wholeside ornamented and sometimes it is the lid that is ornamented. A greater part of thelimestone ones are decorated with metopes containing rosettes. One can also find floral orarchitectural motifs eg- tomb faade, ashlar walls columned porches and nefashot maycover an entire side of a chest and lid, pither smaller architectural motifs like doors, gates

    columns and various part of nefesh may replace the triglyph.One stricking point is the fact that the artisans enjoyed a freedom of design and this isseen in use of motifs that are removed from there context. Such could be enlarge orreduced oradded to an unrelated motif(s).

    INTERPRETATIONsymbolical:Goodenough is a major proponent of this symbolical interpretation. The motifs arerepressed symbols according to him. Most interpretation is based on the decoration on theossuaries. The interpretations have been in various and sometimes contradictory ways.For instance, the rosette has been interpreted as representing the eye of the deceased; as awheel symbolizing reincarnation or as Ishtar star. These have been considered untenableinterpretations however, symbolic interpretation is still being favoured by some scholarAmphora motif-alluding to Holy Zion, the Temple and the Priesthood.Gabled tomb faade- the Temple faadeThe Door Motif- as Torah arkRow of Arches- Royal portico in the Temple compound.

    According to the proponents of this interpretation in this case Goodenough, he sees theseas symbols of hope of another life for those whose bones were in the boxes- symbolof hope perhaps direct aids to it fulfillment. In general, he believes that the meaningor the value of a symbol lay in the emotional impact. Though this impact is universal,he determines this value within his own psyche. They also express deep mysticalconcepts shared by the artisan and the buyer of the ossuary.The Rosettes for instance is a symbol of the sum, the divine light which is intended

    to bring divine protection and power to the dead.

    Weakness/Limits If this is the value, then the dead in plane ossuaries are deprived of these power

    and protection.

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    It is also very subjective interpretation. He had no consistent system of deriving the meaning of these ornaments. The random combination of motifs also means that there is no standard placement

    and consistency of motifs. It is only the rosettes that are consistent in shape evenin their secular use.

    If these were symbolic there should have been a writing about it and the symbolicuse but this is not found. For instance- Tomb representations such as the shipsdepicted on the tombs of the Maccabees (1Macc.13:29-30) are discussed in theliterary sources not as symbols but as glorification of the dead.

    In the Tombs in Bet Shearim, phrases expressing consolation and hope occur with thenumerous representation of the menorah used as a symbol of Jewishness especially theJews from Diaspora. These rarely occur in the ossuaries or the tomb that contain them.There absence should therefore not make us take them as symbols.

    Judeo-Christian Interpretaion:

    This had Bagatti and Testa as its exponents. For Bagatti, the rosette is a star, symbol of

    the angels who are guarding the dead until the day of resurrection. For Testa, there is amystical meaning to the number of petals of each rosette. They are Christian creation,expression of the new Christian faith in the resurrection of the flesh and communion ofthe saints. Bagatti applied his view to the tomb of Dominus Flavit.

    Limits/weaknesses

    This view has been rejected. The practice of ossilligium is mentioned in thejewish text and the right way it should be practiced. Therefore, if it a Christianpractice, it would not have been mentioned al all considering the antagonismbetween Christians and Jews.

    The Ossuaries lack Christian inscriptions and marks.

    Figuras says the ossuaries were placed in dark caves and thus not meant to be appreciatedby the living, following the perspective of Goodenough. It was therefore a sign of thewish felt for the happiness and peace of the deceased and of benevolence from therelatives expressing their wish for the dead which includes everlasting life and bodilyresurrection. They are symbolic and relative to the viewer, it wii therefore be a fruitlesseffort according to him, to attempt at getting to the original meaning because it does notexit he said.

    Non-Symbolical interpretation:

    They are non-symbolical. Save for the very rare appearance of the word- shalom, not

    indication of resurrection or any of those aforementioned concepts by Testa. In the 3 rdcentury, the symbol was menorah and the wishes were expressed through inscriptions butthe use of ossuaries was already abandoned this period.The Artisan also decorated in view of making a higher sale not for any symbolic motif.The ornaments on the different stuffs are similar and are therefore probably carved by thesame artisan.The ritual of ossilegium was intended to reassure the survivors that their relatives

    rested for judgment cleanse from sin and entitled to resurrection.

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    EPITAPHS

    SLEEPThe formula, may your sleep be in peace has been a great source of debate especially

    knowing what it exactly means. Some scholars gave it an eschatological meaning. Thiswill of course imply that, peace will also have the nuance of salvation. If it is risingfrom sleep, then is a bodily resurrection from sleep to eternal bliss. Some say it isundisturbed rest of the body in the tomb, without any eschatological nuance.

    LimitsIt is difficult to sustain the position that that it points to an after life and even if we implyit, it lacks the specificity (body or spiritual?) of this life. Some say it is a wish and hasthe form of the imperative. Following this line of thought, some have refashioned it toread: en eirenh koimasqw. the imperative is then taken as a prayer to God whowould grant this sleep to the dead.

    PRAYERS

    The following explicit prayer asks God to grant peaceful sleep to the little child found onone of the epitaphs: nun, despota en eirhnh koimesi autou Iouston nhptionasugkriton en dikaiwmati sou.. Some think is might just mean that God shouldprevent the tomb from being violated.

    En eirhnh h2 koimhsiv autou meta twn osiwn-in pace dormitia eius cumiustis and beshalom im saddiqim-in peace with the righteous ones. There is a furtherformulation: dormitio tua inter dicaeis(= dikaiov) this desire is considered to be morethan a wish to be as a dead person in the same place as the Patriarch. dikaiov clearly

    refers to the biblical Patriarchs. Thus, following the literary sources, the Patriarchsreceive the Just in their bosom and provide them with heavenly banquet. If this is whatthe epitaph refers to then sleep will have to be referred to in a non-sleepy sense- blissfulexistence in paradise.

    Another prayer that corroborates this is the latin: dormitio tua in bonis. The phrase-inbonis could mean among the good ones or in good things if taken as neuter- thus, inhappiness, in bliss.No clear picture of the mode of existence with the patriarch is expressed but in view ofthe banquet, the bodily resurrection may not be ruled out.

    Further evidence of resurrection in the epigraphical Jews if found in the nameAnastasius/-ia. This was never in pagan sources and it was taken over by Christians is aclear indication of Resurrection.

    Evidence from Bet Shearim:

    Eutucwv th umwn anastasei- goodluck with your resurrection. This clearlyexpresses the belief in resurrection in an unambiguous manner.

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    Another poem has the affirmation of this believe in the resurrection. Though poetic, itclearly states: so that even after the end of lifes term you may both enjoy again newand indestructible riches. This is what the mother and the daughter will enjoy, this istaken as the reward of their earthly life. However the form of the post-mortal life is notstated.

    Kurie mnhsqhti thv doulouv sou Kurie mnhsqhti tou doulou sou This isnot merely remembering one but the term mnhsqhti has an eschatological undertoneespecially when it is read with Lk 23:42-43 where the thief asks Jesus to mnhsqhti, inhis kingdom and the response of Jesus immediately gives the eschatological overtone.The same sense is found in the published Cairo Genizah wisdom treatise where we readthat those who turn away from God and have become enslaved to their pleasure willcertainly be forgotten by God-(equivalent of not being remembered for good that isfrequently used both in the Aramaic inscriptions and Jewish texts has eschatologicalmeaning with the indication of the book of life.This has the eschatological meaning but the nature of the life is not known. Though, it is

    without doubt being with God.

    May your soul cling to Immortal life: here we have the case of believe in theimmortality of the soul.May anyone who dares to open (the grave) above us not have a portion of eternal

    life: though against tomb violators, it shows that the person believes in judgment andeternal life. The nature of which is not specified. In the same type of prayer againstviolators, we have one that lives not doubt: Anyone who removes this woman, he whopromised to revive the dead will, Himself Judge him. Here, to revive (zwopoihsai)) isa clear reference to resurrection like Eutucwv th umwn anastasei -which we hadearlier.

    These clear references to the resurrection of the body do not mean that these are the onlynotion of resurrection that was obtainable in this period. There were many notions in theHellenistic-Roman period side by side with the Jewish idea.The constant reference to eumoirei among the believers who had themselves buried inoil is indicative of the belief in after life. The deceased is bade farewell with this word. Itis not of a Jewish origin but found among the pagan epitaphs, they in there context wishthe dead a happy hereafter. In the Jewish context we have- kol yisrael yesh lahem heleqleolam haba. The term heleq became the term for a happy afterlife. This of course doesnot specify the nature of the life.

    Qarsei oudeiv aqanatov --No one is immortal, death is common to all people so tryto be courageous in the face of the inevitable. This is a view of this statement which mayreflect the view of the Jews who do not believe in the resurrection. This is seen in thecynical epitaph of the Roman Jew Leo- Friends I wait for you here (Amici ego vos hicexspecto). The Jerusalem inscriptions-one calls on the survivors to eat and drink

    and the other says- no one can go up {from the grave}. There is also the use of thesame formular to express the believe in the afterlife. In plato, Qarsei is used in thediscuss of after life and Jesus in the codex Bezae to answer the thief as well as 4Mac

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    17:4. Thus, it became a word used to encourage the dead in going through theproblematic passage from this life to the next. Thus, it is not to discourage or castigate.

