Hindu calendar 1 Hindu calendar A page from the Hindu calendar 1871-72. The Hindu calendar used in ancient times has undergone many changes in the process of regionalization, and today there are several regional Indian calendars, as well as an Indian national calendar. Most of these calendars are inherited from a system first enunciated in Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha, a late BCE adjunct to the Vedas, standardized in the Surya Siddhanta (3rd century CE) and subsequently reformed by astronomers such as Aryabhata (499 CE), Varahamihira (6th c. CE), and Bhaskara (12th c. CE). There are differences and regional variations abound in these computations, but the following is a general overview of Hindu lunisolar calendar. Day In the Hindu calendar, the day starts with local sunrise. It is allotted five "properties", called angas. They are: 1. the tithi (one of 30 divisions of a synodic month) active at sunrise 2. the vaasara or weekday 3. the nakshatra (one of 27 divisions of the celestial ecliptic) in which the moon resides at sunrise 4. the yoga (one of 27 divisions based on the ecliptic longitude of the sun and moon) active at sunrise 5. the karana (divisions based on tithis) active at sunrise. Together these are called the panchāngas (Sanskrit: pancha = five). An explanation of the terms follows. Vaasara Vaasara refers to the days of the week and bear striking similarities with the names in many cultures, especially western (Hindi and English analogues in parentheses): No. Sanskrit name of the weekday English name of the weekday Celestial object 1 Ravi vāsara रविवासरः Sunday Ravi = Sun 2 Soma vāsara सोमवासरः Monday Soma = Moon 3 Mangala vāsara मंगलवासरः Tuesday Mangala = Mars 4 Budha vāsara बुधवासरः Wednesday Budha = Mercury 5 Guru vāsara गुरुवासरः or Bruhaspati vāsara बृहस्पतिवासरः Thursday Guru (Brihaspati) = Jupiter
Transcript
Hindu calendar 1
Hindu calendar
A page from the Hindu calendar1871-72.
The Hindu calendar used in ancient times has undergone many changes in theprocess of regionalization, and today there are several regional Indian calendars,as well as an Indian national calendar.
Most of these calendars are inherited from a system first enunciated in VedangaJyotisha of Lagadha, a late BCE adjunct to the Vedas, standardized in the SuryaSiddhanta (3rd century CE) and subsequently reformed by astronomers such asAryabhata (499 CE), Varahamihira (6th c. CE), and Bhaskara (12th c. CE).There are differences and regional variations abound in these computations, butthe following is a general overview of Hindu lunisolar calendar.
Day
In the Hindu calendar, the day starts with local sunrise. It is allotted five"properties", called angas. They are:
1. the tithi (one of 30 divisions of a synodic month) active at sunrise2. the vaasara or weekday3. the nakshatra (one of 27 divisions of the celestial ecliptic) in which the moon
resides at sunrise4. the yoga (one of 27 divisions based on the ecliptic longitude of the sun and
moon) active at sunrise5. the karana (divisions based on tithis) active at sunrise.Together these are called the panchāngas (Sanskrit: pancha = five). Anexplanation of the terms follows.
VaasaraVaasara refers to the days of the week and bear striking similarities with the names in many cultures, especiallywestern (Hindi and English analogues in parentheses):
The term -vaasara is often abbreviated as vaara or vaar in Sanskrit-derived languages. There are many variations ofthe names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved.
NakshatraThe ecliptic is divided into 27 nakshatras, which are variously called lunar houses or asterisms. These reflect themoon's cycle against the fixed stars, 27 days and 7¾ hours, the fractional part being compensated by an intercalary28th nakshatra. Nakshatra computation appears to have been well known at the time of the Rig Veda (2nd–1stmillennium BCE).The ecliptic is divided into the nakshatras eastwards starting from a reference point which is traditionally a point onthe ecliptic directly opposite the star Spica called Chitrā in Sanskrit. (Other slightly different definitions exist.) It iscalled Meshādi or the "start of Aries"; this is when the equinox — where the ecliptic meets the equator — was inAries (today it is in Pisces, 28 degrees before Aries starts). The difference between Meshādi and the present equinoxis known as ayanāngsha or fraction of ecliptic. Given the 25,800 year cycle for the precession of the equinoxes, theequinox was directly opposite Spica in 285 CE, around the date of the Surya Siddhanta[1] [2] .The nakshatras with their corresponding regions of sky are given below, following Basham[3] . As always, there aremany versions with minor differences. The names on the right-hand column give roughly the correspondence of thenakshatras to modern names of stars. Note that nakshatras are (in this context) not just single stars but are segmentson the ecliptic characterised by one or more stars. Hence there are more than one star mentioned for each nakshatra.
An additional 28th intercalary nakshatra, Abhijit (अभिजित्)(α, ε and ζ Lyrae - Vega - between Uttarasharha andSravana. Last two (third and fourth) Padas of Uttrashada and first two (first and second) Padas of Sravana areconsidered to be Abhijit. Unless specifically mentioned it is not included in the list of the 27 constellations.The nakshatra in which the moon lies at the time of sunrise of a day is the nakshatra for the day.
YogaFirst one computes the angular distance along the ecliptic of each object, taking the ecliptic to start at Mesha or Aries(Meshādi, as defined above): this is called the longitude of that object. The longitude of the sun and the longitude ofthe moon are added, and normalized to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360).This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the yogas. They are labeled:
1. Vishkumbha2. Prīti3. Āyushmān4. Saubhāgya5. Shobhana6. Atiganda7. Sukarman8. Dhriti9. Shūla10. Ganda11. Vriddhi12. Dhruva13. Vyāghāta14. Harshana15. Vajra16. Siddhi17. Vyatīpāta18. Varigha19. Parigha20. Shiva21. Siddha22. Sādhya23. Shubha24. Shukla25. Brāhma26. Māhendra27. VaidhritiAgain, minor variations may exist. The yoga that is active during sunrise of a day is the yoga for the day.
KaranaA karana is half of a tithi. To be precise, a karana is the time required for the angular distance between the sun andthe moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi above.)Since the tithis are thirty in number, one would expect there to be sixty karanas. But there are only eleven. There arefour "fixed" karanas and seven "repeating" karanas. The four "fixed" karanas are:1. Kimstughna2. Shakuni3. Chatushpād4. NāgavaThe seven "repeating" karanas are:1. Bava2. Bālava3. Kaulava4. Taitula5. Garajā6. Vanijā7. Vishti (Bhadrā)
• Now the first half of the first tithi (of the bright fortnight) is always Kimstughna karana. Hence this karana is"fixed".
• Next, the seven repeating karanas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-tithis. Thus these are the"repeating" karanas.
• The three remaining half-tithis take the remaining "fixed" karanas in order. Thus these are also "fixed".• Thus one gets sixty karanas from eleven.The karana active during sunrise of a day is the karana for the day.
(Rashi)Saur Maas
(solar months)
Ritu(season)
Gregorianmonths
Zodiac
Mesh Vasant(spring)
March/April Aries
Vrishabh April/May Taurus
Mithun Grishma(summer)
May/June Gemini
Karkat June/July Cancer
Simha Varsha(monsoon)
July/Aug Leo
Kanya Aug/Sept Virgo
Tula Sharad(autumn)
Sept/Oct Libra
Vrishchik Oct/Nov Scorpius
Dhanu Hemant(autumn-winter)
Nov/Dec. Sagittarius
Makar Dec/Jan Capricornus
Kumbha Shishir(Winter-Spring)
Jan/Feb Aquarius
Meen Feb/Mar Pisces
Months of the lunisolar calendarWhen a new moon occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunar month. So it isevident that the end of the lunar month will coincide with a new moon. A lunar month has 29 or 30 days (accordingto the movement of the moon).The tithi at sunrise of a day is the only label of the day. There is no running day number from the first day to the lastday of the month. This has some unique results, as explained below:Sometimes two successive days have the same tithi. In such a case, the latter is called an adhika tithi where adhikameans "extra". Sometimes, one tithi may never touch a sunrise, and hence no day will be labeled by that tithi. It isthen said to be a tithi kshaya where kshaya means "loss".
Naming lunar monthsThere are twelve lunar month names:1. Chaitra2. Vaishākh3. Jyaishtha4. Āshādha5. Shrāvana6. Bhaadra or, Bhādrapad7. Āshwin8. Kārtik9. Agrahayana or, Mārgashīrsha10. Paush11. Māgh12. PhālgunDetermining which name a lunar month takes is somewhat indirect. It is based on the rāshi into which the suntransits within a lunar month, i.e. before the new moon ending the month.There are twelve rāshi names, there are twelve lunar month names. When the sun transits into the Mesha rāshi in alunar month, then the name of the lunar month is Chaitra. When the sun transits into Vrishabha, then the lunarmonth is Vaishākh. So on.The Sanskrit grammatical derivation of the lunar month names Chaitra etc., is: the (lunar) month which has itscentral full moon occurring at or near the nakshatra Chitrā is called Chaitra. Similarly, for the nakshatras Vishākhā,Jyeshthā, (Pūrva) Ashādhā, Shravan, Bhādrapad, Ashvinī (old name Ashvayuj), Krittikā, Mrigashīrsha, Pushya,Meghā and (Pūrva/Uttara) Phalgunī the names Vaishākh etc. are derived.The lunar months are split into two pakshas of 15 days. The waxing paksha is called shuklapaksha, light half, and thewaning paksha the krishnapaksha, dark half. There are two different systems for making the lunar calendar:• amavasyanta or mukhya mana system - a month begins with a new moon, mostly followed in the southern states• purnimanta or gauna mana system - a month begins with a full moon, followed more in the North.
Extra months
When the sun does not at all transit into any rāshi but simply keeps moving within a rāshi in a lunar month (i.e.before a new moon), then that lunar month will be named according to the first upcoming transit. It will also take theepithet of adhik or "extra". For example, if a lunar month elapsed without a solar transit and the next transit is intoMesha, then this month without transit is labeled adhik Chaitra. The next month will be labeled according to itstransit as usual and will get the epithet nija ("original") or shuddha ("clean"). [Note that an adhik māsa (month) is thefirst of two whereas an adhika tithi is the second of two.]Extra Month, or adhik mas māsa (mas = lunar month) falls every 32.5 months. It is also known as purushottam mas,so as to give it a devotional name. Thus 12 Hindu mas (māsa) is equal to approximate 356 days, while solar yearhave 365 or 366 (in leap year) which create differece of 9 to 10 days, which is offset every 3rd year. No adhik masfalls during Kartik to Magh.A month long fair is celebrated in Machhegaun during adhik māsa. It is general belief that one can wash away allone's sins by taking a bath in the Machhenarayan's pond.
If the sun transits into two rāshis within a lunar month, then the month will have to be labeled by both transits andwill take the epithet kshay or "loss". There is considered to be a "loss" because in this case, there is only one monthlabeled by both transits. If the sun had transited into only one raashi in a lunar month as is usual, there would havebeen two separate months labeled by the two transits in question.For example, if the sun transits into Mesh and Vrishabh in a lunar month, then it will be called Chaitra-Vaishaakhkshaya. There will be no separate months labeled Chaitra and Vaishākh.A kshay māsa occurs very rarely. Known gaps between occurrence of kshaya māsas are 19 and 141 years. The lastwas in 1983. January 15 through February 12 were Pausha-Māgha kshay. February 13 onwards was (adhik)Phālguna.Special Case:
If there is no solar transit in one lunar month but there are two transits in the next lunar month,• the first month will be labeled by the first transit of the second month and take the epithet adhik and• the next month will be labeled by both its transits as is usual for a kshay māsa
This is a very very rare occurrence. The last was in 1315. October 8 to November 5 were adhik Kārtik. November 6to December 5 were Kārtik-Mārgashīrsh kshaya. December 6 onwards was Paush.
Religious observances in case of extra and lost monthsAmong normal months, adhika months, and kshaya months, the earlier are considered "better" for religiouspurposes. That means, if a festival should fall on the 10th tithi of the Āshvayuja month (this is called Vijayadashamī)and there are two Āshvayuja months caused by the existence of an adhika Āshvayuja, the first adhika month will notsee the festival, and the festival will be observed only in the second nija month. However, if the second month isāshvayuja kshaya then the festival will be observed in the first adhika month itself.When two months are rolled into one in the case of a kshaya māsa, the festivals of both months will also be rolledinto this kshaya māsa. For example, the festival of Mahāshivarātri which is to be observed on the fourteenth tithi ofthe Māgha krishna paksha was, in 1983, observed on the corresponding tithi of Pausha-Māgha kshaya krishnapaksha, since in that year, Pausha and Māgha were rolled into one, as mentioned above. When two months arerolled into one in the case of a kshaya māsa, the festivals of both months will also be rolled into this kshaya māsa.
Year of the lunisolar calendarThe new year day is the first day of the shukla paksha of Chaitra. In the case of adhika or kshaya months relating toChaitra, the aforementioned religious rules apply giving rise to the following results:• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a nija Chaitra, the new year starts with the nija Chaitra.• If an adhika Chaitra is followed by a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya, the new year starts with the adhika Chaitra.• If a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya occurs with no adhika Chaitra before it, then it starts the new year.• If a Phālguna-Chaitra kshaya occurs, it starts the new year.
