The incident of MubahalaMain articles: Mubahala and Hadith of Mubahala See also: Ahl al-Bayt According to hadith collections, in 631 an Arab Christian envoy from Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia) came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its doctrine concerning Jesus. After likening Jesus' miraculous birth to Adam's creation[38] [37]

, Muhammad

called them to mubahala (cursing), where each party should ask God to destroy the lying party and their families. Muhammad, to prove to them that he is a prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah and his[39]

surviving grandchildren Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, and Ali ibn Abi Talib and came back to the Christians and said this is my family and covered himself and his family with a cloak. Tabatabaei explains in Tafsir al-Mizan that the word "Our selves" in this verse[38]

Allameh

refers to Muhammad

and Ali. Then he narrates Imam Ali al-Rida, eighth Shia Imam, in discussion with AlMa'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this verse to prove the superiority of Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the Muslim community, and considered it the proof for Ali's right for caliphate due to Allah made Ali like the self of Muhammad. [edit]Ghadir Khumm[40]

The Investiture of Ali, at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8 Ilkhanid manuscript illustration).

Main articles: Hadith of the pond of Khumm and Hadith of the two weighty things As Muhammad was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, he made statements about Ali that are interpreted very differently by Sunnis and Shias.[1]

He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm, gathered the

returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to address them

[41]

:

"O people, I am a human being. I am about to receive a message from my Lord and I, in response to Allah's call, (would bid good-bye to you), but I am leaving among you two weighty things: the one being the Book of Allah in which there is right guidance and light, so hold fast to the Book of Allah and adhere to it. He exhorted (us) (to hold fast) to the Book of Allah and then said: The second are the members of my household I remind you (of your duties) to the members of my family.[42]

."[43]

This quote is confirmed by both Shia and Sunni, but they interpret the quote differently.

Some Sunni and Shi'a sources report that then he called Ali ibn Abi Talib to his sides, took his hand and raised it up declaring[44][45]

"For whoever I am a Mawla of, then Ali is his Mawla

."

The Shia's regard these statements as constituting the investiture of Ali as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast, the Sunnis take them only as an expression of Muhammad's closeness to Ali and of his wish that Ali, as his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his death.[46]

Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of Muhammad's[1][47]

spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard as the wali par excellence.

On the basis of this hadith, Ali later insisted on his religious authority superior to that of Abu Bakr and Umar.[48]

[edit]Succession

to Muhammad

See also: Succession to Muhammad, Saqifah, and Rashidun

Original - Eighteenth century mirror writing inOttoman calligraphy. Depicts the phrase 'Ali is the vicegerent of God' in both directions.

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After uniting the Arabian tribes into a single Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life, Muhammad's death in 632 signalled disagreement over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[49]

While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing his body for burial, at a

gathering attended by a small group of Muslims at Saqifah, a close companion of Muhammad named Abu Bakr was nominated for the leadership of the community. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. The choice of Abu Bakr disputed by some of the Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor by Muhammad himself.[8][50]

Following his election to the caliphate, Abu Bakr and Umar with a few other companions headed to Fatimah's house to obtain homage from Ali and his supporters who had gathered there. Then, it is alleged that Umar threatened to set the house on fire unless they came out and swore allegiance with Abu Bakr.[51]

Then Umar set the house on fire and pushed the burnt door on Fatima. Some sources say[citation needed]

upon seeing them, Ali came out with his sword drawn but was put in chains by Umar and their companions. Fatimah, in support of her husband, started a commotion and threatened to[52]

"uncover her hair", at which Abu Bakr relented and withdrew.

Ali is reported to have repeatedly said When Abu Bakr's selection to the

that had there been forty men with him he would have resisted.

[51]

caliphate was presented as a fait accompli, Ali withheld his oaths of allegiance until after the death of Fatimah. Ali did not actively assert his own right because he did not want to throw the nascent Muslim community into strife.[4]

This contentious issue led Muslims to later split into two groups, Sunni and Shi'a. Sunnis assert that even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors. Shi'as believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him which had been determined by divine order.[8][53]

The two groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him: Umar and Uthman Ibn Affan. Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had assigned to him. Sunnis maintain that if Ali was the rightful successor as ordained by God Himself, then it would have been his duty as leader of the Muslim nation to make war with these people (Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman) until Ali established the decree. Shias contend that Ali did not fight Abu Bakr, Umar or Uthman, because firstly he did not have the military strength and if he decided to, it would have caused a civil war amongst the Muslims. his role of Imam'ate without this fighting .[55] [54]

Ali also believed that he could fulfil

Ali himself was firmly convinced of his legitimacy for caliphate based on his close kinship with Muhammad, his intimate association and his knowledge of Islam and his merits in serving its cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance (bay'ah) as caliph was based on his belief of his own prior title. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.[8][56]

According to historical reports, Ali maintained his right to the caliphate and said:"By Allah the son of Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) dressed himself with it (the caliphate) and he certainly knew that my position in relation to it was the same as the position of the axis in relation to the hand-mill...I put a curtain against the caliphate and kept myself detached from it... I watched the plundering of my inheritance till the first one went his way but handed over the Caliphate to Ibn al-Khattab after himself.[57]

[edit]Inheritance Main article: Fadak See also: Hadith of Muhammad's inheritance After Muhammad died his daughter, Fatimah, asked Abu Bakr to turn over their property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar but he refused and told her thatprophets didn't have any legacy and Fadak belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa." Ali together with Umm Ayman testified to the fact that Muhammad granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested Fatima to summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude until she died.[58]

After Fatima's death Ali again claimed her inheritance during Umar's era, but was denied with the same argument. Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property. [edit]Life[59]

after Muhammad

See also: Origin and development of the Qur'an Another part of Ali's life started in 632 after death of Muhammad and lasted until assassination of Uthman Ibn Affan, the third caliph in 656. During these years, Ali neither took part in any battle or conquest.[4]

nor

did he assume any executive position. He withdrew from political affairs, especially after the death of his wife, Fatima Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and gardens near Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[60] [citation needed]

He also made gardens for his family and descendants.[61]

Ali compiled a complete version of the Qur'an, mus'haf.

six months after the death of Muhammad. The

volume was completed and carried by camel to show to other people of Medina. The order of this mus'haf differed from that which was gathered later during the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no resistance against standardized mus'haf.[62]

[edit]Ali

and the Rashidun Caliphs[4]

See also: Rashidun and The election of Uthman Ali did not give his oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his wife, Fatimah. participated in the funeral of Abu Bakr but did not participate in the Ridda Wars.[63]

Ali

He pledged allegiance to the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab and helped him as a trusted advisor. Caliph Umar particularly relied upon Ali as the Chief Judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Umar used Ali's suggestions in political issues as well as religious ones.[64]

Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which was appointed by Umar. Although Ali was one of the two major candidates, but the council's arrangement was against him. Sad ibn Abi Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf who were cousins, were naturally inclined to support Uthman, who was Abdur Rahman's brother-in-law. In addition, Umar gave the casting vote to Abdur Rahman. Abdur Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on the condition that he should rule in accordance with the Quran, the example set by Muhammad, and the precedents established by the first two caliphs. Ali rejected the third condition while Uthman accepted it. According to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported Uthman and Ali was

reluctantly urged to accept him. [edit]Siege

[65]

of Uthman

Main article: Siege of Uthman Uthman Ibn Affan, expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-Shams, who seemed to dominate him and his supposed arrogant mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as Abu Dharr alGhifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir provoked outrage among some groups of people. Dissatisfaction and resistance openly arose since 650-651 throughout most of the empire.[67] [66]

The

dissatisfaction with his rule and the governments appointed by him was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia. When Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble companions[68]

including most of the the members of elector council, turned against him or at least withdrew their support putting pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of his assertive kin.