    Leontopolis (Tell el-Yehudieh)

    This is in Egypt. We find various testimonies of the belief in the after life.

    1. The deceased woman said her soul has gone to the holy ones (yuch d eiv osiouvepete)2. The dead says: I await a good hope of mercy eleuov eltida agaqhnprosdecomai, this without doubt demonstrate an optimistic look at the final judgment.3. It is said of the dead woman that her spirit is {destined} for eternal life.4. His soul in the bundle of the living- naphsho bisror hahayyim. Though this does nothave an eschatological meaning, it acquired it in the post biblical period. It becamestronger in the medieval period.

    There is no indication of the nature of the life. However, we may say that there is thebelief in the immortality of the soul rather than a post-mortal existence. The reference to

    the judgment leaves no trace of the nature of this judgment.

    ASTRAL IMMOTALITY

    This is another type of immortality popular among educated pagans and found among theJews as well. The inscription from Corycos in Cilicia expresses this idea.Do not be despondent for no one is immortal except the One, he who order this to

    happen (and) and who has placed us in the sphere of the planets- (ov eiv sfairanplanhtwn katesthsen hmav)) the desaesed becomes part of thecosmic/astral bodies- entities.

    JUDGMENT

    There are few inscriptions that have reference to judgment, or condemnation or hell.The Roman inscription 526 has- ultor Deus Israel in saeculum the God of Israel will be arevenger until eternity. There are other ones that prohibit the violation of the tombs, in view ofthe coming judgment.We find the clearest indications in the epitaphs of Asia Minor. The violator is warded off with thewarningexei krisin prov tov Qeon (he will undergo the judgment before God) or exei prov thnkrisin he will have to face judgment.The inscriptions hinting at the judgment is found only in warning against the tomb violators.

    ConclusionThe idea of eschatology among the Jews is a very complex and difficult to understand. This is

    partly because of the obscurity we find in the text as well as the multiple opinions expressedtherein. The facts presented are also prone to different interpretations some of which are becontra-position of others; and strangely they are sustained. However, we may say that all thesepoint to the fact that:

    There is belief in the resurrection, the mode and nature not clearly expressed. There is belief in a Judgment and this is found mainly against the tomb violators There is recompense after death. A little indication of some kind of astral existence -Mode of existence after death.

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    The use of decorations which have some religious values in the ossuaries (menorot,resotte) may indicate some religious post-mortem ideas- although the specific ideas is notclear.

    We may therefore say that the eschatology expressed in non-literal materials are a complex andrich, not clear, yet says something.

    2Maccabees 7The setting of the story in this book is one of polemics. The Hellenistic literary genregreatly influenced the writing of this book as well. It is characteristically independent ofthe 1maccabees but they have a similar style.The story presented in this chapter is that of a mother and 7 children (the 7 th son took theprominent place and had to undergo the greatest suffering with the most moving speech.)who underwent great torture and finally martyrdom instead of going against the Torah.This story is paralleled both in the Jewish (Taxo and his 7 sons- the Assumption of Moses9) and Greek literatures (the death of Theoxana and her sisters children under Philip Vof Macedon- Polybius 23.10, Livy 40.4).

    vv1-6 set the stage for the persecution.

    The contention is to eat pork after their arrest like that of Eliazer. The first son refusedand would rather be ready to suffer martyrdom than disobey the law. His tongue andlimbs were cut. He faced a dehumanizing torture of being fried . they however encouragedeach other with this word: 6 'The Lord God is watching and certainly feels sorry forus, as Moses declared in his song, which clearly states that "he will take pity on his

    servants." while watching the first born been fried' like an animal. This same harshsituation was to be faced eventually, by each of the sons.

    7-9 the second son faced a more terrible torture. He exclaimed in Hebrew that God will

    raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.9 evn evsca,th| de. pnoh/| geno,menoj ei=pen su. me,n avla,stwr evktou/ paro,ntoj h`ma/j zh/n avpolu,eij o` de. tou/ ko,smou basileu.javpoqano,ntaj h`ma/j u`pe.r tw/n auvtou/ no,mwn eivj aivw,nionavnabi,wsin zwh/j h`ma/j avnasth,sei9 With his last breath he exclaimed, 'Cruel brute, you may discharge us from this presentlife, but the King of the world will raise us up, since we die for his laws, to live again forever.'Thus the title- the king of the universe contrast the limited power and dominion of

    Antiochus. This confidence gave impetus to the development of the belief in

    resurrection and judgment of the dead. This is a concentration on the contrasting

    fate of the martyrs and the King, highlighting the paradox that the dying sons are infact happier than the living king.

    Given the excursus on the theme of resurrection, we find out that the belief in

    resurrection pre-dates the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. With the use of the

    1st person plural, the author underscore the point that he is talking about individual

    resurrection the dead that will be given life again as describe in this verse is probablygoing to be in this life as expressed in v.23

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    10-11 the third son met with the same torture with a belief in the bodily resurrection andthe Heaven used here is the epithet for God. The onlookers were amazed at theircourage to face the death. This is always underscored in such stories- Hecataeus ofAbdera stated that the Jews deserve admiration because of their willingness to undergoany torture rather than transgress the ancestral laws, Aristeas-Exagete says God was

    amazed at the courage of job just as the king was amazed at the courage of the sufferingservant (Isa 52:15).13-14 the death of this 4 th son denied Antiochus any opportunity of resurrection. This isradical given the fact that the King is considered to be a divine person. He affirmed that: .14 When he was near death, he said, "One cannot but choose to die at the hands of

    mortals and to cherish the hope God gives of being raised again by him. But for you

    there will be no resurrection to life!"

    Does this speech mean that there is no resurrection for the wicked and the sinful? May bethe idea of resurrection at this stage is a positive one therefore to resurrect will be to havea good reward for what one has done. Therefore, it becomes sensible to think ofresurrection as a positive fact and solely for the just.

    15-17 the 5th son, the authority and power of Anthiocus is not because God hasabandoned Israel. Punishment is for Antiochus and his descendants18-19-6th son, though God is using Antiochus to punish Israel, he should not be arrogant.The Deuteronomistic history is at play here- sin and effect.

    18-19. The sixth son warns Antiochus that, even though God is using Antiochus to punishthe people, Antiochus should not be arrogant. Israels sins have brought this punishment.The Lord promised Solomon that if the people did not keep the commandments, Israelwould become a taunt among the nations, and they would conclude that Judea was ruinedbecause the people had forsaken the Lord (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Deutero-Isaiah promised thatZion would no longer be called Forsaken (Isa 62:4, 12; cf. Isa 49:14-15; 54:5-6; 60:14-15). Anyone who fights against God is sure to lose.A clear point of this verse is the fact that Antiochus is the instrument used by God topunish Israel but he will eventually be punished since he is fighting against God.

    20-23. This story of the mother, as noted above, was retold in rabbinic literature. In

    Midrash Lamentations 1:16, the mother of seven tells her youngest son to tell

    Abraham not to be proud because he had offered only one son as a test while she

    offered her seven sons indeed. Here her attachment to ancestral traditions is

    stressed through her use of the ancestral language, Hebrew. In a patriarchal

    culture, her nobility is shown through her possessing a mans courage (v. 21). The

    origin of human life is unknown (Ps 139:13-16; Eccl 11:5), but the author plays on

    the language of Gen 2:7 to explain how God will recreate her sons: God, the creator

    of the world, forms humans by breathing into their nostrils the breath of life.

    24-29. Often in traditional literature, when dealing with a powerful opponent the hero orheroine resorts to trickery to outsmart the official. Antiochus does not know what themother says in Hebrew, but he catches the tone (v. 24). He resorts to bribing the youngestson to change his mind, even offering to make him a friend, the official title of the kings

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    advisers (1 Maccabees records that such an offer was made to Mattathias [1 Macc 2:18]).The young mans refusal is symbolized by his not even listening to the king (v. 25). Theking tries to make the mother act as his advocate, but she cleverly agrees to persuade herson, but does not specify what she will persuade him to do (v. 26). Her manlycourage (vv. 20-21) is shown as she asks her son to show her pity, not by sparing

    himself, but by suffering cruel torments and death. The mother refers, as before (vv.22-23), to Gods creating power (v. 28). She states that God did not create from what

    previously existedi.e., as properly formedbut that God shaped the unformed

    world (see Gen 1:2, especially in the LXX). The mother further insults the king by

    calling him a public executioner (v. 29), a job usually performed by slaves.