Another kind of lunisolar calendarThere is another kind of lunisolar calendar which differs from the former in the way the months are named. When afull moon (instead of new moon) occurs before sunrise on a day, that day is said to be the first day of the lunarmonth. In this case, the end of the lunar month will coincide with a full moon. This is called the pūrnimānta māna or"full-moon-ending reckoning", as against the amānta māna or "new-moon-ending reckoning" used before.This definition leads to a lot of complications:• The first paksha of the month will be krishna and the second will be shukla.• The new year is still on the first day of the Chaitra shukla paksha. The next paksha-s will be the Vaishākha
krishna, Vaishākha shukla, Jyaishtha krishna and so on, till Phālguna krishna, Phālguna shukla and Chaitrakrishna, which is now the last paksha of the year.
• The shukla paksha of a given month, say Chaitra, comprises the same actual days in both systems, as can bededuces from a careful analysis of the rules. However, the Chaitra krishna paksha-s defined by the two systemswill be on different days, since the Chaitra krishna paksha precedes the Chaitra shukla paksha is the pūrnimāntasystem but follows it in the amānta system.
• Though the regular months are defined by the full moon, the adhika and kshaya lunar months are still defined bythe new moon. That is, even if the pūrnimānta system is followed, adhika or kshaya months will start with thefirst sunrise after the new moon, and end with the new moon.
• The adhika month will therefore get sandwiched between the two paksha-s of the nija months. For example, aShrāvana adhika māsa will be inserted as follows:1. nija Shrāvana krishna paksha2. adhika Shrāvana shukla paksha3. adhika Shrāvana krishna paksha and4. nija Shrāvana shukla paksha
after which Bhādrapada krishna paksha will come as usual.• If there is an adhika Chaitra, then it will follow the (nija) Chaitra krishna paksha at the end of the year. Only
with the nija Chaitra shukla paksha will the new year start. The only exception is when it is followed by akshaya, and that will be mentioned later.
• The kshaya month is more complicated. If in the amānta system there is a Pausha-Māgha kshaya, then in thepūrnimānta system there will be the following paksha-s:1. Pausha krishna paksha2. Pausha-Maagha kshaya shukla paksha3. Maagha-Phaalguna kshaya krishna paksha and a4. Phālguna shukla paksha.
• The special kshaya case where an adhika māsa precedes a kshaya māsa gets even more convoluted. First, we should remember that the Āshvayuja shukla paksha is the same in both the systems. After this come the following
followed by the Māgha krishna paksha etc., as usual.• The considerations for the new year are:
1. If there is a Chaitra-Vaishākha kshaya shukla paksha:1. if an adhika Chaitra precedes it, then the adhika Chaitra shukla paksha starts the new year2. if not, the kshaya shukla paksha starts the new year
2. If there is a Phālguna-Chaitra kshaya shukla paksha then it starts the new yearIt must be noted, however, that none of these above complications cause a change in the day of religiousobservances. Since only the name of the krishna paksha-s of the months will change in the two systems, festivalswhich fall on the krishna paksha will be defined by the appropriate changed name. That is, the Mahāshivarātri,defined in the amānta māna to be observed on the fourteenth of the Māgha krishna paksha will now (in thepūrnimānta māna) be defined by the Phālguna krishna paksha.
Correspondence of the lunisolar calendar to the solar calendarA lunisolar calendar is always a calendar based on the moon's celestial motion, which in a way keeps itself close to asolar calendar based on the sun's (apparent) celestial motion. That is, the lunisolar calendar's new year is to keptalways close (within certain limits) to a solar calendar's new year.Since the Hindu lunar month names are based on solar transits, and the month of Chaitra will, as defined above,always be close to the solar month of Mesha, the Hindu lunisolar calendar will always keep in track with the Hindusolar calendar.The Hindu solar calendar by contrast starts on April 14–15 each year. This signifies the sun's "entry" into Mesharashi and is celebrated as the New Year in Assam, Bengal, Orissa, Manipur, Kerala, Punjab, Tamil Nadu andTripura. The first month of the year is called "Chitterai (சித்திரை" in Tamil, "Medam" in Malayalam and Bohagin Assamese, Baisakh in Bengali/Punjabi and Nepali. This solar new year is celebrated on the same day in Myanmar,Cambodia, Laos, Nepal and Thailand due to Hindu influence on those countries.
Year numberingThe epoch (starting point or first day of the zeroth year) of the current era of Hindu calendar (both solar andlunisolar) is February 18, 3102 BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar or January 23, 3102 BCE in the prolepticGregorian calendar. Both the solar and lunisolar calendars started on this date. After that, each year is labeled by thenumber of years elapsed since the epoch.This is a unique feature of the Hindu calendar. All other systems use the current ordinal number of the year as theyear label. But just as a person's true age is measured by the number of years that have elapsed starting from the dateof the person's birth, the Hindu calendar measures the number of years elapsed. As of May 18, 2010, 5111 years hadelapsed in the Hindu calendar. However, the lunisolar calendar year usually starts earlier than the solar calendar year,so the exact year will not begin on the same day every year.
Year namesApart from the numbering system outlined above, there is also a cycle of 60 calendar year names, calledSamvatsaras, which started at the first year (at elapsed years zero) and runs continuously:
1. Prabhava
2. Vibhava
3. Shukla
4. Pramoda
5. Prajāpati
6. Āngirasa
7. Shrīmukha
8. Bhāva
9. Yuva
10. Dhātri
11. Īshvara
12. Bahudhānya
13. Pramādhi
14. Vikrama (2000-2001)
15. Vrisha (2001-02)
16. Chitrabhānu(2002-03)
17. Svabhānu (2003-04)
18. Tārana (2004-05)
19. Pārthiva (2005-06)
20. Vyaya (2006-2007)
21. Sarvajeeth (2007-08)
22. Sarvadhāri(2008-09)
23. Virodhi (2009-10)
24. Vikrita (2010-11)
25. Khara (2011-12)
26. Nandana (2012-13)
27. Vijaya
28. Jaya
29. Manmadha
30. Durmukhi
31. Hevilambi
32. Vilambi
33. Vikāri
34. Shārvari
35. Plava
36. Shubhakruti
37. Sobhakruthi
38. Krodhi
39. Vishvāvasu
40. Parābhava
41. Plavanga
42. Kīlaka
43. Saumya
44. Sādhārana
45. Virodhikruthi
46. Paridhāvi
47. Pramādicha
48. Ānanda
49. Rākshasa
50. Anala
51. Pingala
52. Kālayukthi
53. Siddhārthi
54. Raudra
55. Durmathi
56. Dundubhi
57. Rudhirodgāri
58. Raktākshi
59. Krodhana
60. Akshaya
ErasHinduism has of four eras or ages, of which we are currently in the last. The four are:1. Krita Yuga or Satya Yuga2. Treta Yuga3. Dvāpara Yuga4. Kali YugaThey are often translated into English as the golden, silver, bronze and Iron Ages. (Yuga means era or age.) The agessee a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, life span and emotional and physicalstrength. The epoch provided above is the start of the Kali Yuga. The Kali Yuga is 432,000 years long. The Dvāpara,Tretā and Krita (Satya) Yuga-s are two, three and four times the length of the Kali Yuga respectively. Thus theytogether constitute 4,320,000 years. This is called a Chaturyuga.A thousand and a thousand (i.e. two thousand) chaturyuga-s are said to be one day and night of the creator Brahmā.He (the creator) lives for 100 years of 360 such days and at the end, he is said to dissolve, along with his entireCreation, into the Eternal Soul or Paramātman.A samkhya view of the timespan of a yuga is given by Swami Sri Yukteswar Giri, the guru of Paramahansa Yogananda. This is detailed in his book, The Holy Science. According to this view, one complete yuga cycle is equal to one complete "precession of the equinox", a period of approximately 24,000 years. The ascending phase consists of a 1200 year Kali, 2400 year Dwapara, 3600 year Treta and 4800 year Krita (Satya) yuga. The descending phase reverses this order, thus both ascending and descending phases equal 24,000 years. According to calculations given in the book, the most recent yuga change was in 1699, when the Earth passed from Kali Yuga (the lowest material
age) to Dvāpara Yuga (the second age associated with electrical, atomic and finer forces). We are in an ascendingspiral right now, and will pass into the Tretā Yuga in 4100 CE. According to the book, the motion of the starsmoving across the sky (a.k.a.precession) is the observable of the Sun's motion around another star. The quality ofhuman intellect depends on the distance of the Sun and Earth from a certain point in space known as the GrandCenter, Magnetic Center or Vishṇunābhi Vishnu. The closer the Sun is to it, the more subtle energy the Solar Systemreceives, and the greater is the level of human spiritual and overall development. As the Sun moves around itscompanion star, it brings us closer to or drives us farther away from Vishnunabi, resulting in the rising and fallingages here on Earth.Yukteswar tells us that the calendars of the higher ages were based on the Yugas, with each era named after its Yuga.Hence, the year 3000 BCE was known as descending Dwapara 102 (because the last descending Dwapara yugabegan 102 years earlier in 3102 BCE). He stated that this method was used up until the recent Dark Ages, whenknowledge of the connection with the yugas and the precession cycle was lost; "The mistake crept into the almanacsfor the first time during the reign of Raja Parikshit, just after the completion of the last descending Dwapara Yuga.At that time Maharaja Yudhisthira, noticing the appearance of the dark Kali Yuga, made over his throne to hisgrandson, the said Raja Parikshit. Maharaja Yudhisthira, together with all the wise men of his court, retired to theHimalaya Mountains... thus there was no one who could understand the principle of correctly calculating the ages ofthe several Yugas". Thus, Yukeswar assumed that Raja Parikshit was not trained in any vedic principles even thoughhe alone ruled the world many years. Thus, he interpreted that Yugas are not calculated correctly. Consequently, hegave the theory that when the Dwapara was over and the Kali era began no one knew enough to restart the calendarcount. They knew they were in a Kali Yuga (which is why the old Hindu calendar now begins with K.Y.) but thebeginning of this calendar (which in 2006 stands at 5108) can still be traced to 3102 BCE, (3102+2006=5108) thestart of the last descending Dwapara Yuga. To this day there is still much confusion why the Kali starts at this date orwhat the correct length of the Yugas should be. Yukteswar suggests that a return to basing the Yuga calendar on themotion of the equinox would be a positive step.
HistoryThe Hindu Calendar descends from the Vedic times. There are many references to calendrics in the Vedas. TheVedānga (adjunct to Veda) called Jyautisha (literally, "celestial body study") prescribed all the aspects of the Hinducalendars. After the Vedic period, there were many scholars such as Āryabhata (5th century CE), Varāhamihira (6thcentury) and Bhāskara (12th century) who were experts in Jyautisha and contributed to the development of the HinduCalendar.The most widely used authoritative text for the Hindu Calendars is the Sūrya Siddhānta, a text of uncertain age,though some place it at 10th century.The traditional Vedic calendar used to start with the month of agrahayan (agra=first + ayan = travel of the sun,equinox) or Mārgashirsha. This is the month where the Sun crosses the equator, i.e. the vernal equinox. This monthwas called mārgashirsha after the fifth nakshatra (around lambda orionis). Due to the precession of the Earth's axis,the vernal equinox is now in Pisces, and corresponds to the month of chaitra. This shift over the years is what has ledto various calendar reforms in different regions to assert different months as the start month for the year. Thus, somecalendars (e.g. Vikram) start with Chaitra, which is the present-day month of the vernal equinox, as the first month.Others may start with Vaisakha (e.g. Bangabda). The shift in the vernal equinox by nearly four months fromagrahaayana to chaitra in sidereal terms seems to indicate that the original naming conventions may date to thefourth or fifth millennium BCE, since the period of precession in the Earth's axis is about 25,800 years.
Regional variantsThe Indian Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952 (shortly after Indian independence), identified more thanthirty well-developed calendars, all variants of the Surya Siddhanta calendar outlined here, in systematic use acrossdifferent parts of India. These include the widespread Vikrama and Shalivahana calendars and regional variationsthereof. The Tamil calendar, a solar calendar, is used in Tamil Nadu and Kollavarsham Calendar is used in Kerala.