At this time, Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. On several occasions Ali disagreed with Uthman in the application of the Hudud; he had publicly shown sympathy for Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and had spoken strongly in the defense of Ammar ibn Yasir. He conveyed to Uthman the criticisms of other Companions and acted on Uthman's behalf as negotiator with the provincial opposition who had come to Medina; because of this some mistrust between Ali and Uthman's family seems to have arisen. Finally he tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.[4]

There is controversy among historians about the relationship between Ali and Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman, Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that religious punishment had to done in several cases such as Ubayd Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba. In 650 during pilgrimage, he confronted Uthman with reproaches for his change of the prayer ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he needed from the fey', Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would be prevented by force. Ali endeavored to protect companions from maltreatment by the caliph such as Ibn Mas'ud.[69]

Therefore,

some historians consider Ali one the leading members of Uthman's opposition, if not the main one. Because he could clearly be expected to be the prime beneficiary of the overthrow of Uthman. But Madelung rejects their judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have theQuraysh's support to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is even no evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his caliphate or directed their actions.[70]

Some other sources says Ali had acted as a[4]

restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him. narrates Marwan told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that

However Madelung

No one [among the Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your master.

[71]

[edit]Caliphate

See also: Rashidun Empire and Ali caliphate

Domains of Rashidun empire under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to Ali caliphate.Caliphate Vassal states of Rashidun Caliphate

Strongholds of Rashidun Region under the

Region under the control of Muawiyah I during civil war 656-661

control of Amr ibn al-As During civil war 658-661

[edit]Election

as Caliph

Ali was caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the more turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fitna. Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the Muhajirun, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates: Ali, Talhah and al-Zubayr. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept being the caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali in accepting the office,[57][72][73] [74]

but he turned down the offer, suggesting to be a counselor instead of a chief.

Talhah, Zubayr and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Mosque of the Prophet on June 18, 656 to appoint the caliph. Initially Ali refused to accept simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge to Ali, but other narrations claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talhah and Zubayr later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. While the overwhelming majority of Madina's population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads, kinsmen of Uthman, fled to the Levant or remained in their houses , later refusing Ali's legitimacy. Saad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they would not act against him.[75][76]

[edit]Reign

as Caliph

Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quranand the Sunna; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility.[4]

Ali inherited the Rashidun Caliphatewhich extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the eastwhile the situation in theHejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughira ibn Shu'ba and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed his governing cautiously. Madelung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[77]

Muawiyah I, the kinsman of Uthman and governor of[4]

the Levant refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so.

When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly.[78]

Ali recovered the land granted by Uthman and swore

to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution oftaxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; He distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother Aqeel ibn Abi Talib. This was an indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the laterconquests.[4][79]

Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition especially after the Battle of Bassorah. His policy of equal distribution oftaxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions especially the Ansar who were subordinated by theQuraysh leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Qur'an reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character.[4][80]

This diverse coalition became known

as Shi'a Ali, meaning "party" or "faction of Ali". However according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported Ali after his election as caliph, were shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.[81]

[edit]First

Fitna[show]

vde

First Islamic Civil War

See also: First Fitna A'isha, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Umayyad especially Muawiyah I wanted to take revenge for Uthman's death and punish the rioters who had killed him. They attacked Ali for not punishing the rebels and murderers of Uthman. However some historians believe that they use this issue to seek their political ambitions because they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. On the other hand, the rebels maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing according to Quran and Sunnah, hence no vengeance was to be invoked.[4][6][82]

Historians disagrees on Ali's position. Some say the caliphate[78]

was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them accepted rebels argument or at least didn't consider Uthman just ruler.[83]

, while others say Ali

Under such circumstances, schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, who knows as Uthmanis, considered Uthman rightful and just Islamic leadertill the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Thus his position was in abeyance until he had been avenged and a new caliph elected. In their view Ali was the Imam of error leading a party of infidels. Some others, who knows as party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, he had forfeited the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his way or step down, thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[84]

The First Fitna, 656661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group, known as "disobedients" (Nakithin) by their enemies, gathered in Mecca then moved to Basra with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people of Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. They refused Ali's offer of obedience and pledge of allegiance. The two sides met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.[85]

Ali appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.[86]

Later he was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing

his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to theBattle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Qur'an, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. fight.[8] [4][87]

Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the

The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, Abd Allah ibn Abbas and Malik alAshtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed arbitration and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.[4][88]

In the following years Muawiyah's army invaded and plundered cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas.[89]

In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa

and Basra changed in his favor as Muawiyah's vicious conduct of the war revealed the nature of his reign. However the people's attitude toward Ali was deeply differed. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah. [edit]Policies What shows Ali's policies and ideas of governing is his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar, when appointed by him as governor of Egypt. This instruction which is considered by many Muslims and even non-Muslims as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time.[91][92] [90]

Ali writes in his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar:

Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds:either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them.[93]

Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people. [edit]Death On the 19th of Ramadan, while Ali was praying in the mosque of Kufa, a Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite, assassinated him with a stroke of his poison-coated sword. Ali, wounded by the poisonous sword, lived for two days before dying in Kufa on the 21st of Ramadan in 661.[95] [94]

Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, even though a single member of the group of Kharijites killed him. Ali said to his son, Imam Hasan that if he lives on he will forgive Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam and free him, however, in the event of his death, ibn Muljim should get one equal hit and not more regardless if he dies from the hit or not, just as Ali himself received one hit from Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam.[96] [90]

Thus,Imam Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal hurt as Ali got to ibn Muljam.

[edit]Burial

Rawze-e-Sharif, the Blue Mosque, in Mazari Sharif,Afghanistan - Where a minority of Muslims believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is buried

According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.[98][99] [97]

Most

Shi'as accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali.

However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif. [edit]Aftermath See also: Umayyad dynasty and Umayyad tradition of cursing Ali After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just Ahl al-Baytof Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[101] [100]

At this time, Muawiyah held both Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest

force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate.