    30-38. The last and most impressive speech is given to the youngest son; in traditionalliterature, the youngest son is always the most important. His speech rehearses the themesmet before: The Hebrews suffer because of their sins, as God disciplines them (vv. 32-33;see 5:17-20; 6:12-17); the king should not be elated or arrogant (v. 34; see 4:17, 21;7:15); God will surely punish Antiochus (vv. 31, 35; see 7:14-19). The sonsdiscipline at

    the hands of Antiochus is short, but Antiochuss punishment will be long (v. 36; see 6:12-17). Note how the Jews are called the heavenly children (v. 34; heaven was used asan epithet for God at v. 11), and so Antiochus is again accused of fighting against God (v.19). The text of v. 36 is difficult to translate; it may be read either as endured abrief suffering in exchange for everlasting life and have fallen under Gods

    covenant or endured a brief suffering and have fallen to everlasting life under

    Gods covenant. The meaning reflects their earlier statements that God will renew

    their life because they have followed Gods laws (7:9, 23). The youngest son ends his

    speech by foretelling what the following narrative will show (vv. 37-38): Gods just

    anger does turn to mercy (8:5, 27; cf. 2:22). Antiochus will learn through sickness to

    confess the power of God (9:5-18).

    39-41. The king again rages as he had done at the beginning of the chapter. The last sonis said to die pure perhaps suggesting not only the separation from the uncleanGentiles, but also the purification of the Temple, which will occur soon (10:3-7). Herethe mother is said to die, but we are not told howa classic example of patriarchalneglect. Throughout the story, the reader may wonder where the womans husbandis, but the author omits all reference to him to focus the readers attention on the

    maternal role of the woman.

    42. This verse sums up the martyrdoms of both Eleazar and the seven sons by the use ofthe phrase eating of sacrifices a term found only in the account of Eleazars martyrdom(6:7-8, 21), and tortures, a word whose root is found in the account of the mother andher seven sons (7:1, 13, 15).

    Theme: Resurrection.Martyr stories are filled with highly charged emotional rhetoric in which the oppositionbetween the martyrs and their opponents is driven home again and again. The authorpresents the reader with a public, well-born official and a private family forced into thespotlight. All sectors of society are represented and thus symbolize the attempteddestruction of the city and its culture. Eleazar presents the picture of a personchoosing death because it is the right and honorable thing to do; the family chooses

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    death because God will reward them with life. But God will also have compassion on

    the nation because of its suffering.

    The theme of resurrection is very central and strong in this writing. One may affirm thatit forms part of the bedrock of the convinction of the Martyrs, thus, they underwent the

    cruel death willingly. What kind of Resurrection do they believe or expect? This isprobably a collective resurrection or as some scholars affirmed, it is individualresurrection. We may also affirm a physical resurrection, because the third son affirmedthat if this limbs of his are cut off, he hopes to get them back from the Lord, this ofcourse is going to be at the resurrection of the dead.

    Deuteronomistic Theology

    This aspect of the story is also stricking. This is seen in the frequent reference to the sinof the people and punishment. This is basically considered as a deuteronomistic but thefaithfulness of this family to the covenant of God and the law specifically becomes theprayer for the liberation that will come form God. In all this, the martyrs will also be

    rewarded at resurrection.Theology of Martyrdom. This story is used to elaborate this concept and this is evenevident in the Christian tradition. Dying for the course of God is a noble act.

    Instead of transgressing the law-Dt. 32 Their death will trigger divine vengeance The hope for resurrection within the context of martyrdom The hope for resurrection is a foundation to fulfilling all the requirements of the

    law in this life even if it is at the risk of our earthly existence.

    Composition

    Collins thinks that it was a legend and was probably originally an independent story.This he buttresses by affirming that there is a difference in the style of writing, thebrothers are brought before the king though he was not in Jerusalem and there is noreference to the Temple in Jerusalem in this chapter.The clue to the date of the book is found in the letters prefixed to the book. 1 st Letter-124BCE; earlier letter-143 BCE and 2nd lengthy Letter-164BCE.

    Historical Value: the main source of the information is the internal strife in Jerusalemwhich led up to the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.Antioch is considered the center of the events instead of Jerusalem. This is affirmed onthe bases of the presence of the king and the tombs of the martyrs were subsequently

    venerated in Antioch.This book has some legendry character such as the number 7 depicting the perfect family.

    Conclusion:

    This book unequivocally presents the theme of Judgement. This is of course extended tothe reward that is co-extensive with it. Life and restoration for the martyrs andpunishment for the king.How this will take place is not stated nor when it will take place.

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    The divine figure that is going to do this points to the connection between the presentworld and the invisible world that is found in the apocalyptic genre.Resurrection is a theme that is central and thus, we have a clear indication that life doesnot end in this present physical world.

    DANIEL 12

    12:1-3 Eschaotological Prophecy

    NRS Daniel 12:1 "At that time Michael, the great prince, the protector of your people, shallarise. There shall be a time of anguish, such as has never occurred since nations firstcame into existence. But at that time your people shall be delivered, everyone who isfound written in the book.

    dme[oh' lAdG"h; rF:h; laek'ymi( dmo[]y:ayhih; t[eb'W WTT Daniel 12:1yAG tAyh.mi( ht'y>h.nI-al{) rv

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    Isa4:3, Isaiah 4:3 Whoever is left in Zion and remains in Jerusalem will be called holy,everyone who has been recorded for life in Jerusalem.The fact that the account of resurrection follows immediately means that it is the book ofeternal life. Thus, there is an association of the book with eternal life which changes thewhole implication against the older Hebrew tradition.

    yYEx;l. hL,ae WcyqI+y" rp"['-tm;d>a;ynEveY>mi ~yBir:w> WTT Daniel 12:2

    s `~l'(A[ !Aar>dIl. tApr"x]l; hL,aew> ~l'A[NRS Daniel 12:2 Many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some toeverlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.

    V2. The term for resurrection: Jerome says that Porphyry interpretes this as ametaphorical account of the Maccadean rebellion. Although resurrection is said to beused metaphorically in the Hebrew bible. However it is taken here to refer to resurrectionof the individual because of the specific reference to everlasting life. This is the onlydirect reference to resurrection in the Hebrew bible. Other refrence are Jer 51:39,57where the figurative sleeping and waking are used. He did not also indicate that theresurrected life will be on earth.The type of the resurrection is not stated, whether it is bodily or not. This of coursecontrasts that of 2Mac 7. This does not also provide that the resurrected life will belocated on the earth.

    The proposition mi is taken to be partitive of the ~yBir: . thus the concern isfor the maskilim. ~l'A[yYEx;l. This is a hapax of Hebrew bible, foundalso in 1QS 4:7. the meaning of everlasting life is open to discussion. for instance, thewatcher hope for eternal life and each of them will live for 500yrs (1En 10:10) but in15:6- they were immortal spiritual beings for all the generations of the world; this meanslife without any end. In Daniel no limit to the resurrected life is envisaged.the fate of the sinner is one that is to damnation. They are, from his (Daniel) presentationrestored to life to experience their disgrace. They both awake to contrasting fate. It isaffirmed that this does not mean that the sinner awakes from sheol.Therefore there fore the following points emerge from this important verse:

    1. there is a clear reference to resurrection2. the resurrection is interpreted as individual3. there is no clear indication of the type of resurrection- bodily or not4. the resurrection is limited to the few good people5. the time lag of the word- everlasting is not expressed, we may propose that it iswithout end.6. we do not also have any idea of the location of the life of this resurrected people. Thetraditional language is used for the wicked (they will be in sheol)

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    7. there is a double resurrection- the wicked and the righteous.

    v.3 The idea of shinning like the star has a bearing with the Hellenistic weltanschaungenthat say when people die, they immediately become stars. However our text says that theywill shine like the star. The wise- maskilim make the common people righteous through

    there teaching.

    The excursus on the resurrection in the Hebrew bible reveals that this is the mostexplicit reference to resurrection in the TANAK. No book of the OT has before nowtalked about the double resurrection that we find in Daniel. He seems to follow theexisting tradition especially as found in Isaiahs writing but he had a lot of innovationsadded to it. The standard is that the dead has a shadowy afterlife in Sheol where theycannot even praise God Ps. 6:5, 30:9. The idea of the person of Elijah and Enoch arehowever exceptional.There are basically two standards in the consideration namely 1. one of unbrokenenjoyment before God which is clearly represented in the psalms73:23-26, 26:9-10, 84:10

    while in poetic language, xc;n

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    We may therefore conclude this section by saying that the idea of resurrection was latentin the Jewish belief system but it was fluid. The historical development of the ideology isalso found in the other references which finally took shape in the book of Daniel.Therefore, this idea of resurrection is perculiar to Daniel but its general trace is latent in

    the other books of the OT

    The persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes gave a great boost to the idea of resurrection andthe acceptance also of the judgment after death. The resurrection in Dan12 is set in thiscontext. One may also acknowledge the foreign influence in this regard.- Zoroastrianismattested inAvesta and in the Greek writer Theopompus.The belief in the resurrection and the jugement is introduced into Judaism in the contextof Apocalyptic literature. This then spread to other Jewish life.The belief in the retribution is indicated in the community rule of the Qumran.