Vikrama and Shalivahana calendarsThe two calendars most widely used in India today are the Vikrama calendar followed in Western and Northern Indiaand Nepal, and the Shalivahana or Saka calendar which is followed in South India, Maharashtra and Goa.Both the Vikrama and the Shalivahana eras are lunisolar calendars, and feature annual cycles of twelve lunarmonths, each month divided into two phases: the 'bright half' (shukla) and the 'dark half' (krishna); these correspondrespectively to the periods of the 'waxing' and the 'waning' of the moon. Thus, the period beginning from the first dayafter the new moon and ending on the full moon day constitutes the shukla paksha or 'bright half' of the month; theperiod beginning from the day after the full moon until and including the next new moon day constitutes the krishnapaksha or 'dark half' of the month.The names of the 12 months, as also their sequence, are the same in both calendars; however, the new year iscelebrated at separate points during the year and the "year zero" for the two calendars is different. In the Vikramacalendar, the zero year corresponds to 58 BCE, while in the Shalivahana calendar, it corresponds to 78 CE. TheVikrama calendar begins with the month of Baishakh (April), or Kartak (October/November) in Gujarat. TheShalivahana calendar begins with the month of Chaitra (March) and the Ugadi/Gudi Padwa festivals mark the newyear.Another little-known difference between the two calendars exists: while each month in the Shalivahana calendarbegins with the 'bright half' and is followed by the 'dark half', the opposite obtains in the Vikrama calendar. Thus,each month of the Shalivahana calendar ends with the no-moon day and the new month begins on the day after that,while the full-moon day brings each month of the Vikrama calendar to a close (This is an exception in GujaratiCalendar, its month (and hence new year) starts on a sunrise of the day after new moon, and ends on the new moon,though it follows Vikram Samvat).In Gujarat, Diwali is held on the final day of the Vikram Calendar and the next day marks the beginning of the NewYear and is also referred as ‘Annakut’ or Nutan Varsh or Bestu Varash. In the Hindu calendar popularly used inNorth India the year begins with Chaitra Shukala Pratipadha (March – April).
National calendars in South and South East AsiaA variant of the Shalivahana Calendar was reformed and standardized as the Indian National calendar in 1957. Thisofficial calendar follows the Shalivahan Shak calendar in beginning from the month of Chaitra and counting yearswith 78 CE being year zero. It features a constant number of days in every month (with leap years).The Bengali Calendar, or Bangla calendar (introduced 1584), is widely used in eastern India in the state of WestBengal, Tripura and Assam. A reformation of this calendar was introduced in present-day Bangladesh in 1966, withconstant days in each month and a leap year system; this serves as the national calendar for Bangladesh. Nepalfollows the Bikram Sambat. Parallel months and roughly the same periods apply to the Buddhist calendars used inBurma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
Correspondence between calendarsAs an indicator of this variation, Whitaker's Almanac reports that the Gregorian year 2000 CE corresponds,respectively with:1. Year 5101 in the Kaliyuga calendar;2. Year 2544 in the Buddha Nirvana calendar;3. Year 2543 in the Buddhist Era (BE) of the Thai solar calendar4. Year 2057 in the Bikram Samvat calendar;5. Year 1922 in the Saka calendar;6. Year 1921 (shown in terms of 5-yearly cycles) of the Vedanga Jyotisa calendar;7. Year 1407 in the Bengali calendar;8. Year 514 in the Gaurabda Gaudiya calendar;9. Year 1176 in the Kolla Varsham calendar.
See also• Hindu astrology• Hindu chronology• List of Hindu festivals• Panchangam• Panjika• Hindu units of measurement
Further reading• Reingold and Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition, Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd
edition 3rd printing released November 2004. ISBN 0-521-77752-6• S. Balachandra Rao, Indian Astronomy: An Introduction, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000.• "Hindu Chronology [4]", Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911)
External links• Introduction to the Hindu Calendar (pdf) [5]
• Comparing the Surya Siddhanta and the Astronomical Ephemeris by Daphne Chia [6] (pdf, 404KB)• ISKCON view on Hindu calendar [7]
• Hindu Calendar / Panchang for the world. [8]
• Panchangam for 1900-2006 107 years. [9]
• Hindu Festival Calendar of Vrindavan. [10]
• Calculator for Swami Sri Yukteswar's intrepration of Yugas [11]
• Nepali Calendar is much similar to Hindi Calendar [12]
The Satya Yuga (Devanagari: सत्य युग), also called Sat Yuga, Krta Yuga and Krita Yuga in Hinduism, is the "Yuga(Age or Era) of Truth", when mankind is governed by gods, and every manifestation or work is close to the purestideal and mankind will allow intrinsic goodness to rule supreme. It is sometimes referred to as the "Golden Age."The average lifespan in the satya yuga is 100,000 years. The Dharma bull, which symbolises morality, stood on allfour legs during this period. Later in the Treta Yuga it would become three, and two in the later Dvapara Yuga.Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg.[1]
The cycleThe yugas are said to succeed each other almost endlessly. After the perfect Satya Yuga, a decline marks the TretaYuga. Further decline brings about the Dwapara Yuga, and after it comes the final and dark Kali Yuga, a time ofwickedness, when man kills another man. At the end of the cycle a Divine Being is said to take birth and reestablishrighteousness, thus beginning a new Satya Yuga.
The Satya Yuga according to some holy textsAmongst the four eras, the Satya Yuga is the first and the most significant one. Knowledge, meditation, and penancehold special importance in this era. All the pillars of religion are present in totality. The average life expectancy of ahuman being in Satya Yuga is believed to be over 400 years. During Satya Yuga, all people engage only in good,sublime deeds. Ashrams become devoid of wickedness and deceit. Natyam (such as Bharatanatyam), according toNatya Shastra, did not exist in the Satya Yuga "because it was the time when all people were happy"....as described in the Mahabharata, a Hindu epic:
[...] there were no poor and no rich; there was no need to labour, because all that men required was obtained bythe power of will; the chief virtue was the abandonment of all worldly desires. The Krita Yuga was withoutdisease; there was no lessening with the years; there was no hatred or vanity, or evil thought; no sorrow, nofear. All mankind could attain to supreme blessedness. [...]
Amongst the four era’s, the Satya yuga is the first and the most significant one. This era began on Sunday, Vaishakh Shukla Tritiya day which is also known as Akshaya Tritiya. This extends up to 10,00,000 years. God incarnated in four forms i.e. Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narsimha in this era. Knowledge, meditation and penance would hold
special importance in this era. The average height of people was more than what it is today. Every king would attainthe pre-determined attainments and would experience bliss. All the four pillars of religion i.e. truth, penance, yagya(religious sacrifice) and charity were present in totality. The only text which was considered credible and wasfollowed was Manu’s Dharma Shastra. Satya yuga shall be established by Kalki again after the Kali yuga. Theaverage life expectancy of a human being in Satya yuga was approximately 4000 years.At the end of this era when the Sun, Moon, Jupiter together enter Pushya Nakshatra that is the Cancer Zodiac thenthe Satya yuga shall begin. During this time the stars/constellations shall become auspicious and radiant. As a resultit shall accrue in the well being of all creatures and the health will ameliorate. It is during this auspicious time thatVishnu’s Incarnation Kalki shall take birth in a Brahmin family. This incarnation shall be mighty, intelligent andvaliant. He shall engage in good of all benefactors. At the spun of the moment, no sooner he thinks he shall be armedwith all the weapons, armours and an army, he shall be coronated king who shall know no enemy. He shall bebenevolent and a radiant Brahmin and shall be the one who shall emancipate the ones in misery.He shall be the one and only one to destroy the Kaliyuga and initiate the holy and divine Satya yuga. Bhagwan Kalkiin the Satya yuga shall destroy all the dacoits and robbers. He shall perform the Ashwamedha Yagya and shalldonate this entire world to the Brahmins. His success and deeds will be divine and sublime. He shall establish theauspicious ideals and principles propounded by Lord Brahma after which he shall go to the forest to practicepenance.After this all the generations to come shall follow the ideals established by Bhagwan Kalki and shall engage inreligious activities. Accordingly on the advent of the Satya yuga all people shall engage assiduously in good, sublimedeeds.One shall witness the emergence of beautiful gardens, Dharmashalas (Resting Inns) and majestic temples. One shallsee the execution of many a huge yagyas. Brahmins, sages, ascetics according to their nature shall be absorbed inpenance. Ashrams shall be devoid of the wicked and the deceits. This era shall usher better agriculture and one shallbe able to grow all foodgrains in all seasons. People shall generously donate and will follow all the rules andregulations mentioned. The kings shall protect their subjects and earth very sincerely.The Vaishya (traders) of this era shall engage in trade and business very justly and honestly. Brahmins shall beengaged continually in religious sacrifices, study, teaching, charity etc. The Kshatriya (warriors) shall be inclinedtowards exhibition of valiance and might. The Shudras shall sincerely serve the Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.This form of religion shall remain intact and absolute in the Satya yuga.One shall witness the total establishment of Sanatan Dharma (eternal religion). During the Satya yuga, the child wasnot ruined when the father or mother expired. All the gods, demons, Gandharvas, Yaksha would give up their hatredand differences. The Rik, Sama and Yajurveda were not separate and demarcated. This era was devoid of agriculturalactivities or rather any other type of activity. Just by mere contemplation one would beget desired results. The onlyreligion that was relevant was- the renunciation of vested interests. People in this era would never fall ill. No onewould try to point out faults or demerits in anyone’s personality. The personality was not plagued by demerits alikeego, sorrow, violent thought (aggression), jealousy, hatred, backbiting, fear, anger and lethargy.At that time, the colour of the Supreme cosmic soul that was situated in the heart of one and all and the saviour of allthe sages was white.All the people that are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras were embellished with all the good qualities. Atthat time, the only saviour of all the people was God. People would practice austerities and penance to attain God.All would be inclined towards the supreme knowledge and all actions performed would be in the intention ofattaining celestial bliss.In this way all these divine people would be bestowed with sublime faith and piousness. Albeit, people weresegregated on the basis of Varnashram method, they would all response their faith in the Vedas and the SanatanDharma.Because these people were devoid of selfishness, they would effortlessly attain sublimity or union with God,
Treta YugaThe Treta Yuga (Devanagari: त्रेता युग)is the second out of four yugas, or ages of mankind, in the religion ofHinduism, following the Satya Yuga of perfect morality and preceding the Dvapara Yuga. The most famous eventsin this yuga were Lord Vishnu's fifth, sixth and seventh incarnations as Vamana[1] , Parashurama and Ramachandrarespectively. The Dharma bull, which symbolises morality, stood on three legs during this period. It had all four inthe Satya Yuga and two in the later Dvapara Yuga. Currently, in the immoral age of Kali, it stands on one leg[2] .
Avatars of Vishnu during Treta Yuga
VamanaVishnu incarnated as the dwarf son of Aditi to stop King Mahabali of the Asura race, the grandson of Prahlada, fromcompleting a sacrifice which would allow him to overshadow Devendra in power and splendor. The jealous andworried Devas persuaded Vishnu to send Bali, a bhakta of his, to Patala, the underworld. Vishnu did so by takingadvantage of the King's kindness and refusal to go back on his word, but allowed him a luxurious dwelling andsovereignty in one of the lower worlds. He also gave him the boon of being able to visit his subjects once every yearwhich is celebrated in onam festival.
ParashuramaVishnu incarnated as the Brahmana Parashurama in this era because there were too many warlike kshatriyasplaguing the Earth, and he therefore had to wipe out most of the world's warriors. However, some of the Kshatriyassurvived or more were created, and their population grew again. Eventually, the avatara of Vishnu in Parashuramaended, though it is said that he continued to live on as a mighty warrior-hermit. He confronted Ramachandra angrilyyears later, before acknowledging the latter's supremacy and retiring. He lived on in the Dvapara Yuga, having agreat duel with Bhishma for Amba's sake (and losing), and he taught Karna how to use the Brahmastra and cursedhim when he found out that he was not a Brahmin but a kshatriya. He had vowed not to teach or be a Guru ofKshatriyas. He is said to be still alive today, meditating in the mountains or deep in a forest.
RamachandraThe hallmark of this era was the rise of evil in the form of the demon king of Lanka, Ravana. He conquered the threeworlds namely, earth, heavens and the netherworlds (patala) and terrorized everyone. Even the Devas weresubordinate to him - his son Meghanada had earned the name of Indrajit by defeating Indra, the King of heaven, inbattle; and even the Sun had to obey the rakshasa king. In this scenario, Lord Vishnu incarnated himself as the son ofKing Dasaratha of the Sun Dynasty or Ikshvaku dynasty and was named Lord Rama. Due to a stepmother's jealousy,Lord Rama was sent away to the forest in exile for 14 years, during which time he confronted and killed Ravana forhaving kidnapped his wife, and thus restored peace on earth. He is said to have afterwards ruled the Kingdom ofKosala from Ayodhya for an eleven-thousand year golden age known as the Rama-rajya or Rama's Kingdom, beforeeventually returning to his Mahavishnu form with his three half-brothers- Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna- whowere "minor" incarnations of Vishnu or the great serpent-gods Shesha.
Dvapara Yuga or Dwapara Yuga[1] (Devanagari: द्वापर युग) is the third out of four yugas, or ages, described in thescriptures of Hinduism. This yuga comes after Treta Yuga and is followed by Kali Yuga. According to the Puranasthis yuga ended at the moment when Krishna returned to his eternal abode of Vaikuntha.[2]
There are only two pillars left of religion in the Dvapara Yuga: Kama and Artha. Bhagavan Vishnu assumes theyellow color and the Vedas are categorized into four parts that is Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva. During these timesthe Brahmins are knowledgeable of two, sometimes three Vedas, but rarely have studied all the four Vedasthoroughly. Accordingly, because of this categorization, different actions and activities come into existence.
The roles of the castesAll people in the Dvapara Yuga are zealous, valiant, courageous and competitive by nature and are engaged only inpenance and charity. They are kingly and pleasure-seeking. In this era, the divine intellect ceases to exist, and it istherefore seldom that anyone is wholly truthful. As a result of this life of deceit, people are plagued by ailments,diseases and various types of desires. After suffering from these ailments, people realize their misdeeds and performpenance. Some also organize Yagya for material benefits as well as for divinity.