This mosque in an-Najaf, Iraq, is widely considered by Shias to be the final burial place of Ali.

War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Muawiyah. In this way Muawiyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shi'a. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz. Muawiyah also established the Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy. Madelung writes:Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending[102]

devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[11]

[edit]Knowledge See also: Nahj al-Balagha Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from lawand mysticism to Arabic grammar and Rhetoric regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali.[99]

Shia and Sufis believe that Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate..."[99][103][104][105]

Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. Ali himself gives this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Qur'an descended upon (was revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil (the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the muhkamand the mutashabih (the fixed and the ambiguous), the particular and the general...[106]

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the unity of God. quotedAs for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[108]

[107]

Ibn Abi al-Hadid has

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam. ; According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic ofGreek texts.[109] [1]

Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of grammar and rhetoric. His speeches, sermons and letters served for generations afterward as models of literary expression.needed] [citation

Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as

aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings,

as did al-Jahiz in the following century. improve their eloquence.[110]

[1]

Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to

Of course, Peak of Eloquence (Nahj al-Balagha) is an extract of Ali's[111]

quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface. While there are many other quotations, prayers (Du'as), sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books.

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr,Islamic numerology, the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali. [edit]Works The compilation of sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled in the form of several books. Nahj al-Balagha (Way of Eloquence) contains eloquent sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi(d. 1015). Despite ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be attributed to Ali.[99] [1]

This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered an[1][112][113]

important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam.[114]

Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa

asaniduh written by al-Sayyid Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatibintroduces some of these sources. Also Nahj al-sa'adah fi mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-

Mahmudi represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings have been collected. It includes the Nahj al-balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Nahj al-balagha have been determined.[112]

There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such

as Comments of Ibn Abi al-Hadid and comments of Muhammad Abduh. Supplications (Du'a), translated by William Chittick[115]

Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi(d. 1116) consists of over ten thounsads short sayings of Ali[116]

Nuzhat al-Absar va Mahasin al-Asar, Ali's sermons which has compiled by Ali ibn Muhammad Tabari Mamtiri[117] [4][118]

Divan-i Ali ibn Abi Talib (poems which are attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib)

[edit]Descendants Main articles: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Alavi Ali had several wives, Fatimah being the most beloved. He had four children by Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, Zaynab bint Ali[1]

and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas[119]

ibn Ali born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-Banin) and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.

Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H., he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been motivated by Mu'awiyah.[120]

Husayn, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of caliph with his small band of follower and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shi'a Muslims.[121]

In this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. Al-Tabari has mentioned their

names in his history. Al-Abbas, the holder of Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born to Fatima binte Hizam. Muhammad and Abu Bakr. The death of the last one is doubtful.[122]

Some historians have added the names of Ali's others sons who were killed in Karbala,[123][124]

including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-Asqar.

His daughter Zaynabwho was in Karbalawas captured by Yazid's army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husayn and his followers.[125]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, sayeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'as place much more emphasis and value on the distinction. [edit]Views [edit]Muslim[1]

views

Main article: Ali in Muslim culture Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1]

Ali is revered and honored by all Muslims. Having been one of the first Muslims and

foremost Ulema (Islamic scholars), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and Islamic jurisprudence, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his bravery and courage. Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims and add pious interjections after their names. [edit]Shi'a Main article: Shi'a view of Ali The Shi'a regard Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad. According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his demise. This is supported by numerous Hadith, including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of[citation needed]

the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards Ali and his family:

One morning Muhammad went out wearing a striped cloak of black camel's hair when along came Hasan b. 'Ali. He wrapped him under it, then came Husain and he wrapped him under it along with the other one (Hasan). Then came Fatima and he took her under it, then came 'Ali and he also took him under it and then said: God only desires to keep away the uncleanness from you, O People of the House! and to purify you a (thorough) purifying.

Sahih Muslim, Book 031, Number 5955

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[126]

Ali is

known as "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad according to Shia viewpoint.

[127]

Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah" other Ziyaratnames.[129]

[128]

or

Under the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted[8]

attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I(d. 1524) to Najaf and Karbala. [edit]Sunni Main article: Sunni view of Ali

Contemporary Sunni Muslims generally regard Ali with respect as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Rashidun caliphs and view him as one of the most influential and respected figures in Islam. Historically, however, he was ritually cursed in mosques by the Ummayyads until the practice was abolished by Umar ibn Abdul Aziz during the Umayyad caliphate. Also, he is one of the Al-Asharatu Mubashsharun, which is the promised Ten to be in heaven. [edit]Sufi Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali. Sufis, whether Sunni or Shi'ite, believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible. Islamic Sufism.[citation needed] [1]

Imam Ali represents the essence of the teachings of the School of

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali (Maula Ali), after Hamd and Naat in their Qawwali. [edit]As a deity

[citation needed]

Main article: Ghulat Some groups (such as the Alawis) believe that Ali is a deity in his own right or he was God incarnate. ) "exaggerators" by the vast majority of Islamic scholars. These They are described as ghulat (Ar: groups have, in traditional Islamic thought, left Islam due to their exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits. Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who sought to worship him in his own lifetime. [edit]Non-Muslim[130]

views[131]

Main article: Non-Muslim view of Ali Some of the non-Muslim scholars such as Edward Gibbon such as Lammens[133]

while, Sir William Muir

[132]

However others,

, have held a negative view of Ali.

The poet Kahlil Gibran said of him: "In my view, Al was the first Arab to have contact with and converse with the universal soul. He died a martyr of his greatness, he died while prayer was between his two lips. The Arabs did not realise his value until appeared among their Persian neighbors some who knew the difference between gems and gravels [edit]Historiography[134][135]

."

of Ali's life

See also: Historiography of early Islam The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an and the Hadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni and Sha Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by modern Western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic sources are colored to some extent by a positive or negative bias towards Ali.[1]

There had been a common tendency among the earlier western scholars against these narrations and reports gathered in later periods due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Sha partisan positions; such scholars regarding them as later fabrications. This leads them to regard certain reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach tendentious alone is no evidence for late origin. According to him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later historians do not reject the narrations which have been complied in later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures[136]

Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work previous to this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn Qays, a

companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasid.

[137]

When paper was introduced to Muslim society,

numerous monographs were written between 750 and 950 AD. According to Robinson, at least twentyone separate monographs have been composed on the Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of this period who tried to gather all of the reports. 9th and 10th century historians collected, selected and arranged the available narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist anymore except for a few which have been used in later works such as History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d.932).[138]

Shi'a of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al Baqir and Jafar as Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th century AD are about biographies ofThe Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important works in this field is Kitab alIrshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account of Ali. There are also some books known as Manqib which describe Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also constitute a kind of historiography. [edit]Timeline[139]

Aliof the Ahl al-Bayt

chief of Banu Hashim since 653Clan of the Banu Quraish Born: October 23 598 Died: February 28 661

Sha Islam titles Preceded by 1 Imam of Shi'a Islamst

Succeeded by

Muhammadseal of prophecy - last prophet

632661

Hasan ibn AliDisputed by Nizari

Sunni Islam titles Preceded by Uthman 4 Rashidun Caliph of Sunni Islam 656661th

Succeeded by Hasan ibn Ali

[edit]See

also

Islam portal

Alawism Alevi Fatimid Imam Ismaili List of Muslim reports Wali

[edit]Notes

1.