    QUMRAN AND EARLY CHRISTIANITYIn 4Q521- in this fragment we have the allusion to resurrection- Col 1, line 12-he willheal the wounded, give life to the dead and announce good tidings to the poor- thisfragment may not be enough to establish that this community believed in the resurrection.It is not also clear whether it is a sectarian document since it lack any contact with othersectarian writings. Even if this is taken as a sectarian document expousing the belief inresurrection, it is still sparse to consider the belief in resurrection of this community.

    Josephus testifies to this belief in the immortality among the Essenes when he affirmedthat they say the body is corruptible but the soul is immortal and lives forever, they alsoshare the view of the Greeks on the good (Soul) and the bad. He hellenised the essens forhis Roman Reader

    From the various texts of the Qumran community, it is doubtful to affirm that they spokeof resurrection of individuals after death, however, they envisaged eternal life. Thefellowship which the members enjoy with the angels may be the anticipation of the onepromised by Daniel to the maskilim.

    Belief in the resurrection in Judaism was wide spread in the 1 st century but the form ofthe resurrected body was controversial. The Pauline idea is found in 1cor15:35-50. Thequestion of 2Apoc of Bar says- in which shape will the living live in your day? (49:2).They will live in the height of that world, be like angels and the stars, changed to anyshape of their wish from beauty to loveliness from light to splendor of glory. (51:10).The Jewish idea of resurrection may therefore not necessarily be a bodily one.

    Concluding address:

    v.4 keep secret and seal the book- this is necessary in the devise of Pseudoepigraphy. Heprobably received it in the Babylonian period but only made know during a later periodand here, in the time of Cyrus of Persia.

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    The running to and fro for the word of the Lord will be futile because the book is sealed.

    Epilogue: vv5-13The 2 standing are in addition to the one that appeared before. The river is associatedwith Euphrates

    Raising both hands is emphatic, since one hand was enough for an oath (Deut. 32 40- forI lift up my hand to heaven and swear as I live for ever). Lifting both hands is usually agesture of prayer or entreaty.The time, times and a half has parallels in 7:25 and 9:27- this means three and half years,the last half weeks of the year.

    8. the failure to understand underscores the mysteriousness of the revelation. Hisasking the question which was not responded to, show how baffled he was. This followsthe apocalyptic genre because there is always a need for a divine being to explain. Thus,we may affirm the character of apocalypticism because of this ignorance and the question

    that is asked.9. gives the idea that the word is sealed already and thus, no more revelation. Thus, thefollowing verses are a recapitulation of Chap.11

    10 many will be purified // 11:35- the maskilim who instructed many were purified, thewicked will act wickedly and lack of understanding is because the book is sealed

    11-12 Time Juxtaposition

    : ~ymiy" ~me_vo #WQvi ttel'w> dymiT'h;rs:Wh t[emeW WTT Daniel 12:11@l,a, ~ymiy"l. [:yGI+y:w> hK,x;m.h;( yrEv.a; 12 `~y[i(v.tiw> ~yIt:am' @l,a,

    `hV'(mix]w: ~yvil{v. tAame vl{v.NRS Daniel 12:11 From the time that the regular burnt offering is taken away and theabomination that desolates is set up, there shall be one thousand two hundred ninety days.12 Happy are those who persevere and attain the thousand three hundred thirty-five days.

    the time of the desecration of the temple until the end: 1,290 and 1,335days, these are notthe same as the 1,150days of 8:14. these numbers are said to have a bearing with the threeand a half years mentioned earlier. The mode of calculation is obscure but 1299days is 3and a half years. 335days adds 45days to this total, less than 7 weeks and it is consideredto be close enough to be considered a variant calculation. This anomaly in the numberingis considered by some to be a glosser act, when a prediction is not fulfilled at thepredicted time, a glosser revises it to another period. The use of the verb-

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    hK,x;m.h;(if it tarries, wait for it for it will surely come and it will not belate. So the date that is stated is drawing out and people must wait for the later date. Ifthis is the case, the later number was added after the expiration of the 3 and a half years.The end that is been referred to is also interpreted as a definitive one- the resurrection-1,290days. This later date came and passed without the fulfillment, yet the authority of

    the book remains unperturbed. The prediction was further interpreted as the destructionof Jerusalem by the Roman or even the antichrist.Daniel was given the order to go and promised his own resurrection.This expression of time and tension in the allotment of time for the fulfillment of thevision of the apocalyptic writing is a common feature. This affirms the continuity of thegenre in our chapter.

    Conclusion

    The eschatological prophecy of this chapter is very crucial to the apocalypse. It proclaimsthat history will finally culminate in the judgment of the individuals that transcend death.This is the novelty of the book of Daniel. Life might still continue on earth after this

    scene of judgement but what is more central is the fact that the wise will shine like stars.

    This last part bears the date of the reign of Cyrus the Persian king. The mention ofDaniels death in v13 means the close of the book. The consensus is that it was composedbefore the death of Antiochus Epiphanes. 5-13 may have been added later. Thus the mainpart of the revelation was probably in 167 and 164BCEThe book might also have originated from the circle of the scribes as they werementioned in 11 and 12 chapters.The type of wisdom in the book is revealed wisdom; however, we cannot denied theempirical learning of the writer. The Hellenistic influence is clear.The whole setting of the book was not anti-hellenism but the rising of Seleucid against

    God that is; by disrupting of the cult.

    The war on earth is played against the backdrop of the angels in heaven. The finaloutcome is assured even if the righteous dies, for it will be followed by resurrection.Thus, this provides a rationale for martyrdom. The apocalyptic tradition now hopes notfor salvation in this present life but beyond death. This hope for resurrection underguides the stance of 2mac7. This martyrdom will later be a hallmark of Christianity, andto a great degree this is an extrapolation from the modal of the suffering servant of Isa.53.

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    2Maccabees 7The setting of the story in this book is one of polemics. The Hellenistic literary genregreatly influenced the writing of this book as well. It is characteristically independent ofthe 1maccabees but they have a similar style.The story presented in this chapter is that of a mother and 7 children (the 7 th son took theprominent place and had to undergo the greatest suffering with the most moving speech.)who underwent great torture and finally martyrdom instead of going against the Torah.This story is paralleled both in the Jewish (Taxo and his 7 sons- the Assumption of Moses9) and Greek literatures (the death of Theoxana and her sisters children under Philip Vof Macedon- Polybius 23.10, Livy 40.4).

    vv1-6 set the stage for the persecution.

    The contention is to eat pork after their arrest like that of Eliazer. The first son refusedand would rather be ready to suffer martyrdom than disobey the law. His tongue andlimbs were cut. He faced a dehumanizing torture of being fried . they however encouraged

    each other with this word: 6 'The Lord God is watching and certainly feels sorry forus, as Moses declared in his song, which clearly states that "he will take pity on his

    servants." while watching the first born been fried' like an animal. This same harshsituation was to be faced eventually, by each of the sons.

    7-9 the second son faced a more terrible torture. He exclaimed in Hebrew that God willraise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.9 evn evsca,th| de. pnoh/| geno,menoj ei=pen su. me,n avla,stwr evktou/ paro,ntoj h`ma/j zh/n avpolu,eij o` de. tou/ ko,smou basileu.javpoqano,ntaj h`ma/j u`pe.r tw/n auvtou/ no,mwn eivj aivw,nionavnabi,wsin zwh/j h`ma/j avnasth,sei9 With his last breath he exclaimed, 'Cruel brute, you may discharge us from this presentlife, but the King of the world will raise us up, since we die for his laws, to live again forever.'Thus the title- the king of the universe contrast the limited power and dominion of

    Antiochus. This confidence gave impetus to the development of the belief in

    resurrection and judgment of the dead. This is a concentration on the contrasting

    fate of the martyrs and the King, highlighting the paradox that the dying sons are in

    fact happier than the living king.

    Given the excursus on the theme of resurrection, we find out that the belief in

    resurrection pre-dates the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. With the use of the

    1st person plural, the author underscore the point that he is talking about individual

    resurrection the dead that will be given life again as describe in this verse is probablygoing to be in this life as expressed in v.23

    10-11 the third son met with the same torture with a belief in the bodily resurrection andthe Heaven used here is the epithet for God. The onlookers were amazed at theircourage to face the death. This is always underscored in such stories- Hecataeus ofAbdera stated that the Jews deserve admiration because of their willingness to undergoany torture rather than transgress the ancestral laws, Aristeas-Exagete says God was

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    amazed at the courage of job just as the king was amazed at the courage of the sufferingservant (Isa 52:15).13-14 the death of this 4 th son denied Antiochus any opportunity of resurrection. This isradical given the fact that the King is considered to be a divine person. He affirmed that: .14 When he was near death, he said, "One cannot but choose to die at the hands of

    mortals and to cherish the hope God gives of being raised again by him. But for youthere will be no resurrection to life!"

    Does this speech mean that there is no resurrection for the wicked and the sinful? May bethe idea of resurrection at this stage is a positive one therefore to resurrect will be to havea good reward for what one has done. Therefore, it becomes sensible to think ofresurrection as a positive fact and solely for the just.