BrahmanaIn this Yuga, the Brahmanas are involved in Yagya, self-study, donation and teaching activities. They attain celestialbliss by engaging in penance, religion, control of senses and restraint.
KshatriyaThe duties of Kshatriyas are the protection of their subjects. In this era, they are humble and perform their duties bycontrolling their senses. The Kshatriyas honestly execute all policies of law and order without being angry or cruel.They are devoid of greed and consequently attain bliss.The king avails the advice of the learned scholars and accordingly maintains law and order in his empire. The kingwho is addicted to vices will definitely end up defeated. One or two or all from Sāma, Dāna, Danda, Bheda andUpeksha is/are brought into use and help attain the desired. Kings are diligent in maintaining public decorum andorder.
A few of the kings, however, surreptitiously plan a conspiracy along with the scholars. Strong people execute workwhere execution of policies is involved. The king appoints priests, etc. to perform religious activities, economistsand ministers to perform monetary activities, impotents to take care of women and cruel men to execute heinousactivities.There are two kshatriya dynasties, namely 'Surya Vansha' and 'Chandra Vansha'.
VaishyaVaishyas are mostly landowners and merchants. The duties of Vaishyas are trade and agriculture. Vaishyas attainhigher planes through charity and hospitality.
SudraThe duty of Sudras is to perform tasks that demand highly physical work. Although their form of labour is differentfrom the other three castes, the Sudras are not discriminated against. In fact Vidura, the famous Prime Minister ofHastinapura was born in the Sudra community and attained the status of a Brahmin due to his wisdom, righteousnessand learning. All other three sections namely Brahmana, Kshatriya and Vaishya protected Sudras and contributed fortheir safety and happiness. Krishna, eighth avatar of Vishnu was brought up in a Vaishya family though he was aborn Kshatriya.
Dvapara Yuga in fictionIn Namco's Soul series, Kilik, the wielder of the Kali Yuga staff, also possess the mirror sash by the same name. Inthe end of the battle against Inferno, he uses the mirror to extinguish the flames. In Soulcalibur II, Soulcalibur III,and Soulcalibur IV he wears a necklace that includes a piece of the Dvapara Yuga used as a pendant for rituals.
Interpretations of Swami Sri YukteswarSwami Sri Yukteswar Giri of Seramphore in his 1894 book The Holy Science corrected the traditional calculationsof the Yugas, explaining that from 1699 A.D. the world entered Dwapara Yuga, pointing to the Renaissance, growthof democracies, scientific and industrial revolutions as clear evidence for the change. His themes were reiterated inbooks by Sister Tara Mata, Paramhansa Yogananda and Walter Cruttenden, to growing public interest over the lastcentury.
NotesThe following are notes/references about the term Dwapara Yuga: [1]
[1] There are many various spellings naming the time period, using either letter v/w or dropping the ending "a" (also as "Yug"):
Kali Yuga (Devanāgarī: कलियुग [kəli juɡə], lit. "age of (the male demon) Kali", or "age of vice") is the last of the fourstages that the world goes through as part of the cycle of yugas described in the Indian scriptures. The other ages areSatya Yuga, Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga. According to the Surya Siddhanta, an astronomical treatise that formsthe basis of all Hindu and Buddhist calendars, Kali Yuga began at midnight (00:00) on 18 February 3102 BCE [1] inthe proleptic Julian calendar, or 23 January 3102 BC in the proleptic Gregorian calendar. This date is also consideredby many Hindus to be the day that Krishna left earth to return to his abode. Most interpreters of Hindu scripturesbelieve that earth is currently in Kali Yuga. Some, such as Swami Sri Yukteswar,[2] David Frawley,[3] andParamhansa Yogananda[4] believe that it is now near the beginning of Dvapara Yuga. The Kali Yuga is traditionallythought to last 432,000 years.Hindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga,[5] which is referred to as theDark Age because in it people are as far removed as possible from God. Hinduism often symbolically representsmorality (dharma) as a bull. In Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each agemorality is reduced by one quarter. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age,so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg.[6] [7]
Kali Yuga is associated with the apocalyptic demon Kali, not to be confused with the goddess Kālī (read as Kaalee)(these are unrelated words in the Sanskrit language). The "Kali" of Kali Yuga means "strife, discord, quarrel, orcontention."
Attributes of Kali YugaA discourse by Markandeya in the Mahabharata identifies some of the attributes of Kali Yuga:
In relation to rulers• Rulers will become unreasonable: they will levy taxes unfairly.• Rulers will no longer see it as their duty to promote spirituality, or to protect their subjects: they will become a
danger to the world.• People will start migrating, seeking countries where wheat and barley form the staple food source. But then, they
will also love their subjects so much that they will sacrifice their lives for them. This is what kaliyuga says.
In human relationships• Avarice and wrath will be common. Humans will openly display animosity towards each other.• Ignorance of dharma will occur.• People will have thoughts of murder for no justification and they will see nothing wrong with that mind-set.• Lust will be viewed as socially acceptable, and sexual intercourse will be seen as the central requirement of life.• Sin will increase exponentially, whilst virtue will fade and cease to flourish.• People will take vows only to break them soon after.• People will become addicted to intoxicating drinks and drugs.• Men will find their jobs stressful and will go to retreats to escape their work.• Gurus will no longer be respected and their students will attempt to injure them. Their teachings will be insulted
and followers of Kama will wrest control of the mind from all human beings. Brahmins will not be learned andhonoured, Kshatriyas will not be brave, Vaishyas will not be just in dealings and shudras will not be honest andhumble to their duties and to the other castes.
A special 10,000 year period within Kali YugaThe Brahma Vaivarta Purana mentions a ten thousand year period during which bhakti yogis will be present.[8]
Starting from the traditional dating of the Kali yuga epoch of February 18, 3102 BC/BCE.
The end of Kali Yuga"When flowers will be begot within flowers, and fruits within fruits, then will the Yuga come to an end. And theclouds will pour rain unseasonably when the end of the Yuga approaches."
Personification
Kali (right) wielding a sword.
Kali (Devanāgari: कलि) is the reigning lord of Kali Yuga and thenemesis of Sri Kalki, who is the tenth and final avatar of Lord Vishnu.According to the Vishnu Purana, Kali is a negative manifestation ofVishnu who perpetually operates in this world as a cause ofdestruction, along with his evil extended family.[9] Kali also serves asan antagonistic force in the Kalki Purana. It is said that towards the endof this yuga, Kalki will return riding on a white horse to do battle withKali and his dark forces. The world will suffer a fiery end which willdestroy all evil, and a new age, Satya Yuga, will begin.
Other interpretations of Kali Yuga and theYuga cycle
Other interpreters of the Hindu scriptures take a different view of theYuga cycle.In David Frawley's opinion, the cycle of Yugas is much like the fourseasons. The planet gradually moves from one yuga to the next andfrom one cycle to the next, without any sudden jump from Kali intoSatya Yuga. According to Frawley, historical evidence shows that KaliYuga ended around 1700 CE, changing at that time to Dwapara Yuga.He also questions the traditional 432,000 year cycle.[3]
Like Frawley, Sri Yukteswar Giri maintains that we are currently inDwapara Yuga. According to him, the astronomers and astrologers who calculated the almanacs were guided by thefalse annotations of certain Sanskrit scholars such as Kullu Bhatta. As a result, [they] falsely maintained that thelength of Kali Yuga is 432,000 years, of which 4994 would have elapsed as of 1894, leaving 427,006 yearsremaining. Yukteswar Giri declares this "A dark prospect! And fortunately one not true." He himself offers anastronomical explanation for a shorter cycle in which Kali Yuga lasts only 2,400 years (1,200 x 2 = one descendingKali Yuga cycle + one ascending cycle). He argues that Dwapara Yuga is represented by the introduction of atomicenergy and electricity.[2]
The Goddess Ambika or Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in Battle Against theDemon Raktabija, Folio from Devi Mahatmya, Markandeya Purana.
For other meanings, see Purana(disambiguation).
The Puranas (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa, "ofancient times") are a genre of importantHindu (or Jain and Buddhist) religious texts,notably consisting of narratives of thehistory of the universe from creation todestruction, genealogies of kings, heroes,sages, and demigods, and descriptions ofHindu cosmology, philosophy, andgeography.[1]
Puranas usually give prominence to aparticular deity, employing an abundance ofreligious and philosophical concepts. They are usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from themand tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a traveling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple andnarrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).
Origins
An illustration of Varaha avatar based on the Bhagavata Purana
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, istraditionally considered the compiler of thePuranas.[2] However, the earliest writtenversions date from the time of the GuptaEmpire (third-fifth century CE) and muchmaterial may be dated, through historicalreferences and other means, to this periodand the succeeding centuries. The texts wereprobably written all over India.
The date of the production of the writtentexts does not define the date of origin of thePuranas.[3] On one hand, they existed insome oral form before being written[3] whileat the same time, they have been incrementally modified well into the 16th century[3] [4] and perhaps down to thepresent day.
An early reference is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2). (circa 500BCE.) The Brhadaranyaka Upanishadrefers to purana as the "fifth Veda"[5] , itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ, reflecting the early religiousimportance of these myths, presumably then in purely oral form. The term also appears in the Atharvaveda11.7.24.[6] [7]
According to Pargiter,[6] the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas. Gavin Floodconnects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity inthe Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competingcults.[8]
Although these texts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they neverthelesseach present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen asrandom collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted expositions and presentations ofworldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmins to propagate a particularvision, whether it be focused on Viṣṇu, Śiva, or Devī, or, indeed, any number of deities.
Common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Puranaupon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.[8]
The All India Kashiraj Trust, formed under Vibhuti Narayan Singh, the Maharaja of Kashi, dedicated itself topublishing editions of the Puranas.[9]
ContentAccording to Matysa Purana,[10] they are said to narrate five subjects, called Pancha Lakshana pañcalakṣaṇa ("fivedistinguishing marks", though some scholars have suggested that these are shared by other traditional religiousscriptures):[11] [12]
1. Sarga: the creation of the universe.2. Pratisarga: secondary creations, mostly recreations after dissolution.3. Vamśa: genealogy of the gods and sages.4. Manvañtara: the creation of the human race and the first human beings. The epoch of the Manus' rule, 71 celestial
Yugas or 308,448,000 years.5. Vamśānucaritam: the histories of the patriarchs of the lunar and solar dynasties.The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies, as the Vayu Purana says, "to preserve thegenealogies of gods, sages and glorious kings and the traditions of great men."[13] The Puranic genealogies indicate,for example, that Sraddhadeva Manu lived 95 generations before the Bharata war.[14] In Arrian's Indica,Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from "Dionysos" (Shiva) to "Sandracottus" (ChandraguptaMaurya) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years."[15] The list of kings in Kalhana'sRajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.[16]
Pargiter has argued that the Puranic Krta Yuga—in the Vayu Purana the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600,2400, and 1200 years—"ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta beganapproximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara beganwith his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".[17] [18]
Texts
The MahapuranasOf the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas. These are always said to beeighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though in fact they are not always counted in the same way.Combining the various lists Cornelia Dimmitt and J. A. B. van Buitenen have collated twenty names:[19]
1. Agni (15,400 verses)2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,[20] telling of Vishnu's ten Avatars.
Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna, introducing his childhood exploits, a theme laterelaborated by many Bhakti movements.[21]
3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)4. Brahma (24,000 verses)5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
7. Garuda (19,000 verses)8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)9. Kurma (17,000 verses)10. Linga (11,000 verses)11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)12. Matsya (14,000 verses)13. Narada (25,000 verses)14. Padma (55,000 verses)15. Shiva (24,000 verses)16. Skanda (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing
geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends, parables, hymns and stories. Manyuntraced quotes are attributed to this text.[22]
17. Vamana (10,000 verses)18. Varaha (10,000 verses)19. Vayu (24,000 verses)20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,• Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmānda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya
According to the Padma Purana,[24] the texts may be classified in accordance with the three gunas or qualities;truth, passion, and ignorance:• Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana,
The UpapuranasThe Upapurāṇas are lesser or ancillary texts: these are sometimes also said to be eighteen in number, with still lessagreement as to the canonical titles. Few have been critically edited. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha,Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya,Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa.[25]
The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[26] [27] The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols thegoddess Durga, has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Deviworshipers.[28]
There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.[29]
Sthala PuranasThis corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There arenumerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalamsof the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the Tamil literature Tevaram. Some appear in Sanskritversions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David DeanShulman.[30]
Kula PuranasThese Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means "family" or "tribe" inSanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually contested by rival castes. This subgenre isusually in the vernacular and may at times remain oral.[31] These have been little researched, though they aredocumented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.[32]
Jain and Buddhist PuranasJain Puranas deal with Jain myths, history and legends and form a major part of early Kannada literature.[33] [34] Thebest known is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. Among Buddhist Puranas, Swayambhu Purana narrates themythological history of Nepal and describes Buddhist pilgrimage sites inside the Kathmandu Valley.
References• Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.• Dimmitt, Cornelia; van Buitenen (1978). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskirt Puranas.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 8170305969.• Doniger, Wendy (editor) (1993). Purāṇa Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts.