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Ali". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. Retrieved 2007-10-12.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

^ a b Ahmed 2005, p. 234 ^ Madelung 1997, p. 311 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2007-10-25. ^ Encyclopaedia of the Holy Prophet and Companions ^ a b c d e f g h i Tabatabaei 1979, p. 191 ^ a b Ashraf 2005, p. 14 ^ a b c d e f Diana, Steigerwald. "Ali ibn Abi Talib". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1 . MacMillan. ISBN 0028656040.

9.

^ See:

Ashraf 2005, p. 119 and 120 Madelung 1997, p. 141-145

10. ^ See:

Lapidus 2002, p. 47

Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 70-72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 50-75 and 192

11. ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 309 and 310 12. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 5 13. ^ See:

Ashraf 2005, p. 6 "Khalifa Ali bin Talib". witness-pioneer.org. 2004-11-05. Retrieved 2008-12-19.

14. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 6 and 7 15. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 7 16. ^ Watt 1953, p. xii 17. ^ Watt 1953, p. 86 18. ^ Qur'an 26:214 19. ^ See:

Momen 1985, p. 12 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 39

20. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 16-26 21. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 28 and 29 22. ^ Qur'an 2:207 23. ^ Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, Volume 3: Surah Baqarah, Verses 204-207". almizan.org. Retrieved 2008-12-19. 24. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 30-32 25. ^ See:

Momen 1985, p. 13 and 14 Ashraf 2005, p. 28-118

26. ^ Singh 2003, p. 175 27. ^ Qur'an 33:33 28. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 14 and 15 29. ^ See:

Sahih al-Bukhari 5:57:89 Sahih al-Bukhari 5:57:96 Sahih al-Bukhari 5:57:89 Sahih al-Bukhari 9:88:220 Sahih Muslim 31:5915

30. ^ "Hasan ibn Ali". Encyclopedia Iranica. Retrieved 2009-12-06. 31. ^ Sahih Muslim 31:5955 32. ^ Singh 2003, p. 176 33. ^ See:

Ashraf 2005, p. 36 Merrick 2005, p. 247

34. ^ Khatab, Amal (May 1, 1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers. ISBN 1-897940-39-4. 35. ^ Ibn Al Atheer, In his Biography, vol 2 p 107 " " 36. ^ See:

Ashraf 2005, p. 66-68 Zeitlin 2007, p. 134

37. ^ Qur'an 3:59 38. ^ a b Qur'an 3:61 39. ^ See:

Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of virtues of Ali, 1980 Edition Pub. in Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1871, the end of tradition #32

Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654 Madelung 1997, p. 15 and 16

40. ^ Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, v.6, Al Imran, verses 61-63". almizan.org. Retrieved 2008-12-19. 41. ^ Dakake 2008, p. 34 - 39 42. ^ See:

Dakake 2008, p. 39 and 40 Sahih Muslim 031.5920 The Book Pertaining to the Merits of the Companions (Allah Be Pleased With Them) of the Holy Prophet (May Peace Be Upon Him) (Kitab Al-Fada'il Al-Sahabah)

43. ^ Dakake 2008, p. 39 and 40 44. ^ Dakake 2008, p. 34-37 45. ^ See:

Dakake 2008, p. 34 and 35 Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319

""

46. ^ See:

Dakake 2008, p. 43-48 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 40

47. ^ Dakake 2008, p. 33-35 48. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 253 49. ^ Lapidus 2002, p. 31 and 32 50. ^ See:

51. ^a b

Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 57 Madelung 1997, p. 26-27, 30-43 and 356-360 Madelung 1997, p. 43

52. ^ "Fatima", Encyclopedia of Islam. Brill Online. 53. ^ "Sunnite". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. Retrieved 2007-04-11. 54. ^ Sahih Bukhari 5.57.50 55. ^ Chirri 1982 56. ^ See:

57. ^ a b

Madelung 1997, p. 141 and 270 Ashraf 2005, p. 99 and 100

Nahj Al-Balagha Nahj Al-Balagha Sermon 3 For Isnad of this sermon and the name of the names of scholars who narrates it see Nahjul Balagha, Mohammad Askari Jafery (1984), pp. 108-112

58. ^ See:

59. ^

Madelung 1997, p. 50 and 51 Qazwini & Ordoni 1992, p. 211[Qur'an 27:16]

[Qur'an 21:89]

Sahih al-Bukhari 4:53:325 Sahih al-Bukhari 5:59:546 Sahih Muslim 19:4352

Madelung 1997, p. 62-64 Sahih al-Bukhari 4:53:326

60. ^ History of Mecca, Medina and all other Ziyarats 61. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qur'an". Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

62. ^ See:

Tabatabaei 1987, p. chapter 5 Observations on Early Qur'an Manuscripts in San'a The Qur'an as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 90-04-10344-9

63. ^ See:

Ashraf 2005, p. 100 and 101 Madelung 1997, p. 141 Sahih al-Bukhari 5:59:546 Sahih al-Bukhari 8:82:817 Sahih Muslim 19:4352 Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, vol. 3, p.208; Ibn Qutaybah, vol. 1, p.29; quoted in Ayoub, 2003, 18 Rizvi, Sa'id Akhtar, Imamate: The Vicegerency of the Prophet by , quoting Ibn Qutaybah 18. SUNNI VIEWS ON THE CALIPHATE

Shi'a encyclopedia quoting from Ibn Qutaybah, Muhammad al-Bukhari, Massudi, Ibn Abu al-Hadid The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, section Reign of Abubeker; A.D. 632, June 7.