    15-17 the 5th son, the authority and power of Anthiocus is not because God hasabandoned Israel. Punishment is for Antiochus and his descendants18-19-6th son, though God is using Antiochus to punish Israel, he should not be arrogant.The Deuteronomistic history is at play here- sin and effect.

    18-19. The sixth son warns Antiochus that, even though God is using Antiochus to punishthe people, Antiochus should not be arrogant. Israels sins have brought this punishment.The Lord promised Solomon that if the people did not keep the commandments, Israelwould become a taunt among the nations, and they would conclude that Judea was ruinedbecause the people had forsaken the Lord (1 Kgs 9:6-9). Deutero-Isaiah promised thatZion would no longer be called Forsaken (Isa 62:4, 12; cf. Isa 49:14-15; 54:5-6; 60:14-15). Anyone who fights against God is sure to lose.A clear point of this verse is the fact that Antiochus is the instrument used by God topunish Israel but he will eventually be punished since he is fighting against God.

    20-23. This story of the mother, as noted above, was retold in rabbinic literature. In

    Midrash Lamentations 1:16, the mother of seven tells her youngest son to tell

    Abraham not to be proud because he had offered only one son as a test while she

    offered her seven sons indeed. Here her attachment to ancestral traditions is

    stressed through her use of the ancestral language, Hebrew. In a patriarchal

    culture, her nobility is shown through her possessing a mans courage (v. 21). The

    origin of human life is unknown (Ps 139:13-16; Eccl 11:5), but the author plays on

    the language of Gen 2:7 to explain how God will recreate her sons: God, the creator

    of the world, forms humans by breathing into their nostrils the breath of life.

    24-29. Often in traditional literature, when dealing with a powerful opponent the hero orheroine resorts to trickery to outsmart the official. Antiochus does not know what themother says in Hebrew, but he catches the tone (v. 24). He resorts to bribing the youngestson to change his mind, even offering to make him a friend, the official title of the kingsadvisers (1 Maccabees records that such an offer was made to Mattathias [1 Macc 2:18]).The young mans refusal is symbolized by his not even listening to the king (v. 25). Theking tries to make the mother act as his advocate, but she cleverly agrees to persuade herson, but does not specify what she will persuade him to do (v. 26). Her manlycourage (vv. 20-21) is shown as she asks her son to show her pity, not by sparing

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    himself, but by suffering cruel torments and death. The mother refers, as before (vv.

    22-23), to Gods creating power (v. 28). She states that God did not create from what

    previously existedi.e., as properly formedbut that God shaped the unformed

    world (see Gen 1:2, especially in the LXX). The mother further insults the king by

    calling him a public executioner (v. 29), a job usually performed by slaves.

    30-38. The last and most impressive speech is given to the youngest son; in traditionalliterature, the youngest son is always the most important. His speech rehearses the themesmet before: The Hebrews suffer because of their sins, as God disciplines them (vv. 32-33;see 5:17-20; 6:12-17); the king should not be elated or arrogant (v. 34; see 4:17, 21;7:15); God will surely punish Antiochus (vv. 31, 35; see 7:14-19). The sonsdiscipline atthe hands of Antiochus is short, but Antiochuss punishment will be long (v. 36; see 6:12-17). Note how the Jews are called the heavenly children (v. 34; heaven was used asan epithet for God at v. 11), and so Antiochus is again accused of fighting against God (v.19). The text of v. 36 is difficult to translate; it may be read either as endured abrief suffering in exchange for everlasting life and have fallen under Gods

    covenant or endured a brief suffering and have fallen to everlasting life underGods covenant. The meaning reflects their earlier statements that God will renew

    their life because they have followed Gods laws (7:9, 23). The youngest son ends his

    speech by foretelling what the following narrative will show (vv. 37-38): Gods just

    anger does turn to mercy (8:5, 27; cf. 2:22). Antiochus will learn through sickness to

    confess the power of God (9:5-18).

    39-41. The king again rages as he had done at the beginning of the chapter. The last sonis said to die pure perhaps suggesting not only the separation from the uncleanGentiles, but also the purification of the Temple, which will occur soon (10:3-7). Herethe mother is said to die, but we are not told howa classic example of patriarchalneglect. Throughout the story, the reader may wonder where the womans husbandis, but the author omits all reference to him to focus the readers attention on the

    maternal role of the woman.

    42. This verse sums up the martyrdoms of both Eleazar and the seven sons by the use ofthe phrase eating of sacrifices a term found only in the account of Eleazars martyrdom(6:7-8, 21), and tortures, a word whose root is found in the account of the mother andher seven sons (7:1, 13, 15).

    Theme: Resurrection.Martyr stories are filled with highly charged emotional rhetoric in which the oppositionbetween the martyrs and their opponents is driven home again and again. The authorpresents the reader with a public, well-born official and a private family forced into thespotlight. All sectors of society are represented and thus symbolize the attempteddestruction of the city and its culture. Eleazar presents the picture of a personchoosing death because it is the right and honorable thing to do; the family chooses

    death because God will reward them with life. But God will also have compassion on

    the nation because of its suffering.

    The theme of resurrection is very central and strong in this writing. One may affirm thatit forms part of the bedrock of the convinction of the Martyrs, thus, they underwent the

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    cruel death willingly. What kind of Resurrection do they believe or expect? This isprobably a collective resurrection or as some scholars affirmed, it is individualresurrection. We may also affirm a physical resurrection, because the third son affirmedthat if this limbs of his are cut off, he hopes to get them back from the Lord, this ofcourse is going to be at the resurrection of the dead.

    Deuteronomistic Theology

    This aspect of the story is also stricking. This is seen in the frequent reference to the sinof the people and punishment. This is basically considered as a deuteronomistic but thefaithfulness of this family to the covenant of God and the law specifically becomes theprayer for the liberation that will come form God. In all this, the martyrs will also berewarded at resurrection.

    Theology of Martyrdom. This story is used to elaborate this concept and this is evenevident in the Christian tradition. Dying for the course of God is a noble act.

    Instead of transgressing the law-Dt. 32

    Their death will trigger divine vengeance The hope for resurrection within the context of martyrdom The hope for resurrection is a foundation to fulfilling all the requirements of the

    law in this life even if it is at the risk of our earthly existence.

    Composition

    Collins thinks that it was a legend and was probably originally an independent story.This he buttresses by affirming that there is a difference in the style of writing, thebrothers are brought before the king though he was not in Jerusalem and there is noreference to the Temple in Jerusalem in this chapter.The clue to the date of the book is found in the letters prefixed to the book. 1 st Letter-

    124BCE; earlier letter-143 BCE and 2nd lengthy Letter-164BCE.

    Historical Value: the main source of the information is the internal strife in Jerusalemwhich led up to the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes.Antioch is considered the center of the events instead of Jerusalem. This is affirmed onthe bases of the presence of the king and the tombs of the martyrs were subsequentlyvenerated in Antioch.This book has some legendry character such as the number 7 depicting the perfect family.

    Conclusion:

    This book unequivocally presents the theme of Judgement. This is of course extended to

    the reward that is co-extensive with it. Life and restoration for the martyrs andpunishment for the king.How this will take place is not stated nor when it will take place.The divine figure that is going to do this points to the connection between the presentworld and the invisible world that is found in the apocalyptic genre.Resurrection is a theme that is central and thus, we have a clear indication that life doesnot end in this present physical world.

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    APOCALIPTIC WRITING IN QUMRAN SCROLLS

    The Apocalyptic writing is in short supply in the Qumran scroll, apart from thosepreviously known in the Book of Enoch and Daniel. Some writings have been namedapocalyptic but this might be inappropriate and some are so fragmentary that it will bedifficult to determine the genre of the text. The clear point is that none of the sectarianwritings is cast in the apocalyptic genre, they however have a worldview that isapocalyptic- the human destiny is controlled by superhuman forces of light anddarkness, history is deemed to be moving inexorably to an end, and people await rewardor punishment after death p.147 (Apocalyptic Imagination, Collins). These ideas are notexpressed like heavenly revelation to an ancient seer. Why? 1. there is a new authority infound in the tteacher of Righteousness. 2. much of the teaching of the teacher takes theform of the interpretation of the Torah and Prophets. Thus the Qumran sect is oriented to

    the Torah of moses in a way the Enoch and Daniel are not.THE MESSIANIC EXPECTATION

    This idea in the dead sea scrolls is based on the restoration of the kingship of Davidwhich is based on 2Sam 7, where God promised to make the dynasty of David lastforever. This dynasty was actually broken especially with the Babylolian exile and thusthrough the prophets God promised to raise a shoot from the branch of David. Thismessianic expectation is absent for the Maccabean period because of the discontentmentwith the Hasmonean kingship and the Psalm od Solomon wrote castigating this kingshipas people to whom the Lord did not make the promise. Who took away by force anddespoiled the throne of David. (Pss of Sol.17:5-6). This apposition also very likelyplayed a part in the messianic expectation of this period.The messiah expected is a warrior messiah, based on the Oracle of Balaam Num.24,Isaiah 11:4, Gen 49.The text of the son of God in 4Q246, is interpreted in different ways and thus hassometimes contradictory meanings. This is made complicated by the fact that the scroll isnot complete and leave a lacuna in the flow of thought which may not be easily filled up.Some consider this Son of God negatively as the Syrian King. This is not acceptable toCollins who thinks that He has a positive connotation and Messianic interpretation. Theclosest parallel to this text is LK1:32- the annunciation. In V35, the angel said he will becalled the Son of God. This is interpreted in the light of 2 biblical passages of the OT-2Sam7:14 (I will be a father to him and he a Son to me) Ps.2:7 (You are my son; today Ihave begotten you. This text has several parallels in Dan 7, but the figure here is ahuman king rather than a heavenly Son of Man. This Qumran text might just be aninterpretation of the text of Daniel. This is not conclusive.