Albany, New York: State University of New York. ISBN 0-7914-1382-9.• Handoo, Jawaharlal (editor) (1998). Folklore in Modern India. ISBN 81-7342-055-6.• Hardy, Friedhelm (2001). Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India.
ISBN 0-19-564916-8.</ref>• Flood, Gavin (1996) (Book). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521433045.• Johnson, W.J. (2009). A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861025-0.• Kaushal, Molly (editor) (2001). Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition. ISBN 81-246-0182-8.• Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D. (1951). The history and culture of the Indian people. 1: The Vedic age.
Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.• Mackenzie, Brwon (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the
DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7.</ref>• Mittal, Sushil (2004). The Hindu World. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415215275.• Moghe, S. G. (editor) (1997). Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature. New Delhi: D.K.
Printworld (P) Ltd.. ISBN 81-246-0075-9.• Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.• Pargiter, F.E. (1922). Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London: Oxford University Press.• Pargiter, F. E. (1962) (Book). Ancient Indian historical tradition. Original publisher Oxford University Press,
London. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. OCLC 1068416.• Rao, Velcheru Narayana (1993). "Purana as Brahminic Ideology". in Doniger Wendy (Book). Purana Perennis:
Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Albany: State University of New York Press.ISBN 0-7914-1381-0.
• Shulman, David Dean (1980). Tamil Temple Myths: Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian SaivaTradition. ISBN 0-691-06415-6.
Manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra
Krishna, Arjuna at Kurukshetra, 18-19th century painting.
The Mahabharata (SanskritMahābhārata महाभारत) is one of the twomajor Sanskrit epics of ancient India,the other being the Rāmāyaṇa. Theepic is part of the Hindu itihāsa (or"history").
Besides its epic narrative of theKurukshetra War and the fates of theKauravas and the Pandavas, theMahabharata contains muchphilosophical and devotional material,such as a discussion of the four "goalsof life" or purusharthas (12.161). Thelatter are enumerated as dharma (rightaction), artha (purpose), kama(pleasure), and moksha (liberation).Among the principal works and storiesthat are a part of the Mahabharata arethe Bhagavad Gita, the story ofDamayanti, an abbreviated version ofthe Ramayana, and the Rishyasringa,often considered as works in their ownright.
Traditionally, the authorship of theMahabharata is attributed to Vyasa.There have been many attempts tounravel its historical growth andcompositional layers. The earliest partsof the text are not appreciably olderthan around 400 BCE.[1] The textprobably reached its final form by theearly Gupta period (ca. 4th c. CE).[2] The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". Accordingto the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata.[3] .
With about one hundred thousand verses, long prose passages, or about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahabharatais roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of the Rāmāyaṇa.[4]
Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, hisscribe, Angkor Wat.
The epic is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, who is also a majorcharacter in the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that itwas Ganesha who, at the request of Vyasa, wrote down the text toVyasa's dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only oncondition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa agreed,provided Ganesha took the time to understand what was said beforewriting it down.
The epic employs the story within a story structure, otherwise knownas frametales, popular in many Indian religious and secular works. It isrecited to the King Janamejaya who is the great-grandson of Arjuna, byVaisampayana, a disciple of Vyasa. The recitation of Vaisampayana toJanamejaya is then recited again by a professional storyteller namedUgrasrava Sauti, many years later, to an assemblage of sagesperforming the 12 year long sacrifice for King Saunaka Kulapati in theNaimisha forest.
Accretion and redaction
Research on the Mahabharata has put an enormous effort into recognizing and dating various layers within the text.The background to the Mahabharata suggests a time "after the very early Vedic period" and before "the first Indian'empire' was to rise in the third century B.C.," so "a date not too far removed from the eighth or ninth centuryB.C."[6] It is generally agreed, however, that "Unlike the Vedas, which have to be preserved letter-perfect, the epicwas a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style."[6] The earliestsurviving components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest external references we have tothe epic, which may include an allusion in Panini's fourth century grammar (Ashtādhyāyī 4:2:56).[1] [6] It is estimatedthat the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a "final form" by the early Gupta period (about the 4th centuryCE).[6] Vishnu Sukthankar, editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata, commented: "It is useless tothink of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape, on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum.What then is possible? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible toreach on the basis of the manuscript material available."[7] That manuscript evidence is somewhat late, given itsmaterial composition and the climate of India, but it is very extensive.
The Mahabharata itself (1.1.61) distinguishes a core portion of 24,000 verses, the Bharata proper, as opposed toadditional secondary material, while the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4) makes a similar distinction. At least threeredactions of the text are commonly recognized: Jaya (Victory) with 8,800 verses attributed to Vyasa, Bharata with24,000 verses as recited by Vaisampayana, and finally the Mahabharata as recited by Ugrasrava Sauti with over100,000 verses.[8] [9] However, some scholars such as John Brockington, argue that Jaya and Bharata refer to thesame text, and ascribe the theory of Jaya with 8,800 verses to a misreading of a verse in Adiparvan (1.1.81).[10] Theredaction of this large body of text was carried out after formal principles, emphasizing the numbers 18[11] and 12.The addition of the latest parts may be dated by the absence of the Anushasana-parva and "Virat-parva" from MSSpitzer, the oldest surviving Sanskrit philosophical manuscript dated to Kushan Period (200 CE)[12] , that containsamong other things a list of the books in the Mahabharata. From this evidence, it is likely that the redaction into 18books took place in the first century. An alternative division into 20 parvas appears to have co-existed for some time.The division into 100 sub-parvas (mentioned in Mbh. 1.2.70) is older, and most parvas are named after one of theirconstituent sub-parvas. The Harivamsa consists of the final two of the 100 sub-parvas, and was considered anappendix (khila) to the Mahabharata proper by the redactors of the 18 parvas.
According to what one character says at Mbh. 1.1.50, there were three versions of the epic, beginning with Manu(1.1.27), Astika (1.3, sub-parva 5) or Vasu (1.57), respectively. These versions would correspond to the addition ofone and then another 'frame' settings of dialogues. The Vasu version would omit the frame settings and begin withthe account of the birth of Vyasa. The astika version would add the sarpasattra and ashvamedha material fromBrahmanical literature, introduce the name Mahabharata, and identify Vyasa as the work's author. The redactors ofthese additions were probably Pancharatrin scholars who according to Oberlies (1998) likely retained control overthe text until its final redaction. Mention of the Huna in the Bhishma-parva however appears to imply that this parvamay have been edited around the 4th century.
The snake sacrifice of Janamejaya
The Adi-parva includes the snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) ofJanamejaya, explaining its motivation, detailing why all snakes inexistence were intended to be destroyed, and why in spite of this, thereare still snakes in existence. This sarpasattra material was oftenconsidered an independent tale added to a version of the Mahabharataby "thematic attraction" (Minkowski 1991), and considered to have aparticularly close connection to Vedic (Brahmana) literature. ThePanchavimsha Brahmana (at 25.15.3) enumerates the officiant priestsof a sarpasattra among whom the names Dhrtarashtra and Janamejaya,two main characters of the Mahabharata's sarpasattra, as well asTakshaka, the name of a snake in the Mahabharata, occur.[13]
The state of the text has been described by some early 20th centuryIndologists as unstructured and chaotic. Hermann Oldenberg supposedthat the original poem must once have carried an immense "tragicforce", but dismissed the full text as a "horrible chaos."[14] Thejudgement of other early 20th century Indologists was even lessfavourable. Moritz Winternitz (Geschichte der indischen Literatur1909) considered that "only unpoetical theologists and clumsy scribes" could have lumped the various parts ofdisparate origin into an unordered whole.
Historical referencesThe earliest known references to the Mahabharata and its core Bharata date back to the Ashtadhyayi (sutra 6.2.38)of Pāṇini (fl. 4th century BCE), and in the Ashvalayana Grhyasutra (3.4.4). This may suggest that the core 24,000verses, known as the Bharata, as well as an early version of the extended Mahabharata, were composed by the 4thcentury BCE.A report by the Greek writer Dio Chrysostom (ca. 40-ca. 120 CE) about Homer's poetry being sung even in India[15]
seems to imply that the Iliad had been translated into Sanskrit. However, scholars have, in general, taken this asevidence for the existence of a Mahabharata at this date, whose episodes Dio or his sources syncretistically identifywith the story of the Iliad.[16]
Mahabharata has enjoyed references on a continuous basis both in literary and popular culture of India, since ancienttimes. Several stories within the Mahabharata have been debated so intensely that they have taken separate identitiesof their own. For instance, Abhijñānashākuntala by the renowned Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa (ca. 400 CE), believed tohave lived in the era of the Gupta dynasty, is based on a story that is the precursor to the Mahabharata. Urubhanga, aSanskrit play written by Bhāsa who is believed to have lived before Kālidāsa, is based on the slaying of Duryodhanaby the splitting of his thighs by Bhima.Later, the copper-plate inscription of the Maharaja Sharvanatha (533-534 CE) from Khoh (Satna District, MadhyaPradesh) describes the Mahabharata as a "collection of 100,000 verses" (shatasahasri samhita).
The 18 parvasThe division into 18 parvas is as follows:
Parva title sub-parvas contents
1 Adi Parva (The Book of theBeginning)
1-19 How the Mahabharata came to be narrated by Sauti to the assembled rishis at Naimisharanya.The recital of the Mahabharata at the sarpasattra of Janamejaya by Vaishampayana atTakṣaśilā. The history of the Bharata race is told in detail and the parva also traces history ofthe Bhrigu race. The birth and early life of the Kuru princes. (adi means first)
2 Sabha Parva (The Book of theAssembly Hall)
20-28 Maya Danava erects the palace and court (sabha), at Indraprastha. Life at the court,Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yajna, the game of dice, and the eventual exile of the Pandavas.
3 Vana Parva alsoAranyaka-parva,Aranya-parva (The Book ofthe Forest)
29-44 The twelve years of exile in the forest (aranya).
4 Virata Parva (The Book ofVirata)
45-48 The year in incognito spent at the court of Virata.
5 Udyoga Parva (The Book ofthe Effort)
49-59 Preparations for war and efforts to bring about peace between the Kurus and the Pandavaswhich eventually fail (udyoga means effort or work).
6 Bhishma Parva (The Book ofBhishma)
60-64 The first part of the great battle, with Bhishma as commander for the Kauravas and his fall onthe bed of arrows.
7 Drona Parva (The Book ofDrona)
65-72 The battle continues, with Drona as commander. This is the major book of the war. Most of thegreat warriors on both sides are dead by the end of this book.
8 Karna Parva (The Book ofKarna)
73 The battle again, with Karna as commander.
9 Shalya Parva (The Book ofShalya)
74-77 The last day of the battle, with Shalya as commander. Also told in detail is the pilgrimage ofBalarama to the fords of the river Saraswati and the mace fight between Bhima andDuryodhana which ends the war, since Bhima kills Duryodhana by smashing him on the thighswith a mace.
10 Sauptika Parva (The Book ofthe Sleeping Warriors)
78-80 Ashvattama, Kripa and Kritavarma kill the remaining Pandava army in their sleep. Only 7warriors remain on the Pandava side and 3 on the Kaurava side.
11 Stri Parva (The Book of theWomen)
81-85 Gandhari, Kunti and the women (stri) of the Kurus and Pandavas lament the dead.
12 Shanti Parva (The Book ofPeace)
86-88 The crowning of Yudhisthira as king of Hastinapura, and instructions from Bhishma for thenewly anointed king on society, economics and politics. This is the longest book of theMahabharata (shanti means peace).
13 Anushasana Parva (The Bookof the Instructions)
89-90 The final instructions (anushasana) from Bhishma.
14 Ashvamedhika Parva (TheBook of the HorseSacrifice)[17]
91-92 The royal ceremony of the Ashvamedha (Horse sacrifice) conducted by Yudhisthira. The worldconquest by Arjuna. The Anugita is told by Krishna to Arjuna.
15 Ashramavasika Parva (TheBook of the Hermitage)
93-95 The eventual deaths of Dhritarashtra, Gandhari and Kunti in a forest fire when they are livingin a hermitage in the Himalayas. Vidura predeceases them and Sanjaya on Dhritarashtra'sbidding goes to live in the higher Himalayas.
16 Mausala Parva (The Book ofthe Clubs)
96 The infighting between the Yadavas with maces (mausala) and the eventual destruction of theYadavas.
17 Mahaprasthanika Parva (TheBook of the Great Journey)
97 The great journey of Yudhisthira and his brothers across the whole country and finally theirascent of the great Himalayas where each Pandava falls except for Yudhisthira.
18 Svargarohana Parva (TheBook of the Ascent toHeaven)
98 Yudhisthira's final test and the return of the Pandavas to the spiritual world (svarga).
khila Harivamsa Parva (The Bookof the Genealogy of Hari)
99-100 Life of Krishna which is not covered in the 18 parvas of the Mahabharata.
Historical context
English language map of "Bharatvarsha" (Kingdom of India) during the era of theMahabharata and Ramayana.