64. ^ See

Ashraf 2005, p. 107-110 The Caliphate of Umar

65. ^ See:

Madelung 1997, p. 70 - 72 Dakake 2008, p. 41 Momen 1985, p. 21

66. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 87 and 88 67. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 90 68. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 92-107 69. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 110 70. ^ See:

Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 67 and 68 Madelung 1997, p. 107 and 111

71. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 334 72. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 119 73. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 141-143

74. ^ Hamidullah 1988, p. 126 75. ^ Ashraf 2005, p. 119 and 120 76. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 141-145 77. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 148 and 149 78. ^ a b Ashraf 2005, p. 121 79. ^ See:

Lapidus 2002, p. 46 Madelung 1997, p. 150 and 264

80. ^ Shaban 1971, p. 72 81. ^ Momen 1985, p. 63 82. ^ See:

Madelung 1997, p. 147 and 148 Lewis 1991, p. 214

83. ^ Lewis 1991, p. 214 84. ^ See:

Lapidus 2002, p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 57

85. ^ See:

86. ^ 'Ali

Lapidus 2002, p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 70-72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 50 - 53

87. ^ See:

Lapidus 2002, p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 70-72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54

88. ^ See:

Madelung 1997, p. 241 - 259 Lapidus 2002, p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 70-72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54

89. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 267-269 and 293-307

90. ^ a b Madelung 1997, p. 309 91. ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 81 92. ^ United Nations Development Program, Arab human development report, (2002), p. 107 93. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 75 94. ^ Lambton 1991, p. xix and xx 95. ^ Tabatabaei 1979, p. 192 96. ^ Kelsay 1993, p. 92 97. ^ Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid 1986 98. ^ Redha 1999 99. ^ a b c d Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). "'Ali ibn Abi Talib". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia . Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415966914., Pages 36 and 37 100. ^ Balkh and Mazar-e-Sharif 101. ^ Madelung 1997, p. 313 and 314 102. ^ See:

Madelung 1997, p. 334 Lapidus 2002, p. 47 Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 72 Tabatabaei 1979, p. 195

103. ^ Momen 1985, p. 14 104. ^ School of Islamic Sufism 105. ^ World of Tasawwuf 106. ^ Corbin 1993, p. 46 107. ^ Nasr 2006, p. 120 108. ^ Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1996, p. 136 109. ^ Corbin 1993, p. 35 110. ^ " " ) 111. ^ See:

Sources of Nahj Al-Balagha Other sources of Ali's quotations

112. ^ a b Mutahhari, 1997 The Glimpses of Nahj al Balaghah Part I - Introduction 113. ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 3 114. ^ Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought and Culture, Vol. VII, No. 1 issue of Al-Tawhid 115. ^ Ali ibn Abi Talib (1990). Supplications (Du'a). Muhammadi Trust. pp. 42. ISBN 0950698644.

116. ^ Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 4 117. ^ () : () () 118. ^ Collection of Ali's poems (I Arabic) 119. ^ Stearns & Langer 2001, p. 1178 120. ^ Tabatabaei 1979, p. 194 121. ^ Tabatabaei 1979, p. 196 - 201 122. ^ Al-Tabari 1990, p. vol.XIX pp. 178-179 123. ^ The Sanctified Household 124. ^ List of Martyrs of Karbala by Khansari " -3 . -2 .) ( -1 :) ( -5 . -4 )(. 6- . -9 . -8 . -7 . -10." 125. ^ "Zaynab Bint Al". Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. 2004. Retrieved 2008-04-10. 126. ^ Nasr, Shi'ite Islam, preface, p. 10 127. ^ Motahhari, Perfect man, Chapter 1 128. ^ Trust, p. 695 129. ^ Trust, p. 681 130. ^ See:

Peters 2003, p. 320 and 321 Halm 2004, p. 154- 159

131. ^ stated,"The zeal and virtue of Ali were never outstripped by any recent proselyte. He united the qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint; his wisdom still breathes in a collection of moral and religious sayings; and every antagonist, in the combats of the tongue or of the sword, was subdued by his eloquence and valour. From the first hour of his mission to the last rites of his funeral, the apostle was never forsaken by a generous friend, whom he delighted to name his brother, his vicegerent, and the faithful Aaron of a second Moses." The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1911, (originally published 1776-88) volume 5, pp. 381-2 132. ^ mentions, Ali was Endowed with a clear intellect, warm in affection, and confiding in friendship, he was from the boyhood devoted heart and soul to the Prophet. Simple, quiet, and unambitious, when in after days he obtained the rule of half of the Moslem world, it was rather thrust upon him than sought.The Life of Mahomet, London, 1877, p. 250 133. ^ Henri Lammens, Fatima and the Daughters of Muhammad, Rome and paris: Scripta Pontificii Instituti Biblici, 1912. Translation by Ibn Warraq. 134. ^ Morteza Motahhari, Islam and Religious Pluralism 135. ^ George Jordac, the Voice of Human Justice

136. ^ Madelung 1997, p. xi, 19 and 20 137. ^ See:

Dakake 2008, p. 270 Lawson 2005, p. 59

138. ^ Robinson 2003, p. 28 and 34 139. ^ Jafarian, Rasul; Translated by Delrm Furd, Publisher:Message of Thaqalayn

[edit]References

Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. ISBN 8126123397. Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (1986). Kitab Al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams . Routledge Kegan & Paul. ISBN0710301510.

Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen Humphreys. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791401545. (volume XV.)

Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions . Anmol Publications PVT. LTD.. ISBN 8126119403.

Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.

Corbin, Henry (1993) [1964]. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 0710304161. Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard.

Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791470334.

Halm, Halm (2004). Shi'ism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN0748618880. Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 9698016228.

Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds (1970).Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521291356.

Kelsay, Jhon (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664253024. Lambton, Ann K. S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1850432937. Lawson, Todd, ed (2005). Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought . I.B.Tauris.ISBN 1850434700.

Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779333. Lewis, Bernard (1991). The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226476936. Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521646960.

Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions . Kessinger Publishing. ISBN1417955368.

Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shii Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN0300035314.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Dabashi, Hamid; Nasr, Vali (1989).Expectation of the Millennium. Suny press. ISBN 088706843X.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (1996). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0415131596. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791467996. Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition . Princeton University Press.ISBN 0691114617.

Qazwini, Muhammad Kazim; Ordoni, Abu Muhammad (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. OCLC 61565460.

Redha, Mohammad (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth Caliph, 1/1 Volume) . Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 2-7451-2532-X.

Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521629365. Shaban, Muammad Abd al-ayy (1971). Islamic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521291313. Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2007). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the Spirituality of Imam Ali . I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1845115260.

Singh, N.K. (2003). Prophet Muhammad and His Companions . Global Vision Publishing Ho. ISBN 9788187746461. Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001). The Encyclopedia of World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern . Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0395652375.

Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.| Translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr.

Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims . Zahra. ISBN0710302657.

Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN0745639984.

[edit]Further[edit]Original

reading

sources

Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8. Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 0940368439.

Ali ibn al-Athir. In his Biography, vol 2.

Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah.(In Arabic) Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31.

[edit]Secondary Books

sources

Abdul Rauf, Muhammad; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker. Al Saadawi Publications. ISBN 1881963497.

Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1987 to 1996). History of the Prophets and Kings , translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes. SUNY Press. volumes 6-17 are relevant.

Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Center of America, Detroit, MI. Alibris. ISBN 8126171834.

Motahhari, Murtaza (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn Abi Talib . World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran.

Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. ISBN 1570622116.

Corn, Patricia (2005). Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0748621946. Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 0-941724-24-7.(in Arabic) Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers.ISBN 1-897940-39-4. Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might , translation by I.K.A. Howard . Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. ISBN 0950698660.