    THE TWO MESSIAH

    The warrior messiah is not distinctive of the Qumran community since it is paralleled inother Jewish writings. However, the distinctive point is found in the pairing of the Royalmessiah with the Priestly messiah, and the former is subordinate to the latter. The

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    Damascus Document of Cairo Geniza rwflects the 2 messiahs- of Aaron and Israel. Thistwo are corroborated in 1QS9:11- the expectation of the prohet and the messiahs ofAaron and Israel. This is lacking in the fragmentary manuscript of 4QSe . in the Rule osthe community we read that at the end of the day the priest will have presidence over themessiah of Israel. The priest is here interreted as the messiah of Aaron.

    This idea is not an anomaly, since in the Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs we have thebelief in the messiah from Levi and Judah, we have also in Zeph.4:14- two sons of oil.Because this has a biblical precedent, it may be referred to as Restorativeeschatology- modeled on the situation of the past, looks for the idealizes fulfillment

    of that situation but it is not entirely different from it P. 162. there is nothig tomake think that these figures are heavenly figures but they are eschatological in the thesense that they put a decisive moment in the history but not end the course of history.Comparing this dualism with the monism of Christianity, S. Talmon says the difference isboth quantitative and qualitative.A further idea of the messiah is found in scroll of the messianic Rule 1QSa 69 this isintroduced as the rule for all the congregation of Israel in the last days. The priest takes

    precedence the activities of the community even at meal. He blesses the meal first andthe practice in this age is expected to continue in the age to come.

    There are further ambiguities associated with the apocalyptic writings of the Quram. Theidea of the interpreter of the law and the Branch of David. This interpreter is put in thepast, thus, the eschatological dimension may be problematic.There are theories about the development of messianism in Qumran. Starcky J. affirmsfour stages in the development. 1. No messianic idea, 2. Dual messianism-Aaron andIsrael (Hasmonean this gives preference to the Priestly). 3. One messiah represented inthe Damascus Document. 4. The revival of the messianic expectation. He will be fromthe root of David. This is criticized based on the fact that it relies on the Paleographicwritings and dating of the manuscripts and assigned an later date to the DamascusDocument that is now acceptable. The other theory is that of Brooke, G. and the2messiah theory was an earlier idea with was later changed to one.

    THE WAR OF DARKENESS AND LIGHT

    The end of the world will not be just the coming of the Messiah but also the war againstthe forces of evil. Pesher on Isaiah (4Q161) refers to the war of Kittim, the Hadayot talksof the war of heavenly warriors. The most prominent is the war rule in 1QM andfragmentary in cave 4.The views on this scroll are not united. The first colum expressed war in seven lotsbetween the Sons of light and darkness. Column 2 war of 40days paying attention to thetemple service in the Sabbath year. 2-9 various mobilization for the war, 15-19-moredetailed review of the war envisaged in the Column1. there is a metaphysical perceptionof the war and 2-9 talks about the human participation in the war. The fragment in4Q285 gave a Davidic messiah a significance in this war. This is not present in the scrollsin 1QM. Paleographically, the rule is dated to the 2nd half of the 1st BC2-9, bear semblance to the Hellenistic military tactics. It is ritualistic (the purity of thecamp 1QM 7:3-7) bearing on the organization of the Israelites in the Dersert. The fourtysays duration is seen as an allution to the days in the desert.

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    The armies are divided into units: camp, trib, myriad, thousand, hundred, fifty, ten.Banner distinguishes the different units; the use of trumpet is paralleled to Num10:10.The age of military service is 25-30 for those to despoil the slain, collect the booty andcleans the land, not those to do the military service. Prayer collection is found in 10-14.10-12 are very traditional prayers while in 13-14, we have the dualistic tendency shown.

    The metaphysical backdrop of the war is found in 1 and 15-19. The antagonist is the Sonof Light and the army of Belial is the Son of Darkness. There is an enormous allusion toDaniel and the Archangel Michael appears in 1QM17:7. The forces of Light keptdominating until God intervened at the final period. There is the influence of the Persiandualism in the terminologies used in this war rule- light and darkness, Michael and Belial.

    Some think that the rule is older that the Qumran community because it lacked the

    distinctive sectarian terminology.Ydhy is used as an adjective rather than a noun, thedesignation- God of Israel is rear in the other scrolls. The Rule addresses all Israelitesand approves of the temple cult. It is considered to be later than Daniel even though it

    bears some similarity with it.The militancy of the war is said to contrast the quietness of the Qumran Community as awhole.

    THE AFTER LIFEThis is not clearly stated in the War Rules, but we have the point that it will extend to theappointed times of {eternity} for peace and blessing, glory and joy and long life for allthe Sons of light (1:9) the hymnnic passage envisages this worldly reward and theannihilation of all the lots of Belial (1:5) but no reference to the destruction of the world,the historical process is not also necessarily brought to an end. There is no language ofresurrection or clear speech about the end of this world.According to Josephus, they believe in the immortality of the soul and a good conditionfor the just and bad for the evil persons at the end of life. Hyppolytus of Rome 2ADattributes the resurrection of the body to the Qumran community. Some think that thisidea of Hypolytus comes from his confusion of the Zealots with the Qumran sects.Resurrection is prominent in the Qumran writing, this raising of the dead is the act of theLord-( Fragment 2 ii 12), another says God gives life to his dead ones (7 5 ii). Thepseudoezekiels scroll supports individual resurrection.Thus there is mention of reward but not resurrection. The wicked are threatened with thegreat flaming wrath from the Angel of death (CD 2:5-6), the righteous to live for ever andthe glory of the Adam will be theirs (3:20). Does this mean everlasting life withoutresurrection?This may be a good conclusion- resurrection was not the primary focus of theeschatology of the community. Since the members believed that they were already livingthe risen life with the angels, resurrection was relatively unimportant. (Collins,Apocalyptic Imagination, p.174)9. Quali sono i principali legami che intercorrono tra Daniele ed il Libro

    dellApocalisse?

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    Daniel and the Book of the Apocalypse, from the Old Testament and the New Testamentrespectively present some apocalyptic features which are very similar. In both of themthe following common elements can be sorted out:

    The transcendent world is represented in symbolic language.

    Beasts and monsters often represent evil powers. The reality is perceived in dualistic terms, in which good and evil, light and

    darkness, truth and falsehood, God and the evil powers are sharply contrasted. There are visions and the presence of angels who interpret them. The expectation of the near end of history in which God will triumph over evil -

    the triumph of the righteous over the wicked by the help of God. The punishment of the wicked and reward of a happy life to the righteous.

    Note:After Isaiah, the book which is very much quoted in the Book of the Apocalypse isDaniel. There are between 27 and 30 allusions to various verses of Daniel which arefound in 8 out of the 12 chapters.

    The following synthesis of the mentioned apocalyptic features can help us see better therelationship between these two books;

    a) The transcendent world is represented in symbolic language

    Apoc. 1, 13 Dan 10, 5-6 Dan 7, 13

    13 and in the midst of thelampstands one like a sonof man, clothed with a longrobe and with a goldengirdle round his breast;

    5I lifted up my eyes andlooked, and behold, a manclothed in linen, whoseloins were girded with goldof Uphaz.6 His body was like beryl,his face like the appearanceof lightning, his eyes likeflaming torches, his armsand legs like the gleam ofburnished bronze, and thesound of his words like the

    noise of a multitude.

    13 I saw in the night visions,and behold, with the cloudsof heaven there came onelike a son of man, and hecame to the Ancient ofDays and was presentedbefore him.

    b) Beasts and monsters often represent evil powers.

    Apoc. 11, 7 Dan 7, 3. 21

    7 And when they have finished theirtestimony, the beast that ascends fromthe bottomless pitwill make war upon

    3 And four great beasts came up out ofthe sea, different from one another.21 As I looked, this horn made war with

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    them and conquer them and kill them, the saints, and prevailed over them,

    c) God and the evil powers are sharply contrasted.

    Apoc. 13, 1-7 Dan 7, 3-7 Dan 7, 19-21 Dan 7, 24-25

    1 And I saw a beastrising out of the sea,with ten horns and sevenheads, with ten diademsupon its horns and ablasphemous name uponits heads.

    2

    And the beast that Isaw was like a leopard,its feet were like abear's, and its mouthwas like a lion's mouth.