The historicity of the Kurukshetra War isunclear. Some historians like A L Bashamestimate the date of the Kurukshetra war toIron Age India of the 10th century BCE.[18]
Other historians like M Witzel havecorroborated that the general setting of theepic has a historical precedent in Iron Age(Vedic) India, where the Kuru kingdom wasthe center of political power during roughly1200 to 800 BCE.[19] A dynastic conflict ofthe period could have been the inspirationfor the Jaya, the foundation on which theMahabharata corpus was built, with aclimactic battle eventually coming to beviewed as an epochal event.
Puranic literature presents genealogical listsassociated with the Mahabharata narrative.The evidence of the Puranas is of two kinds.Of the first kind, there is the direct statementthat there were 1015 (or 1050) yearsbetween the birth of Parikshit (Arjuna'sgrandson) and the accession of MahapadmaNanda, commonly dated to 382 BCE, whichwould yield an estimate of about 1400 BCEfor the Bharata battle.[20] However, this would imply improbably long reigns on average for the kings listed in thegenealogies.[21] Of the second kind are analyses of parallel genealogies in the Puranas between the times ofAdhisimakrishna (Parikshit's great-grandson) and Mahapadma Nanda. Pargiter accordingly estimated 26 generationsby averaging 10 different dynastic lists and, assuming 18 years for the average duration of a reign, arrived at anestimate of 850 BCE for Adhisimakrishna, and thus approximately 950 BCE for the Bharata battle.[22]
B. B. Lal used the same approach with a more conservative assumption of the average reign to estimate a date of 836BCE, and correlated this with archaeological evidence from Painted Grey Ware sites, the association being strongbetween PGW artifacts and places mentioned in the epic.[23]
Attempts to date the events using methods of archaeoastronomy have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimates ranging from the late 4th to the mid 2nd millennium BCE.[24] The late 4th millennium date has a precedent in the calculation of the Kaliyuga epoch, based on planetary conjunctions, by Aryabhata (6th century). His date of February 18 3102 BCE has become widespread in Indian tradition (for example, the Aihole inscription of Pulikeshi II, dated to Saka 556 = 634 CE, claims that 3735 years have elapsed since the Bharata battle.[25] ) Another traditional school of astronomers and historians, represented by
Vriddha-Garga, Varahamihira (author of the Brhatsamhita) and Kalhana (author of the Rajatarangini), place theBharata war 653 years after the Kaliyuga epoch, corresponding to 2449 BCE.[26]
SynopsisThe core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuruclan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava.Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger thanYudhisthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhisthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.The struggle culminates in the great battle of Kurukshetra, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. Thebattle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedenceover what is right, as well as the converse.The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of thePandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali (Kali Yuga), the fourth and finalage of mankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is heading toward the completedissolution of right action, morality and virtue.Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Mahabharata, as well as the Ramayana, is respectively Krishna's andRama's hidden divinity and its progressive revelation.[27]
The older generations
Shantanu woos Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Paintingby Raja Ravi Varma.
Janamejaya's ancestor Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, has ashort-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and has a son,Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma), who becomes the heirapparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, hesees Satyavati, the daughter of a fisherman, and asks her father forher hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unlessShantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the kingupon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agreesto relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sureabout the prince's children honouring the promise, Devavrata alsotakes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.
Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrangada andVichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king.He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, theyounger son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśīarranges a swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invitethe royal family of Hastinapur. In order to arrange the marriage ofyoung Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the threeprincesses Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceedsto abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married toVichtravirya.
The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry Shalvaraj (king of Shalva) whomBhishma defeated at their swayamvar. Bhishma lets her leave to marry
Shalvaraj, but Shalvaraj refuses to marry her, still smarting at hishumiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marryBhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomesenraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding himresponsible for her plight. Later she is reborn to King Drupada asShikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with thehelp of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.
The Pandava and Kaurava princes
When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asksher first son Vyasa to father children with the widows. The eldest,Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her sonDhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodlessupon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale andunhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'[28] ). Due tothe physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asksVyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika sendtheir maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son,Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one ofthe wisest characters in the Mahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu andKing Dhritarashtra.
When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and useshis knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control andprotect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, toKunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself so that she mayfeel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kurufamily. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in thedirection of the sound. However the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who curses him that if he engages in a sexual act,he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter,despite his blindness.
The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two to his left are Bhima andArjuna. Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are to his right. Their wife,
at far right, is Draupadi. Deogarh, Dasavatar temple.
Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given aboon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any godusing a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to askDharma the god of justice, Vayu the god of the wind,and Indra the lord of the heavens for sons. She givesbirth to three sons, Yudhisthira, Bhima, and Arjuna,through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with theyounger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula andSahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Panduand Madri indulge in sex, and Pandu dies. Madri dieson his funeral pyre out of remorse. Kunti raises the fivebrothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.
Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishtira. These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers were Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads
Lākṣagṛha (The House of Lac)After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palaceof Hastinapur. Yudhisthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his kingdom.Dhritarashtra wanted his own son Duryodhana to become king and lets his ambition get in the way of preservingjustice.Shakuni, Duryodhana and Dusasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purvanchan to build apalace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kuntito stay there, with the intention of setting it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura,who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They are able to escape to safety and go into hiding. Back at Hastinapur, thePandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.[29]
Marriage to Draupadi
Arjuna piercing the eye of the fish
During the course of their hiding the Pandavas learn of a swayamvarawhich is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī.The Pandavas enter the competition in disguise as Brahmins. The taskis to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, whichis the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection inoil below. Most of the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow.Arjuna succeeds however. The Pandavas return home and inform theirmother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what theyhave brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to sharewhatever it is Arjuna has won among themselves. Thus Draupadi endsup being the wife of all five brothers.
Indraprastha
After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back toHastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and brokera split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining a new territory.Yudhishtira has a new capital built for this territory at Indraprastha.Neither the Pandava nor Kaurava sides are happy with the arrangementhowever.
Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhishtira wishes to establish hisposition as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination ofsome opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognised as pre-eminent amongkings.
The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava.[30] They invite their Kaurava cousins toIndraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. Afterbeing told of his error, he then sees a pond, and assumes it is not water and falls in. Draupadi laughs at him andridicules him by saying that this is because of his blind father Dhritrashtra. He then decides to avenge hishumiliation.
Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arrangesa dice game, playing against Yudhishtirawith loaded dice. Yudhishtira loses all hiswealth, then his kingdom. He then evengambles his brothers, himself, and finallyhis wife into servitude. The jubilantKauravas insult the Pandavas in theirhelpless state and even try to disrobeDraupadi in front of the entire court, but herhonour is saved by Krishna whomiraculously creates lengths of cloth toreplace the ones being removed.Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other eldersare aghast at the situation, but Duryodhanais adamant that there is no place for twocrown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for another dice game. The Pandavas arerequired to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year must remain hidden. If discovered by the Kauravas, theywill be forced into exile for another 12 years.
Exile and returnThe Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for apossible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and are discovered just after theend of the year.At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as Duryodhana objectsthat they were discovered while in hiding, and that no return of their kingdom was agreed. War becomes inevitable.
Bhishma on his death-bed of arrows with the Pandavas andKrishna. Folio from the Razmnama (1761 - 1763), Persiantranslation of the Mahabharata, commissioned by Mughal
emperor Akbar. The Pandavas are dressed in Persian armour androbes.[31]
The two sides summon vast armies to their help, and lineup at Kurukshetra for a war. The Kingdoms of Panchala,Dwaraka, Kasi, Kekaya, Magadha, Matsya, Chedi, Pandya,Telinga, and the Yadus of Mathura and some other clanslike the Parama Kambojas were allied with the Pandavas.The allies of the Kauravas included the kings ofPragjyotisha, Anga, Kekaya, Sindhudesa (includingSindhus, Sauviras and Sivis), Mahishmati, Avanti inMadhyadesa, Madra, Gandhara, Bahlikas, Kambojas andmany others. Prior to war being declared, Balarama, hadexpressed his unhappiness at the developing conflict, andleft to go on pilgrimage, thus he does not take part in thebattle itself. Krishna takes part in a non-combatant role, ascharioteer for Arjuna.
Before the battle, Arjuna, seeing himself facing his greatgrandfather Bhishma and his teacher Drona on the otherside, has doubts about the battle and he fails to lift hisGāndeeva bow. Krishna wakes him up to his call of duty inthe famous Bhagavad Gita section of the epic.
Though initially sticking to chivalrous notions of warfare,both sides soon adopt dishonourable tactics. At the end ofthe 18-day battle, only the Pandavas, Satyaki, Kripa,Ashwathama, Kritavarma, Yuyutsu and Krishna survive.
The end of the Pandavas
After "seeing" the carnage, Gandhari who had lost all hersons, curses Krishna to be a witness to a similar annihilation of his family, for though divine and capable of stoppingthe war, he had not done so. Krishna accepts the curse, which bears fruit 36 years later.
The Pandavas who had ruled their kingdom meanwhile, decide to renounce everything. Clad in skins and rags theyretire to the Himalaya and climb towards heaven in their bodily form. A stray dog travels with them. One by one thebrothers and Draupadi fall on their way. As each one stumbles, Yudhishitra gives the rest the reason for their fall(Draupadi was partial to Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva were vain and proud of their looks, Bhima and Arjuna wereproud of their strength and archery skills, respectively). Only the virtuous Yudhisthira, who had tried everything toprevent the carnage, and the dog remain. The dog reveals himself to be the god Yama (also known as YamaDharmaraja), and then takes him to the underworld where he sees his siblings and wife. After explaining the natureof the test, Yama takes Yudhishthira back to heaven and explains that it was necessary to expose him to theunderworld because (Rajyante narakam dhruvam) any ruler has to visit the underworld at least once. Yama thenassures him that his siblings and wife would join him in heaven after they had been exposed to the underworld formeasures of time according to their vices.
Arjuna's grandson Parikshit rules after them and dies bitten by a snake. His furious son, Janamejaya, decides toperform a snake sacrifice (sarpasattra) in order to destroy the snakes. It is at this sacrifice that the tale of hisancestors is narrated to him.
Versions, translations, and derivative worksMany regional versions of the work developed over time, mostly differing only in minor details, or with verses orsubsidiary stories being added. These include some versions from outside the Indian subcontinent, such as theKakawin Bharatayuddha from Java. The plays of the Tamil street theatre, terukkuttu, use themes from the Tamillanguage versions of Mahabharata, focusing on Draupadi.[32]
Critical EditionBetween 1919 and 1966, scholars at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, compared the variousmanuscripts of the epic from India and abroad and produced the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, on 13,000pages in 19 volumes, followed by the Harivamsha in another two volumes and six index volumes. This is the textthat is usually used in current Mahabharata studies for reference.[33] This work is sometimes called the 'Pune' or'Poona' edition of the Mahabharata.
Modern interpretations
Krishna as depicted in Yakshagana from Karnatakawhich is based largely on stories of Mahabharata
The Tamil writer S. Ramakrishnan has written a criticallyacclaimed book based on the Mahabharata called "UbaPaandavam". It discusses the story in a non-linear manner from atraveller's point of view.
The Kannada novelist S.L. Bhyrappa wrote a novel in Kannada(now translated into most Indian languages and English) titledParva, giving a new interpretation to the story of Mahabharata. Hetried to understand the social and ethical practices in these regionsand correlate them with the story of Mahabharata.
Malayalam writer M. T. Vasudevan Nair's novel Randamoozham(English: Second Turn) tells the Mahabharata from Bhima's pointof view. Mrityunjay (English: Triumph Over Death) written byShivaji Sawant is a novel with Karna as the central character ofMahabharata.
In Indian cinema, several film versions of the epic exist, datingback to 1920.[34] The internationally acclaimed parallel Bengalifilm director Satyajit Ray also intended to direct a theatricaladaptation of the epic, but the project was never realized.[35]
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharat TV series, directed by RaviChopra,[36] was televised and shown on India's national television(Doordarshan). In the Western world, a well-known presentationof the epic is Peter Brook's nine-hour play, which premiered in Avignon in 1985, and its five-hour movie version TheMahabharata (1989).[37]
Among literary reinterpretations of the Mahabharata the most famous is arguably Sashi Tharoor's major workentitled The Great Indian Novel, an involved literary, philosophical, and political novel which superimposes themajor moments of post-independence India in the 20th century onto the driving events of the Mahabharata epic.
Mahabharata was also reinterpreted by Shyam Benegal in Kalyug. Kalyug is a modern-day replaying of theMahabharata.[38]
Western interpretations of the Mahabharata include William Buck's Mahabharata and Elizabeth Seeger's Five Sonsof King Pandu.