Lakhani, M. Ali.; Reza Shah-Kazemi and Leonard Lewisohn (2007).The Sacred Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr . World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316268.

Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organizati. ISBN 978-9644720710.

Encyclopedia

Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill. 2004. E-ISSN 1573-3912. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.. Martin, Richard C.. Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0028656040. Encyclopdia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1568590504. Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0415966914.

Jones, Lindsay (2004). Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. ISBN 9780028657332.

[edit]External

links

Find more about Ali on Wikipedia's sister projects: Definitions from Textbooks from Quotations from Source Images News Learning resources from Wikiversity and stories from texts from media from Wiktionary Wikibooks Wikiquote Wikisource Commons Wikinews

The Secret of Imam Ali's Force of Attraction Ali ibn Abi Talib by I. K. Poonawala and E. Kohlberg in Encyclopedia Iranica Ali, article on Enyclopaedia Britannica Online

Some of Ali's most famous sermons and letters Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha Order to Maalik al-Ashtar, governor of Egypt (UN Legal Committee, member states voted that the document should be considered as one of the sources of International Law.) The United Nation and Imam Alis Constitution A advice ti his son Hasan ib Ali (This letter contains ethical advisement) 185 Sermon about the Oneness of Allah The Last Will of Ali ibn Abi Talib

Sha biography The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali b. Abu Talib by Shaykh Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib A Biographical Profile of Imam Ali (Archived 2009-10-25) by Syed Muhammad Askari Jafari The Seerat Of Amir al-Mu'mineen (SA)

Sunni biography Online Biography by Witness-Pioneer Biography from USC's MSA website Ali ibn Abi Talib[show]

List of Sahaba][show

List of Ali's companions][show

Islam topics

Categories: 599 births | 661 deaths | 7th-century caliphs | Ali | Alid dynasties | Assassinated religious leaders | Assassinated Shi'a imams | Converts to Islam | Family of Muhammad |Muslim generals | P

THE STORY OF JAAFAR AL-TAYYAR: . 1963: ( ) . :

-1 2005: ) (Ian Dallas , Collected Works , Budgate Press, Cape Town, 2005 . -2 . -3 . - . : / ( ) . 1931: ) The International Times

: . 1963: : 1967 ( )1876: 1971: 1976: ( Abdul Wahab el-Affendi , A False Dawn in Inquiry Magazine (January 1998) : p.54). ( ) 1976: . 1973 . ( ).. ( ) ( Fatima Harrak , Le Soufisme Face A La Mondialisation : Cas Des Confrries DOrigine Africaine Aux USA dans : Confrries Soufis dAfrique : Nouveaux Rles , : Nouveaux Enjeux ,2004 , Actes du )Colloque International , Organise par lInstitut des Etudes Africaines Rabat,2-4 Octobre 2001, p :191 . ( ) . : -1 : ( : ) )(Ali Kose , Conversion to Islam: A study of Native British Converts. London: Kegan Paul. (1996 ,p.181). / .. (Marcia Hermansen , The other Shadhilis of the West in The Shadhiliyya, (Op.Cit ) , 488). -2 : 1983: . : : ( Marcia Hermansen , The other Shadhilis of the West in The Shadhiliyya, (Op.Cit ) , p.489 ) .

: 1983: ( ) Ibid , p.489 . . : . : -1 : (Abdal Qadir As-Sufi, Root Islamic education , Ch. 1. On line at http://bewley.virtualave.netViewed July 2007). -2 : ( ) : [: ] (Abdal Qadir As-Sufi, Root Islamic education Ch. 1. On line at http://bewley.virtualave.netViewed July 2007 .) . -3 : ( ) . : ( ) (Abdalhaqq Bewley, The Recovery of True Islamic Fiqh: An introduction to the work of Shaykh )Abdalqadir as-Sufi .. : ( ) . (Abdal Qadir As-Sufi, Root Islamic education, Ch. 1. On line at http://bewley.virtualave.netViewed July 2007) . * : ( ) The Recovery : of True Islamic Fiqh: An introduction to the work of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi : :

( ) . ( ) (Abdalhaqq Bewley, The Recovery of True Islamic Fiqh: An introduction to the work of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi (Op.Cit ) .). : : ( ) . ( ) . . : . ( ) ( ) (Abdalhaqq Bewley, The Recovery of True Islamic Fiqh: An introduction to the work of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi , (Op.Cit) .). : . (Abdal Qadir As-Sufi , Root Islamic education , Summary -Part One , On line athttp://bewley.virtualave.net Viewed July 2007 } : There is no book after the book of Allah , which is more beneficial for people more than the Muwatta .and There is no book of knowledge on the earth more correct than the book of Malik : : -1 . ( ) ( -)Madina Press,1991 ) : (http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/aBewley/Page17.html : ( )1995 : ( )20001997 : ) : (http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/aBewley/usul.html : The Fundamental Principles of Imam Maliks Fiqh ( ) 1991 . -2 .

. -3 . Budgate Press Madinah Press : iwan Press -4 () : http://www.shaykhabdalqadir.com/content : http://bewley.virtualave.net/index.html :

: : -1 . -2 : * : . * : . * : . : () ** ** : . (Abdal Qadir As-Sufi, Root Islamic education , Summary -Part One , On line athttp://bewley.virtualave.net Viewed July 2007 } .

: ( ) . : :

. ) 195: 2007/18 : - ( : . ) ( . . (http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=ArticleA_C&cid=1203758163946&pagename=ZoneArabic-News/NWALayout) . .

: 195: 2007/18 : - -1 2- Abdalhaqq Bewley, The Recovery of True Islamic Fiqh: An introduction to the work of Shaykh Abdalqadir as-Sufi, (http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/aBewley/saq.html) . )iwanPress Abdal Qadir al-Murabit , The Sign of The Sword , (Norwich -3 Viewed http://bewley.virtualave.net : Abdal Qadir As-Sufi , Root Islamic education , Ch. 1. On line at -4 March 2008 5- Abdal Qadir As-Sufi , Root Islamic education , Summary -Part One , On line athttp://bewley.virtualave.net Viewed March 2008 .)Abdul Wahab el-Affendi , A False Dawn in Inquiry Magazine (January 1998 -6 )Ali Kose , Conversion to Islam: A study of Native British Converts. London: Kegan Paul. (1996 -7 Fatima Harrak , Le Soufisme Face A La Mondialisation : Cas Des Confrries DOrigine Africaine Aux -8 USA dans : Confrries Soufis dAfrique : Nouveaux Rles , : Nouveaux Enjeux ,2004 , Actes du ,Colloque International , Organise par lInstitut des Etudes Africaines Rabat,2 -4 Octobre 2001 - Ian Dallas , Collected Works , Budgate Press, Cape Town, 2005 9 10- Marcia Hermansen , The other Shadhilis of the West in The Shadhiliyya, ed. Eric Geoffroy, Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose , (2005) 11- http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/aBewley/Page17.html 12- http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/aBewley/usul.html 13http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=ArticleA_C&cid=1203758163946&pagename=ZoneArabic-News/NWALayout2 RESPONSES

1.