    And to it the dragongave his power and histhrone and greatauthority.3 One of its headsseemed to have a mortalwound, but its mortal

    wound was healed, andthe whole earth followedthe beast with wonder.4 Men worshiped thedragon, for he had givenhis authority to thebeast, and theyworshiped the beast,saying, "Who is like thebeast, and who can fightagainst it?"5 And the beast was

    given a mouth utteringhaughty andblasphemous words,and it was allowed toexercise authority for

    forty-two months;

    6 it opened its mouth toutter blasphemiesagainst God,

    3 And fourgreatbeasts came up out

    of the sea, differentfrom one another.4The first was likea lion and had eagles'wings. Then as I

    looked its wings wereplucked off, and itwas lifted up from theground and made tostand upon two feetlike a man; and themind of a man wasgiven to it.5 And behold,another beast, asecond one, like a

    bear. It was raised up

    on one side; it hadthree ribs in its mouthbetween its teeth; andit was told, `Arise,devour much flesh.'6 After this I looked,and lo, another, likea leopard, with fourwings of a bird on itsback; and the beasthad four heads; anddominion was given

    to it.7 After this I saw inthe night visions, andbehold, a fourthbeast, terrible anddreadful andexceedingly strong;and it had great ironteeth; it devoured and

    19 "Then I desired toknow the truthconcerning the fourthbeast, which wasdifferent from all therest, exceedinglyterrible, with its teeth

    of iron and claws ofbronze; and whichdevoured and brokein pieces, andstamped the residuewith its feet;20 and concerning theten horns that wereon its head, and theother horn whichcame up and beforewhich three of them

    fell, the horn whichhad eyes andamouth that spoke

    great things, andwhich seemed greaterthan its fellows.21 As I looked, thishorn made war with

    the saints, and

    prevailed over them,

    24 As for the tenhorns, out of thiskingdom ten kingsshall arise, andanother shall ariseafter them; he shallbe different from the

    former ones, andshall put down threekings.25He shall speakwords against the

    Most High, and shallwear out the saints ofthe Most High, andshall think to changethe times and thelaw; and they shallbe given into his

    hand for a time, twotimes, and half atime.

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    blaspheming his nameand his dwelling, that is,those who dwell inheaven.7 Also it was allowed tomake war on the saints

    and to conquer them.And authority was givenit over every tribe andpeople and tongue andnation,

    broke in pieces, andstamped the residuewith its feet. It wasdifferent from all thebeasts that werebefore it; and it hadten horns.

    d) Interpretation of the vision by an angel

    Apoc 17, 12. 14 Dan 8, 19 - 25

    12 Kai. ta. de,ka ke,rataa] ei=dej de,ka basilei/jeivsin( oi[tinej basilei,anou;pw e;labon( avlla.evxousi,an w`j basilei/jmi,an w[ranlamba,nousin meta. tou/

    qhri,ou 14 ou-toi meta. tou/avrni,ou polemh,sousinkai. to. avrni,on nikh,seiauvtou,j( o[ti ku,riojkuri,wn evsti.n kai.basileu.j basile,wn kai.oi` metV auvtou/ klhtoi.kai. evklektoi. kai.pistoi,

    12 And the ten horns thatyou saw are ten kings whohave not yet received royalpower, but they are toreceive authority as kingsfor one hour, together withthe beast.14 they will make war on theLamb, and the Lamb willconquer them, for he isLord of lords and King ofkings, and those with himare called and chosen andfaithful."

    19 He said, "Behold, I willmake known to you whatshall be at the latter endof the indignation; for itpertains to the appointedtime of the end.20 As for the ram which

    you saw with the twohorns, these are the kingsof Media and Persia.21 And the he-goat is theking of Greece; and thegreat horn between hiseyes is the first king.22 As for the horn thatwas broken, in place ofwhich four others arose,four kingdoms shall arise

    from his nation, but notwith his power.23 And at the latter end oftheir rule, when thetransgressors havereached their fullmeasure, a king of boldcountenance, one who

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    understands riddles, shallarise.24 His power shall begreat, and he shall causefearful destruction, and

    shall succeed in what hedoes, and destroy mightymen and the people of thesaints.25 By his cunning he shallmake deceit prosperunder his hand, and in hisown mind he shallmagnify himself. Withoutwarning he shall destroymany; and he shall even

    rise up against the Princeof princes; but, by nohuman hand, he shall bebroken.

    e) Expectation of the near end of history in which God will triumph over evil - thetriumph of the righteous over the wicked by the help of God.

    Apoc 17, 14 Dan 4, 37(LXX)14 ou-toi meta. tou/ avrni,oupolemh,sousin kai. to. avrni,onnikh,sei auvtou,j( o[ti ku,riojkuri,wn evsti.n kai. basileu.jbasile,wn kai. oi` metV auvtou/klhtoi. kai. evklektoi. kai. pistoi,

    37 tw/| u`yi,stw| avnqomologou/maikai. aivnw/ tw/| kti,santi to.nouvrano.n kai. th.n gh/n kai. ta.jqala,ssaj kai. tou.j potamou.j kai.pa,nta ta. evn auvtoi/jevxomologou/mai kai. aivnw/ o[tiauvto,j evsti qeo.j tw/n qew/nkai. ku,rioj tw/n kuri,wn kai.basileu.j tw/n basile,wn o[ti

    auvto.j poiei/ shmei/a kai. te,ratakai. avlloioi/ kairou.j kai. cro,noujavfairw/n basilei,an basile,wn kai.kaqistw/n e`te,rouj avntV auvtw/n

    4 they will make war on the Lamb, and theLamb will conquer them, for he is Lord oflords and King of kings, and those with

    ..because he is the God of gods and theLord of lords and the King of kings

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    him are called and chosen and faithful."

    f) Judgment: punishment of the wicked and reward of a happy life for the righteous

    Apoc 20, 4. 11.12 Dan 7, 9. 10. 22

    4 Then I saw thrones, and seated on themwere those to whom judgment wascommitted. Also I saw the souls of thosewho had been beheaded for their testimonyto Jesus and for the word of God, and whohad not worshiped the beast or its image

    and had not received its mark on theirforeheads or their hands. They came to life,and reigned with Christ a thousand years.11 Then I saw a great white throne and himwho sat upon it; from his presence earthand sky fled away, and no place was foundfor them.12 And I saw the dead, great and small,standing before the throne, and books wereopened. Also another book was opened,which is the book of life. And the deadwere judged by what was written in thebooks, by what they had done.

    9 As I looked, thrones were placed and onethat was ancient of days took his seat; hisraiment was white as snow, and the hair ofhis head like pure wool; his throne wasfiery flames, its wheels were burning fire.10 A stream of fire issued and came forth

    from before him; a thousand thousandsserved him, and ten thousand times tenthousand stood before him; the court sat injudgment, and the books were opened.22 until the Ancient of Days came, andjudgment was given for the saints of theMost High, and the time came when thesaints received the kingdom.

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    7. Quali rapporti intercorrono tra gli scritti di Qumran e la letteratura apocalittica

    The Qumranites were nursed at the same apocalyptic nipple as the early Church. Expectations forthe end of the world were high at the end of the first century BCE when the War Scrollideology manifested itself in three forms: literary, social and eschatological. The War Scrolland many of the other Qumran documents (as well as the New Testament) show evidence of allthree of these aspects.

    In particular, the War Scroll describes a 40 year campaign at the end of which God woulddestroy the enemies of His people. The angels Michael, Raphael, and Sariel will lead the armiesof God while Belial would lead the army of evil.

    We can thus say that, the Apocalyptic writings of Qumran arose as a literature of crisis. Sufferingfolk turned to future hope in an effort to ameliorate their present hardship. So, when we readapocalyptic literature's we need to put ourselves in the mindset of people who suffer oppression,hardship, or persecution in order to understand why they hope for a better future.Theologically, the hallmarks of Qumran apocalypticism (and of apocalypticism in general) aredeterminism, an interest in angels, and the expectation of an end time Temple. The hope of theQumran apocalypticists was that God would directly intervene in history.

    Let us now have a look at the elements common to the Apocalyptic Literature in relation to theWar Scroll and many of the other Qumran documents (as well as the New Testament) aspresented in the following synthesis.

    1. A time of severe tribulation will proceed the new age. Normal human bonds will bebroken, nature will go haywire, and unrighteousness will abound.

    Testament ofIssachar 6:1

    2Baruch 70:80

    4 Ezra 5:1-2,

    4-5

    Jubilees 23:18,25

    Know ye therefore, my children, that in the last times your sons will forsake singleness,and will cleave unto insatiable desire; and leaving guiltlessness, will draw near tomalice; and forsaking the commandments of the Lord, they will cleave unto Belial.

    And it shall come to pass that whosoever gets safe out of the war shall die in theearthquake, And whosoever gets safe out of the earthquake shall be burned by fire, Andwhosoever gets safe out of the fire shall be destroyed by famine.