English translationsThe first complete English translation was the Victorian prose version by Kisari Mohan Ganguli,[39] publishedbetween 1883 and 1896 (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers) and by M. N. Dutt (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers).Most critics consider the translation by Ganguli to be faithful to the original text. The complete text of Ganguli'stranslation is in the public domain and is available online.[40]
Another English prose translation of the full epic, based on the Critical Edition, is also in progress, published byUniversity Of Chicago Press, initiated by Chicago Indologist J. A. B. van Buitenen (books 1-5) and, following a20-year hiatus caused by the death of van Buitenen, is being continued by D. Gitomer of DePaul University (book6), J. L. Fitzgerald of Brown University (books 11-13) and Wendy Doniger of the University of Chicago (books14-18).A poetic "transcreation" (author's own description) of the full epic into English, done by the poet P. Lal is complete,and in 2005 began being published by Writers Workshop, Calcutta. The P. Lal translation is a non-rhymingverse-by-verse rendering, and is the only edition in any language to include all slokas in all recensions of the work(not just those in the Critical Edition). The completion of the publishing project is scheduled for 2010. Sixteen of theeighteen volumes are now available.A project to translate the full epic into English prose, translated by various hands, began to appear in 2005 from theClay Sanskrit Library, published by New York University Press. The translation is based not on the Critical Editionbut on the version known to the commentator Nīlakaṇṭha. Currently available are 15 volumes of the projected32-volume edition.Indian economist Bibek Debroy has also begun an unabridged English translation in ten volumes. Volume 1: AdiParva [41] was published in March 2010.
Abridged versionsMany condensed versions, abridgements and novelistic prose retellings of the complete epic have been published inEnglish, including work by William Buck, R.K. Narayan, C. Rajagopalachari, Krishna Dharma, Romesh C. Dutt,and Bharadvaja Sarma.A Kawi version is found on the Indonesian island of Bali and was translated by Dr. I. Gusti Putu Phalgunadi. Of theeighteen parvas, only eight Kawi manuscripts remain.
Jain version
Depiction of wedding procession of Lord Neminatha. The enclosure shows the animalsthat are to be slaughtered for food for weddings. Overcome with Compassion for animals,
Neminatha refused to marry and renounced his kingdom to become a Shramana
Jain version of Mahabharata can befound in the various Jain texts likeHarivamsapurana (the story ofHarivamsa) TrisastisalakapurusaCaritra (Hagiography of 63 Illustriouspersons), Pandavacaritra (lives ofPandavas) and Pandavapurana (storiesof Pandavas).[42] From the earliercanonical literature, Antakrddaaśāh(8th cannon) and Vrisnidasa(upangagama or secondary canon)contain the stories of Neminatha (22ndTirthankara), Krishna and
Balarama.[43] Prof. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu Puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva arenot restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mightybrothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jain cosmology and rule the half the earth ashalf-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the Jinacharitra by Bhadrabahu swami (3-4century BCE).[44] According to Jain cosmology Balarama, Krishna and Jarasandha are the ninth and the last set ofBaladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva.[45] The main battle is not the Mahabharata, but the fight between Krishnaand Jarasandha who is killed by Krishna. Ultimately, the Pandavas and Balarama take renunciation as Jain monksand are reborn in heavens, while on the other hand Krishna and Jarasandha are reborn in hell.[46] In keeping with thelaw of karma, Krishna is reborn in hell for his exploits (sexual and violent) while Jarasandha for his evil ways. Jainiadmits a possibility that perhaps because of his popularity, the Jain authors were keen to rehabilitate Krishna. TheJain texts predict that after his karmic term in hell is over sometime during the next half time-cycle, Krishna will bereborn as a Jain Tirthankara and attain liberation.[47] Krishna and Balrama are shown as contemporaries and cousinsof 22nd Tirthankara, Neminatha.[48] According to this story, Krishna arranged young Neminath’s marriage withRajamati, the daughter of Ugrasena, but Neminatha, empathizing with the animals which were to be slaughtered forthe marriage feast, left the procession suddenly and renounced the world.[49]
• Male: blue border• Female: red border• Pandavas: green box• Kauravas: yellow box
Notes
• a: Santanu was a king of the Kuru dynasty or kingdom, and was some generations removed from any ancestorcalled Kuru. His marriage to Ganga preceded his marriage to Satyavati.
• b: Pandu and Dhritarashtra were fathered by Vyasa after Vichitravirya's death. Dhritarashtra, Pandu and Vidurawere the sons of Vyasa with Ambika, Ambalika and a maid servant respectively.
• c: Karna was born to Kunti through her invocation of Surya, before her marriage to Pandu.
• d: The Pandavas were acknowledged sons of Pandu but were begotten by Kunti's invocation of various deities.They all married Draupadi (not shown in tree). In particular:• Yama or Dharma (Dharmadeva), for Yudhishtira• Vayu, for Bhima• Indra for Arjuna• The twins, Nakula and Sahadeva were born to Madri through her invocation of The Ashvins
• e: Duryodhana and his siblings were born at the same time, and they were of the same generation as their Pandavacousins.
The birth order of siblings is correctly shown in the family tree (from left to right), except for Vyasa and Bhishmawhose birth order is not described, and Vichitravirya who was born after them. The fact that Ambika and Ambalikaare sisters is not shown in the family tree. The birth of Duryodhana took place after the birth of Karna, Yudhishtiraand Bhima, but before the birth of the remaining Pandava brothers.Some siblings of the characters shown here have been left out for clarity; these include Chitrangada, the eldestbrother of Vichitravirya. Vidura, half-brother to Dhritarashtra and Pandu.
Cultural influenceIn the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on differentYogic[50] and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described asa concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a practical, self-contained guide to life.[51] In modern times, SwamiVivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and many others used the text to help inspire the Indianindependence movement.[52] [53]
See also• Ahilawati• Kingdoms of Ancient India• Kakawin Bhāratayuddha• Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran• Ramayana• Mahabharat (TV series)• Mahabharat (1965 film)
References• Chaturvedi Badrinath, The Mahabharata : An Inquiry in the Human Condition, New Delhi, Orient Longman
(2006)• Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008). Class and Religion in Ancient India [54]. Anthem Press.• Basham, A. L. (1954). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the Culture of the Indian Sub-Continent Before
The Coming of the Muslims. New York: Grove Press.• J. Brockington, The Sanskrit Epics, Leiden (1998).• Buitenen, Johannes Adrianus Bernardus (1978). The Mahābhārata [55]. 3 volumes. University of Chicago Press.• Hiltebeitel, Alf. The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata, SUNY Press, New York 1990.• E. W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New York (1901).• Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.• H. Oldenberg, Zur Geschichte der Altindischen Prosa, Berlin (1917)• Jyotirmayananda Swami, Mysticism of the Mahabharata, Yoga Research Foundation, Miami 1993.• Pāṇini. Ashtādhyāyī. Book 4 [56]. Translated by Chandra Vasu. Benares, 1896. (Sanskrit)(English)
Rama (right) seated on the shoulders of Hanuman, battles thedemon-king Ravana.
The Ramayana (Devanāgarī: रामायण, Rāmāyaṇa) is anancient Sanskrit epic. It is attributed to the Hindu sageValmiki and forms an important part of the Hinducanon (smṛti). The Ramayana is one of the two greatepics of India, the other being the Mahabharata.[1] Itdepicts the duties of relationships, portraying idealcharacters like the ideal servant, the ideal brother, theideal wife and the ideal king.
The name Ramayana is a tatpurusha compound ofRāma and ayana ("going, advancing"), translating to"Rama's Journey". The Ramayana consists of 24,000verses in seven books (kāṇḍas) and 500 cantos(sargas),[2] and tells the story of Rama (an incarnationof the Hindu preserver-God Vishnu), whose wife Sita isabducted by the demon king of Lanka, Ravana.Thematically, the epic explores the tenets of humanexistence and the concept of dharma.[3]
Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllablemeter called anustubh. The epic was an importantinfluence on later Sanskrit poetry and Indian life andculture, particularly through its establishment of theshloka meter. Like its epic cousin the Mahābhārata, theRamayana is not just an ordinary story: it contains theteachings of ancient Hindu sages and presents them in narrative allegory with philosophical and the devotionalelements interspersed. The characters Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, Bharata, Hanuman and Ravana are all fundamental tothe cultural consciousness of India.
There are other versions of the Ramayana, notably Buddhist (Dasaratha Jataka No. 461) and Jain in India, and alsoIndonesian, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malay versions of the tale.
TextualityTraditionally, the Ramayana is ascribed to Valmiki, regarded as India's first poet.[4] The Indian tradition isunanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Ramaand a peripheral actor in the epic drama.[5] The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana,dating to approximately the 4th century B.C.[6] [7] While it is often viewed as a primarily devotional text, theVaishnava elements appear to be later accretions possibly dating to between the second and fourth centuries CE. Themain body of the narrative lacks statements of Rama's divinity, and identifications of Rama with Vishnu are rare andsubdued even in the later parts of the text.[8]
According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[9]
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 50,000 lines. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which appears to date from the 11th century A.D.[10] The text has several regional renderings,[6] recensions and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions: the northern (N) and the southern (S).[10] Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the
Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of onemind."[11]
There has been speculation as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were written by theoriginal author. Raghunathan writes that many experts believe they are integral parts of the book in spite of somestyle differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.[12] [13]
Famous retellings include the Ramayanam of Kamban in Tamil (ca. 11th-12th century), Shri Rama Panchali orKrittivasi Ramayan by Krittibas Ojha in Bengali (ca. 15th Century), and Ramacharitamanas by Tulasidas in Awadhiwhich is a dialect of Hindi (c. 16th century).[6]
PeriodSome cultural evidence (the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana) suggeststhat the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata.[14] However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is oneof the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of North India (c. 450 BCE), while the Mahabharata reflects theKuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.[15]
By tradition, the epic belongs to the Treta Yuga, one of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said tohave been born in the Treta Yuga to King Daśaratha in the Ikshvaku vamsa (clan).[16]
The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vasishta, Vishwamitra) are all known in Vedicliterature such as the Brahmanas which are older than the Valmiki Ramayana.[17] However, nowhere in the survivingVedic poetry is a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki.[18] According to the modern academic view, Brahma,one of the main characters of Ramayana, and Vishnu, who according to Bala Kanda was incarnated as Rama, are notVedic deities, and come first into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the 'Puranic' period of thelater 1st millennium CE. There is also a version of Ramayana, known as Ramopakhyana, found in the epicMahabharata. This version, depicted as a narration to Yudhishtira, does not accord divine characteristics toRama.[19]
There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic while the first book Bala Kandaand the last the Uttara Kanda are later additions.[20] The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kandaappear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and the Kosala and Magadha regionduring the period of the sixteen janapadas as the geographical and geopolitical data is in keeping with what is knownabout the region. However, when the story moves to the Aranya Kanda and beyond, it seems to turn abruptly intofantasy with its demon-slaying hero and fantastic creatures. The geography of central and South India is increasinglyvaguely described. The knowledge of the location of the island of Sri Lanka also lacks detail.[21] Basing hisassumption on these features, the historian H.D. Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for thecomposition of the text.[22] A. L. Basham, however, is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief wholived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.[23]
Rama seated with Sita, fanned by Lakshmana, while Hanuman pays his respects.
• Rama is the hero of the tale. Portrayed asthe seventh incarnation of the GodVishnu, he is the eldest and favorite sonof the King of Ayodhya, Dasharatha, andhis wife Kousalya. He is portrayed as theepitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forcedby Kaikeyi, one of his wives, tocommand Rama to relinquish his right tothe throne for fourteen years and go intoexile.
• Sita is the beloved wife of Rama and thedaughter of king Janaka. She is theincarnation of Goddess Lakshmi, theconsort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed asthe epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by Ravana. She isimprisoned on the island of Lanka until Rama rescues her by defeating the demon king Ravana. Later, she givesbirth to Lava and Kusha, the heirs of Rama.
• Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is portrayed as an incarnation of the God Shiva(the Eleventh Rudra) and an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as the son of Kesari, a vanara king, and theGoddess Anjana. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle.
• Lakshmana, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is portrayed as an incarnationof the Shesha, the nāga associated with the God Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama. He isforced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita isabducted by Ravana upon him leaving her.
• Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received aboon from the creator-God Brahma that he could not be killed by Gods, demons or spirits. He is portrayed as apowerful demon king, who disturbs the penances of Rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him,thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
• Dasharatha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kousalya, Sumitra and Kaikeyi,and three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him tomake his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes intoexile.
• Bharata is the son of Dasharatha. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and causedDasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. WhenRama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them onthe throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the nextfourteen years.
• Shatrughna is the son of Dasharatha and his third wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama andalso the twin brother of Lakshmana.