Posted by Zineb sakkat | 31/03/09, 23:00 :

This is a good and precise academic article . Really, it has been a good surprize for me to know that the islamic reformation project of Shaykh AbdulQadir As-Sufi is so important and significant not only for his movement but for all muslims around the world.2.Posted by | 04/08/09, 00:42 :

LEAVE A REPLY

....................................................................................................................... Maulana Rumi (R.A.) states: "It is a well known fact that the fox is noted for its cowardice. " However, the fox which has a lion as a support behind its back saying to him: "Fear not, my hand is upon your back", in spite of lacking courage, becomes very brave indeed. His new found bravery is of such a nature that he will not hesitate to attack a leopard. He now has the support of a lion at his side, he will show no fear for a leopard. Similarly is the case of the chosen servants of Allah. In spite of their apparent weakness and distressed position, they show no fear in the face of a multitude of evil forces. These saintly ones do experience some natural fear, of physical hurt or injury but at heart they have no fear of anyone besides Allah. A Sufi says: "0 people look not upon my weakly countenance for I have legs of iron. Do you know that within my heart I am connected to the king of Kings. " In this regard Maulana Rumi (R.A.) tells a story of Hazrat Jaafar Once Hazrat Jaafar attacked a fortress, all by himself. His attack was so fierce that it seemed that the fortress would soon become a prey to the hoofs of his horse. The inmates of the fortress were so struck by awe that they closed the gates of the fortress and no-one dared to come out to engage him in battle. The King discussed with his Wazir as to what line of action is to be adopted. The Wazir advised him: "The best line of action is to cancel all plans of making war against the man. It is best to take your Kafan and your sword and meet him and then to throw down your weapon". The King replied: "But this man is all by himself How is it that you give me such advise?" The Wazir informed him: "Do not underestimate his being one man only. Open your eyes and look at the fortress and see how it trembles like quick silver. Look at the inmates of the fortress, and see how their heads are bent downwards like sheep. Even though the man is alone, the heart which he has in his breast is not like the hearts of ordinary men. Look at his brave courage, that in the face of a vast multitude of opponents, he challenges them into battle with a naked sword in his hand and in a confident and victorious manner, calls them to fight. It seems that all the battle forces of the East and West are with him. One man alone, but he appears like hundreds of thousands. Do you not see that whichever soldiers are sent out to fight him are soon seen lying under the hoofs of his horse? When I had seen the great individuality of this man, 0 King, I realised that this multitude of soldiers which are with you, will not be able to do anything against him. Do not rely upon numbers. The main thing is the unity of the heart and this is actually what is so striking about the heart of this man. In this respect he has been endowed endlessly with it. This is a gift from Allah, which is attained through the acquisition of contact with Him and through rigorous spiritual exercises.

This connection you will not be able to attain while you are in the state of Kufr. Hence, it is best for you to throw down your weapons in defeat before the courageous believer and to open the gates of the fortress, because your large number of soldiers are of no use." Then Maulana Rumi (R.A.) gave examples of where in the face of a minority, the majority becomes useless:

EXAMPLE ONE

Millions of stars are shining and produce light, but at the rising of the sun, their light becomes non-existent.

EXAMPLE TWO

If one thousand mice should attack a weak and sickly cat, it would appear that they would be victorious in their endeavour. A few of them can grab him by the neck. One or two of them can then take his eyes out. One or two of them can tear off his ears with their teeth. One or two of them can make an opening at his side, enter and begin chewing the internal organs. That would appear to be reasonable to accept. However, experience has shown otherwise. As soon as the weak and sickly cat utters one "miau" the whole multitude of mice become awe struck and one by one they flee to safety. The moment they hear the "miau" they become convinced of their being vanquished and visualising the action? of the cat's teeth and paws makes them flee. The main reason for this is the major difference between the hearts in the breast of the mice and the heart in the breast of the cat. The unity of the heart in the cat and the courage lying in it, is not found in the mice. Hence the mice becoming confounded and defeated in the presence of the cat, is proof thereof that the cat possesses unity of heart and courage. Otherwise it would appear that if a large number of mice should attack the cat, it will be impossible for the cat to escape. Hence we conclude that even if the number of mice were a hundred thousand, still, seeing a weak and sickly cat, will cause all of them to run away. This proves that numbers mean nothing. The mai

he term Sharif (nobleman) or Sayyid is used to describe a descendant of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) through his daughter Fatima (RAA). They are descendants of Al Hasan and Al Huseinthe two sons of Ali ibn Abi Talib (RAA) and Fatima the daughter of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). The Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) and Ali ibn Abi Talib (RAA) are from the Bani Hashim branch of the tribe of Quraish. They are the noblest of the Arabs. The Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) and Ali ibn Abi Talib (RAA) were first cousins. Alis father, Abi Talib, was the brother of the Prophets (SAWS) father. Once it has been established that the Bani Hashim were a

black-skinned people, there should be no need to prove that the pure Arabs of the past were, in general, a black-skinned people.

In discussing the appearance of the Sharifs, I believe that it is appropriate for me to begin with the father of the Sharifs- Ali ibn Abi Talib (RAA). In his book Tarikh Al-Khulafaa (The History of the Caliphs), Imam Al-Suyuti described Ali ibn Abi Talib as follows:

Ali was a heavyset, bald, hairy man of average height which leaned toward shortness. He had a large stomach and a large beard which filled all that was between his shoulders. His beard was white as if it was cotton and he was a black-skinned man.

There are certain names that we usually hear when the Sharifs or Sayyids - the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) are mentioned. We have all probably heard of Ali Zein Al-Abidin the son of Al-Husein the son of Ali the son of Abu Talib. Though his mother was Persian, he is described as dark-skinned (see Ibn Al-Sabaagh Al-Maaliki's Al-Fusoul Al-Muhimma). Where did he get his dark complexion from? From his father's side of the family, of course. This Ali Zein Al-Abidin the son of Al-Husein the son of Ali the son of Abu Talib married Fatima the daughter of Al-Hasan the son of Ali the son of Abi Talib.

Mohamed Al-Baqir- another name we hear when there is mention of the Sharifs, the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) - was the eldest son of Ali Zein Al-Abidin and Fatima the daughter of Al-Hasan. He was nicknamed "He Who Resembles" because he looked so much like the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). He was described as dark-skinned, kinky-haired, and of average height (see Ibn Al-Sabaagh Al-Maaliki's Al-Fusoul Al-Muhimma). Mohamed Al-Baqir married Umm Farwa, the great granddaughter of Abu Bakr Al-Saddiq and they had Jaafar AlSaadiq. Jaafar Al-Saadiq is another name frequently heard when speaking of the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). He was described as black-skinned, kinky-haired, and average height (see Ibn Al-Sabaagh Al-Maaliki's Al-Fusoul Al-Muhimma).