    Concerning the signs, however: Behold the days come when the inhabitants of earthshall be seized with great panic, and the way of truth shall be hidden and the land barrenof faith and iniquity shall be increased...Then shall the sun suddenly shine forth by nightand the moon by day: and blood shall trickle forth from wood, and the stone utter itsvoice: the peoples shall be in commotion, the outgoings (of the stars) shall change.

    Behold the earth shall be destroyed on account of all their works, and there shall be noseed of the vine, and oil; for their works are altogether faithless, and they shall all perish

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    Assumption ofMoses

    10: 5-6

    together, beasts and cattle and birds, and all the fish of the sea, on account of the childrenof men...And the heads of the children shall be white with grey hair, and a child of threeweeks shall appear like an old man of one hundred years, and their stature shall bedestroyed by tribulation and oppression.

    And the horns of the sun shall be broken and he shall be turned into darkness; and themoon shall not give her light, and be turned wholly into blood. And the sea shall retire

    into the abyss, and the fountains of waters shall fail, and the rivers shall dry up.

    2. The time of tribulation will culminate in a great battle against Israel. God (oftenthrough the Messiah) will destroy the ungodly and usher in an era of peace.

    SibyllineOracles3: 663-64, 67-73,89-91

    4 Ezra 13:33-35, 49

    2 Baruch

    72:2, 6

    Qumran, WarScroll 1:10,12

    But again the kings of the nations shall throw themselves against this land in troops,bringing retribution on themselves...In a ring around the city the accursed kings shallplace each one his throne with his infidel people by him. And then with a mighty voiceGod shall speak unto all the undisciplined empty-minded people, and judgement shallcome upon them from the mighty God, and all shall perish at the hand of the Eternal.From heaven shall fall fiery swords down to the earth...And God shall judge all withwar and sword, and with fire and cataclysms of rain. And there shall be brimstone fromheaven...And then shall they know the Immortal God, who ordains these things.

    It shall be, when all the nations hear his [the Messiahs] voice, every man shall leavehis own land and the warfare which they have one against another; and an innumerablemultitude shall be gathered together, as thou didst see, desiring to come and to fightagainst him...he shall destroy the multitude of the nations that are gathered together, heshall defend the people that remain.

    My Messiah...shall both summon all the nations, and some of them he shall spare, andsome of them he shall slay...all those who have ruled over you, or have known you,shall be given up to the sword.

    On the day when the Kittim [Romans] fall, there shall be battle and terrible carnagebefore the God of Israel, for that shall be the day appointed from ancient times for thebattle of destruction of the sons of darkness...And it shall be a time of [great]tribulation for the people which God shall redeem; of all its afflictions none shall be asthis, from its sudden beginning until its end in eternal redemption.

    3. The unrighteous will be judged and punished, the righteous saved.

    2 Baruch 24:1

    4 Ezra 7:33-34

    Forbehold! the days come and the books shall be opened in which are written thesins of all those who have sinned, and again also the treasuries in which therighteousness of all those who have been righteous in creation is gathered.

    And the Most High shall be revealed upon the throne of judgment: (and then

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    4 Ezra 8:3

    Qumran,1QpHab 10:5,13

    Jubilees 36:10

    cometh the End) and compassion shall pass away, (and pity be far off), andlongsuffering withdrawn. But judgment alone shall remain, truth shall stand, andfaithfulness triumph.

    Many have been created, but few shall be saved.

    He will bring him thence for judgment and will declare him guilty in the midst ofthem, and will chastise him with fire of brimstone...they...[will be] punished with firewho vilified and outraged the elect of God.

    But on the day of turbulence and execration and indignation and anger, withflaming devouring fire as He burnt Sodom, so likewise will He burn his [thesinners] land and his city and all that is his, and he shall be blotted out of the bookof the discipline of the children of men, and not be recorded in the book of life, butin that which is appointed to destruction...

    4. The Messiah will rule (again, according to many, but not all, apocalyptic writings).

    4 Ezra 7:28-30

    4 Ezra 13:25-26, 35, 37-38

    Psalms ofSolomon17:35-36, 40-41, 42

    Testament ofLevi 18:2-3,8-9

    For my Son the Messiah shall be revealed, together with those who are with him, andshall rejoice [with] the survivors four hundred years. And it shall be, after these years. thatmy Son the Messiah shall die, and all in whom there is human breath. Then shall the world

    be turned into the primaeval silence seven days, like as at the first beginnings; so that noman is left.

    These are the interpretations of the vision: Whereas thou didst see a Man coming up fromthe heart of the Sea: this is he whom the Most High is keeping many ages (and) throughwhom he will deliver his creation...he shall stand upon the summit of Mount Sion...But he,

    my son, shall reprove the nations that are come for their ungodliness...and shall reproachthem to their face with their evil thoughts and with the tortures with which they aredestined to be tortured...

    And he (shall be) a righteous king, taught of God, over them, and there shall be nounrighteousness in his days in their midst, for all shall be holy and their king the anointed[Messiah] of the Lord...He will bless the people of the Lord with wisdom and gladness, andhe himself (will be) pure from sin, so that he may rule a great people. And he will rebukerulers, and remove sinners by the might of his word...God will make him mighty by meansof (His) holy spirit, and wise by means of the spirit of understanding, with strength andrighteousness.

    Then shall the Lord raise up a new priest. And to him all the words of the Lord shall berevealed; and he shall execute a righteous judgement upon the earth for a multitude ofdays. And his star shall arise in heaven as of a king. Lighting up the light of knowledge asthe sun the day. And he shall be magnified in the world...And there shall none succeedhim for all generations for ever. And in his priesthood the Gentiles shall be multiplied inknowledge upon the earth, and enlightened through the grace of the Lord: In his priesthoodshall since come to an end, and the lawless shall cease to do evil.

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    5. God will deal decisively with the Gentiles.

    Psalms ofSolomon

    17:32-34

    Qumran, WarScroll 14:8

    2 Baruch68:5

    Tobit 13:11(NRSV)

    Assumption

    of Moses10:8, 10

    And he shall have the heathen nations to serve him under his yoke; and he shall glorifythe Lord in a place to be seen of all the earth; and he shall purge Jerusalem, making it holy

    as of old: So that nations shall come from the ends of the earth to see his glory...

    Among the poor in spirit [there is power] over the hard of heart, and by the perfect of wayall the nations of wickedness have come to an end: not one of their mighty men stands, butwe are the remnant [of Thy people].

    Zion will again be build, and its offerings will again be restored, and the priests willreturn to their ministry, and also the Gentiles will come to glorify it. A bright light willshine to all the ends of the earth; many nations will come to you from far away, theinhabitants of the remotest parts of the earth to your holy name, bearing gifts in their handsfor the King of heaven.

    For the Most High will arise, the Eternal God alone, and He will appear to punish theGentiles, and He will destroy all their idols. Then thou, O Israel, shall be happy...And thoushall look from on high and shall see thy enemies in Ge(henna) [Hell], and thou shall givethanks and confess thy Creator.

    6.The New Age will commence. The temple will be restored or replaced, the exiles willreturn to Israel, God and/or the Messiah will reign, and nature will be revitalized.

    SibyllineOracles3:702-706

    2 Baruch73:1-2, 6

    Sibylline

    Oracles3:741-46,749-51

    4 Ezra 6:25-28

    Then again all the sons of the great God shall live quietly around the temple, rejoicing inthose gifts which He shall give...For He by Himself shall shield them, standing besidethem alone in His might, encircling them, as it were, with a wall of flaming fire.

    Joy shall then be revealed, and rest shall appear. And then healing shall descend in dew,and disease shall withdraw, and anxiety and anguish and lamentation pass from amongstmen, and gladness proceed through the whole earth...And wild beasts s hall come from theforest and minister unto men, and asps and dragons shall come forth from their holes tosubmit themselves to a little child.

    But when the fated day shall reach this consummation, and there shall come to mortalsthe judgement of the Eternal God, there shall come upon men a great judgment andempire. Fore Earth the universal mother shall give to mortals her best fruit in countlessstore of corn, wine and oil. Yea, from the heaven shall come a sweet draught of luscioushoney...He will cause sweet fountains of white milk to burst forth. And the cities shall befull of good things and the fields rich: neither shall there be any sword throughout the landnor battle din

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    Tobit 13:16(NRSV)

    Assumptionof Moses

    10:1

    And it shall be that whosoever shall have survived all these things that I have foretoldunto thee, he shall be saved and shall see my salvation and the end of the world. And themen [Enoch and Elijah] who have been taken up, who have not tasted death from their

    birth, shall appear. Then shall the heart of the inhabitants [of the world] be changed, and beconverted to a different spirit. For evil shall be blotted out, and deceit extinguished.

    Faithfulness shall flourish, and corruption be vanquished.

    The gates of Jerusalem will be built with sapphire and emerald, and all your walls withprecious stones. The towers of Jerusalem will be built with gold, and their battlements withpure gold.

    And then His kingdom shall appear throughout all His creation, and then Satan shall beno more, and sorrow will depart with him.

    7. The righteous dead will enjoy eternal life (with or without specific mention of bodilyresurrection).


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