SynopsisThe poem is traditionally divided into several major kandas or books, that deal chronologically with the major eventsin the life of Rama—Bala kanda, Ayodhya Kanda, Aranya Kanda, Kishkinda Kanda, Sundara Kanda, YuddhaKanda, and Uttara Kanda.[6] The Bala Kanda describes the birth of Rama, his childhood and marriage to Sita.[24]
The Ayodhya Kanda describes the preparations for Rama's coronation and his exile into the forest.[24] The third part,Aranya Kanda, describes the forest life of Rama and the kidnapping of Sita by the demon king Ravana.[24] Thefourth book, Kishkinda Kanda, describes the meeting of Hanuman with Rama, the destruction of the vanara kingVali and the coronation of his younger brother Sugriva to the throne of the kingdom of Kishkindha.[24] The fifthbook is Sundara Kanda, which narrates the heroism of Hanuman, his flight to Lanka and meeting with Sita.[24] Thesixth book, Yuddha Kanda, describes the battle between Rama's and Ravana's armies.[24] The last book, UttaraKanda, describes the birth of Lava and Kusha to Sita, their coronation to the throne of Ayodhya, and Rama's finaldeparture from the world.[24]
Bala Kanda
The birth of the four sons of Dasharatha
Dasharatha was the king of Kosala, the capital of which wasthe city of Ayodhya. He had three queens: Kausalya,Kaikeyi and Sumithra. He was childless for a long time and,anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrificeknown as Putra-Kameshti Yagna.[25] As a consequence,Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi,and Sumitra gives birth to twins named Lakshmana andShatrughna.[26] [27] These sons are endowed, to variousdegrees, with the essence of the God Vishnu; Vishnu hadopted to be born into mortality in order to combat thedemon Ravana, who was oppressing the Gods, and whocould only be destroyed by a mortal.[28] The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions fromthe scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16 years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha insearch of help against demons, who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed byLakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions andsupernatural weapons from Vishwamitra, and proceed to destroy the demons.[29]
Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug bythis plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of God". The child was namedSita, the Sanskrit word for furrow.[30] Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. When Sita was ofmarriageable age, the king decided to have a swayamvara which included a contest. The king was in possession ofan immensely heavy bow, presented to him by the God Shiva: whoever could wield the bow could marry Sita. Thesage Vishwamitra attends the swayamvara with Rama and Lakshmana. Only Rama wields the bow and breaks it.Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters, nieces of Janaka. The weddings arecelebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.[29]
After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, Dasharathawho had grown old expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which theKosala assembly and his subjects express their support.[31] [32] On theeve of the great event, Kaikeyi—her jealousy aroused by Manthara, awicked maidservant—claims two boons that Dasharatha had long agogranted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exile into wilderness forfourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. Theheartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word,accedes to Kaikeyi's demands.[33] Rama accepts his father's reluctantdecree with absolute submission and calm self-control whichcharacterizes him throughout the story.[34] He is joined by Sita andLakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forestwhere you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is averitable hell for me."[35] After Rama's departure, king Dasharatha,unable to bear the grief, passes away.[36] Meanwhile, Bharata who wason a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya.Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama toreturn and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the periodof exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals, and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.[33]
[36]
Aranya KandaRama, Sita and Lakshmana journeyed southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they built cottages andlived off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana.She attempts to seduce the brothers and, failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off hernose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organizes an attack against the princes. Rama annihilatesKhara and his demons.[37]
When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of therakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beautyof the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Rama, aware that this is the play of the demons, is unable todissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After sometime Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana triesto assure her that Rama is invincible, and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On theverge of hysterics Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish butstipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. Finally with the coast clear, Ravana appearsin the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is then forciblycarried away by the evil Ravana.[37] [38]
Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard ofrakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses.[36] Rama and Lakshmanalearn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu, and immediately set out to save her.[39] During their search, they meet thedemon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.[40] [41]
Kishkindha KandaThe Kishkindha Kanda is set in the monkey citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the greatestof monkey heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha.[42] Ramabefriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, inexchange for helping Rama to recover Sita.[43] However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time indebauchery. The clever monkey Queen, Tara, calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroyingthe monkey citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties tothe four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west.[44] The southern search partyunder the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati that Sita was taken to Lanka.[44]
[45]
Sundara Kanda
Ravana is meeting Sita at Ashokavana. Hanuman is seen on thetree.
The Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki'sRamayana[46] and consists of a detailed, vivid account ofHanuman's adventures.[42] After learning about Sita,Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossalleap across the ocean to Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores thedemon's city and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita inAshoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana andhis rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, givingRama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carrySita back to Rama, however she refuses, reluctant to allowherself to be touched by a male other than her husband. Shesays that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult ofher abduction.[42]
Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings, and killing Ravana's warriors. He allowshimself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He iscondemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and, leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana'scitadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with thenews.[42] [47]
The War of Lanka by Sahibdin.It depicts monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left,blue figure) fighting the demon-king of the king of Lanka, Ravana in order to save
Rama's kidnapped wife Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against thethree-headed demon general Trisiras, in bottom left - Trisiras is beheaded by the
monkey-companion of Rama - Hanuman.
This book describes the battle betweenthe forces of Rama and Ravana.Having received Hanuman's report onSita, Rama and Lakshmana proceedwith their allies towards the shore ofthe southern sea. There they are joinedby Ravana's renegade brotherVibhishana. The monkeys named"Naal" and "Neel" construct a floatingbridge (known as Rama Setu) acrossthe ocean, and the princes and theirarmy cross over to Lanka. A lengthybattle ensues and Rama kills Ravana.Rama then installs Vibhishana on thethrone of Lanka.[48]
On meeting Sita, Rama asks her toundergo agni Pariksha (test of fire) toprove her purity, since she had stayed at the demon's palace. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lordof fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity.[49] The episode of agni pariksha varies in theversions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas.[50] The above version is from Valmiki Ramayana . The version,normally accepted , is from Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas states that Seeta was under the protection of Agni so itwas neccesary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns toAyodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed.[48]
Uttara Kanda
Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki
The Uttara Kanda concerns the final years of Rama, Sita, and Rama'sbrothers. After being crowned king, many years passed pleasantly withSita. However, despite the agni pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumorsabout her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya.[51]
Rama yields to public opinion and banishes Sita to the forest, wherethe sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here shegives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who became pupils ofValmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.
Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to singit. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, whichthe sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha singthe Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Ramabecomes grievous, and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the groundopens, she vanishes into it.[51] [52] Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Later a messenger fromthe Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestialabode.[49] The Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki.[6]
A Ramlila actor wears the traditional attire ofRavana
One of the most important literary works of ancient India, theRamayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indiansubcontinent and Southeast Asia. The story ushered in the tradition ofthe next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction ofregal courts and Brahminical temples. It has also inspired muchsecondary literature in various languages, notably theKambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 13th century, theTelugu-language Molla Ramayana, 14th century Kannada poetNarahari's Torave Ramayan, and 15th century Bengali poet KrittibasOjha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version,Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.
The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, templearchitecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take placeall across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora. The Ramayana has inspired works offilm as well, most prominently the North American Sita Sings the Blues, which tells the story supporting Sitathrough song.
Variant versions
The epic story of Ramayana was adopted by several cultures across Asia. Shownhere is a Thai historic artwork depicting the battle which took place between Rama
and Ravana.
As in many oral epics, multiple versions ofthe Ramayana survive. In particular, theRamayana related in North India differs inimportant respects from that preserved inSouth India and the rest of South-East Asia.There is an extensive tradition of oralstorytelling based on the Ramayana inIndonesia, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia,Laos, Vietnam, and Maldives. Father KamilBulke, author of Ramakatha, has identifiedover 300 variants of Ramayana.[53]
Within India
The seventh century CE "Bhatti's Poem"Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retellingof the epic that simultaneously illustrates thegrammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.[54]
There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century AD, Kamban wrote Ramavatharam, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulasidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti. It is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include a Bengali version by Krittivas in the 14th century, in Oriya by Balarama Das in the 16th century, in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century, a Telugu version by Ranganatha in the 15th century, a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th century poet
Narahari and in 20th century Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshnam, Kotha Ramayana in Assamese by the14th century poet Madhava Kandali and Adhyathma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a Malayalam version by ThunchaththuEzhuthachan in the 16th century.There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana and MahiRavana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama andLakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in asubterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the Goddess Kali.Mappillapattu—a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep—hasincorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as Mappila Ramayana, havebeen handed down from one generation to the next orally.[53] In Mappila Ramayana, the story of the Ramayana hasbeen changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Ramawhich is `Laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordancewith the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.[53]
Jain versionJain version of Ramayana can be found in the various Jain texts like Padmapurana (story of Padma or Rama),Hemacandra’s Trisastisalakapurusa Caritra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa’s Vasudevahindiand Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara.[55] According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of Baladeva(balabhadra), Vasudeva (narayana) and Partivasudeva (anti vasudeva or anti hero). Rama, Lakshmana and Ravanaare the eighth Baladeva, Vasudeva, and Partivasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the HinduPuranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain puranas. Instead theyserve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half of time cycles of the Jaincosmology and rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to theJinacharitra (lives of the Jinas) by Bhadrabahu swami (3-4 century BCE).[56]
In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hinduversion.[57] In the end, Rama who lead an upright life renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attainsmoksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to hell.[58] However, it is predicted that ultimately they bothwill be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will bethe future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.[59]
The Jain versions has some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens:Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha ad Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma, and hebecame known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he became to be known by another name,Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna.[60] Furthermore, not much was thoughtof Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to Jain version, Rama had four chief-queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha,and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn inHeaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, heattains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were infourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future Tirthankara of next halfascending time cycle and Sita will be his Gandhara (chief disciple).[61]
In NepalTwo versions of Ramayana are present in Nepal. One is written by Mahakabhi Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa.The other one is written by Aadikavi Bhanubhakta Acharya. The Nepal Bhasa version by Siddhidas Mahaju marks agreat point in the renaissance of Nepal Bhasa whereas the one of Bhanubhakta Acharya is the first epic of Nepali.
Southeast Asian versionsMany other Asian cultures have adapted the Ramayana, resulting in other national epics. In Indonesia, KakawinRamayana is an old Javanese rendering; Yogesvara Ramayana is attributed to the scribe Yogesvara circa 9th centuryCE, who was employed in the court of the Medang in Central Java. It has 2774 stanzas in manipravala style, amixture of Sanskrit and Archaic prose Javanese language. The most influential version of the Ramayana is theRavanavadham of Bhatti, popularly known as Bhattikavya. The Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from theoriginal Hindu prototype. The 9th century Javanese Kakawin Ramayana has become the reference of Ramayana inthe neighboring island of Bali. In Indonesia, Ramayana has been integrated into local culture especialy those ofJavanese, Balinese and Sundanese, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aestheticexpression and also entertainment. Cultural performances such as Wayang shadow puppet and traditional dancesoften took their story from Ramayana. In Bali as well as in Java, The dances based on the episode of Ramayana oftenperformed in temples such as Prambanan in Java and many Pura in Bali.Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story ofLakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is thegreat-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma.[62] In many Malaylanguage versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhatweak.
The Khmer retelling of the tale, the Reamker, is popularlyexpressed in traditional regional dance theatre.
The Cambodian version of Ramayana, the Reamker, is themost famous story of Khmer Literature since the Funan era. Itadapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows thebalance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker hasseveral differences from the original Ramayana, includingscenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanumanand Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thaiand Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to therealm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms,such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre known asLakhorn Luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry andthe mural and bas reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda andAngkor wat.
Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien ("Glory of Rama") is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita isthe daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (T'os'akanth (=Dasakanth) and Mont'o). Vibhisana (P'ip'ek), the astrologerbrother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. So Ravana has her thrown into the waters, who,later, is picked by Janaka (Janok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspectswere transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography, and elements of nature, which aredescribed as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character.Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at the Wat Phra Kaew temple in Bangkok.
Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia), Maharadya Lawana and Darangen of Mindanao (Philippines), and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar. Aspects of the Chinese novel Journey to the West were also inspired by the Ramayana, particularly the character Sun Wukong, who is believed to have been based on
Deities Sita (far right), Rama (center),Lakshmana (far left) and Hanuman (belowseated) at Bhaktivedanta Manor, Watford,
England.
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is a popular deity worshipped in theHindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace his journeythrough India, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. Thepoem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integralpart of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere readingor hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to freethem from sin and bless the reader or listener.
According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of theGod Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstratethe righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth.
Arshia Sattar states that the central theme of the Ramayana, as well asthe Mahabharata, is respectively Ram's and Krishna's hidden divinityand its progressive revelation.[63]
See also• Ramavataram• Versions of Ramayana• Janani Janmabhoomischa Swargadapi Gariyasi• Sita Sings the Blues• Mahabharata• Ramayan (TV series)• Ramayana (film)
References• Arya, Ravi Prakash (ed.). Ramayana of Valmiki: Sanskrit Text and English Translation. (English translation
according to M. N. Dutt, introduction by Dr. Ramashraya Sharma, 4-volume set) Parimal Publications: Delhi,1998 ISBN 81-7110-156-9
• Bhattacharji, Sukumari (1998). Legends of Devi [64]. Orient Blackswan. pp. 111. ISBN 9788125014386.• Brockington, John (2003). "The Sanskrit Epics" [65]. in Flood, Gavin. Blackwell companion to Hinduism.
Blackwell Publishing. pp. 116–128. ISBN 0-631-21535-2• Buck, William; B.A. van Nooten (2000). Ramayana [66]. University of California Press. pp. 432.
ISBN 9780520227033.• Dutt, Romesh C. (2004). Ramayana [67]. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 208. ISBN 9781419143878.• Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2002). The Ramayana and Mahabharata condensed into English verse [68]. Courier
Dover Publications. pp. 352. ISBN 9780486425061.• Fallon, Oliver (2009). Bhatti’s Poem: The Death of Rávana (Bhaṭṭikāvya) [69]. New York: New York University
Press, Clay Sanskrit Library. ISBN 978-0-8147-2778-2.• Keshavadas, Sadguru Sant (1988). Ramayana at a Glance [70]. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. pp. 211.
ISBN 9788120805453.• Goldman, Robert P. (1990). The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India: Balakanda [71]. Princeton