Jaafar Al-Saadiq had a Berber slave-girl named Humaida and through her he had his son Musa Al-Kadhim - another well-known member of the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) whom many Sharifs claim descent from. Musa Al-Kadhim was described as very black-skinned (see

Ibn

Al-Sabaagh

Al-Maaliki's

Al-Fusoul

Al-Muhimma).

Musa Al-Kadhim's son Ali Al-Rida is another well-known member of the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) whom many Sharifs claim descent from. He, too, was described as blackskinned. He was once standing in a bathhouse when a soldier entered and pushed him to the side and said, "Pour water on my head oh black one!" Ali Al-Rida began to pour water for the soldier and then someone who knew who Ali Al-Rida was entered the bathhouse and when he saw what was happening he shouted, "Oh soldier! Woe to you! Do you dare have the son of the daughter of the Messenger of Allah (SAWS) serve you?!" The soldier quickly began to kiss the feet of Ali Al-Rida and said, "Why didn't you disobey me when I ordered you?!" (see Shaykh Shablanji's, famous book Nur al Absar fi Manaqeb Aal bayt el Nabi al Mukhtar). Ali Al-Rida had a son named Mohamed Al-Jawaad also known as Mohamed Al-Taqi. Mohamed Al-Jawaad was also described as very black-skinned. (see Ibn Shahrashoob's Manaqib Aal AbiTalib) Mohamed Al-Jawaad or Al-Taqi had a son named Ali Al-Hadi. Ali Al-Hadi, too, was described as dark-skinned (see Abi Al Abbas Al Qarmaani's Akhbaar Al Dawal). The chart below was taken from this link http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayyid. Take a look at the link and the chart to get an even better idea of how the dark-skinned members of the Prophet Mohamed's family that I have just mentioned are the noble ancestors of those called Sharifs Ancestor or Sayyids today.

Arabic

Title

Arabic

Last

Name

Persian

Last

Name

Urdu

Last

Name

Ali

ibn

Abu

Talib

Alawi2

Allawi2

or

Alawi3

Alavi2

Alavi 2 Hasan or ibn Awan Ali

al-Hashimi

or

al-Hassani

al-Hashimi

or

al-Hassani

Hashemi,

Hassani,

or

Tabatabai

Hassani Husayn

or ibn

Hashmi Ali

al-Hussaini

al-Hussaini1

Hosseini

Hussaini Ali ibn Husayn

or Zayn al

Shah Abidin

al-Abidi

al-Abidi

Abedi

Abidi Zayd ibn Ali ash-Shahid

az-Zaidi

al-Zaidi

Zaidi

Zaidi

Muhammad

al-Baqir

al-Baqiri

al-Baqiri

Bagheri

Baqri Jafar as-Sadiq

al-Ja'fari

al-Ja'fari

Jafari

or

Jafri

Jafri, Musa

Jafry

or

Jaffery al-Kadhim

Al

Mosawi

al-Mousawi

or

al-Kadhimi

Musavi

or

Kazemi

/

Kazmi Ali

or

Mosavi ar-Rida

ar-Radawi

al-Ridawi

or

al-Radawi

Rezavi

or

Razavi

Rizvi Muhammad at-Taqi

at-Taqawi

al-Taqawi

Taghavi

Taqvi Ali

or

Taqwi al-Hadi

an-Naqawi

al-Naqawi

Naqavi

Naqvi Fatima Zahra

Ashraf

Al-Quraishi

Al-Husaini

or

Al-Fatimi

Fatemi

Fatmi

or

Qureishi

You have all probably heard of Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia. He is Mohamed the son of Abdella the Pure-Blooded the son of Al-Hasan the son of Al-Hasan the son of Ali the son of Abi Talib. Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia was nicknamed the Pure-Blooded of Quraish because he was so unmixed. His father Abdella was also nicknamed the Pure-Blooded. Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia was from the Bani Hashim clan of Quraish from both his mother and his father. Remember that Bani Hashim is the clan of Quraish that the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) and Ali (RAA) are from. Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia was described as very black-skinned and huge (see Al Haafidh Al Dhahabi's Al Ibar Fi Khabar Man Ghabar). He had a son named Hasan. His son Hasan was nicknamed The Father of the Tar because he was so black-skinned (see Ibn Hazim's Jumharat Ansaab Al Arab). This is the description of the pure-blooded descendants

of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia wrote a letter to the Abbasid ruler complaining to him that he had more right to be the ruler because he was so closely related to the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). Amongst the things he said in his letter to the Abbasid ruler was, "We are in the right...Our father Ali was the Imam (leader). How did you inherit the rule which belongs to the children of Ali?! You know that no one who seeks this position (ruler) has a purer genealogy than I do or is more highborn than I am...You know that no one has as close relations or relations to anyone better than he whom I am very closely related to (He means the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS)). I am from the best of Banu Hashim in genealogy and the noblest of them both paternally and maternally. No non-Arab blood runs through my veins and I am not related to the slave-girls." Bear in mind that Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia, who is here talking about how pure his Arab blood is and how closely he is related to the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS), was very black-skinned.

Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia had a brother named Musa Al-Jawn (the Black). Musa Al-Jawn was also very black-skinned. He was nicknamed Al-Jawn (the Black) because of his blackness (see Al Asfahaani's Kitaab Al Aghaani). The Sharifs called Banu Al-Akhaidar, who are found in Oman, Saudi Arabia, and other places, are descended from Musa Al-Jawn.

Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia and Musa Al-Jawn had another brother named Yahya the Possessor of Daylum. Yahya, too, was described as black-skinned (see Al Asfahaani's Muqaatil Al Taalibiyeen). Mohamed Al-Nafs Al-Zakia, Musa Al-Jawn and Yahya the Possessor of Daylum were all the brothers of Idriss the 1st, the father of the Idrissi Sharifs and the founder of the city of Fes in Morocco.

Nineth century poet Abu Al-Hasan Ali ibn Al-Abbas ibn Jurayj, known as Ibn Al-Rumi, wrote a long poem to the Abbasids blaming them for the way that they treated the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS). It should be understood that at that time, the Abbasids had become very mixed with the Romans, Greeks, and Persians. Here is part of what Ibn Al-Rumi said in his famous poem called Al-Jeemia:

"You insulted them (the family of the Prophet Mohamed) because of their blackness while there are still pure-blooded black-skinned Arabs. However, you are blue (eyed) - the Romans have embellished your faces with their color."

There you have it. These are the ancestors of the Sharifs or the Sayyids - the family of the Prophet Mohamed (SAWS) and as you have seen, they were all dark-skinned people. The question that remains to be answered is this - why aren't the masses aware of this fact? Please www.savethetruearabs.blogspot.com www.savethetruearabs.com visit:

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