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Hindu Traditions of DevotionBy Sam Bresnahan 3 May 2002

The Hindu Temple: A Cosmic IntersectionIt is difficult for the modern observer to separate the Hindu path of devotion from the temple, the institution that has come to dominate Hindu worship. The Bhagavadgita in the Mahabharata, the Indic text that contributed so much to the beginnings of bhakti yoga, strangely enough makes no mention of temple worship. Several centuries later, and perhaps during a new period in the evolution of Hindu bhakti, the writers of the agamas laid down the prescriptions and ritual practices that would guide devotees through every aspect of temple worship. By the fourth century, the temple was already fast becoming an indispensable element of Hindu devotion. It had come a long way from its Vedic origins, and would continue to evolve to the present day. The symbolism implicit in the Hindu temple evolved along with its structure. No structural aspect of the temple is arbitraryit is built with the fervor of devotion[1] and therefore becomes a symbol of ultimate enlightenment.[2] The goal of this essay is to fit the rich symbolism of the Indian temple into its ritual and cosmological context. Specifically, how does Hindu temple structure describe the relationship of the human race with God and the Universe? This complex symbolism is difficult to tease apart; it certainly is impossible to separate its elements into neat little categories. A holistic approach, however, yields a unifying theme that answers our question. The Hindu temple serves as a cosmic intersection of man, God, and the Universe. But it also is the Universe, reflected in its repeating architectural forms.[3] Rajans deconstruction of the Sanskrit word nagara (temple) illustrates this point well. According to Rajan, the words nartana (anatomy of form), gana (harmony, integration of parts) and ranjana (sensualism) all contributed to the etymology of nagara.[4] Thus, the temple integrates different elements of the cosmos into a single whole. Its nartana represents gana and vice versa. The special relationship between form and function will become apparent after carefully exploring the origin and evolution of temple symbolism. Mountains have played an important role in Hinduism since its very beginning. Ancient burial sites were covered with mounds of earth and rubble to represent a mountain. It was thought that the souls of the deceased left the body to reside in

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the mountains, the abode of the gods.[5] Eck has noted that the Hindu temple is constructed in the architectural likeness of a mountain.[6] This early analogy between the temple and the mountain helps us to understand the divine purpose of the templeto serve as a meeting place between man and the gods. Instead of human souls rising up to meet the gods, however, the gods now could descend to be in the presence of man. The piece of land upon which the temple stands is itself a sacred location. A tirtha, a Sanskrit word literally meaning crossing place, is a site especially favored by the gods where water, shade and seclusion are plentiful.[7] Temples must be built on tirthas? in order to serve their true purpose as crossing places, where devotees can go to meet the deity. Site selection is only the first step in building a temple. Works known as silpa-sastras specify every detail of temple construction from start to finish, even specifying procedures for making bricks. The vastu-purusa-mandala (subsequently abbreviated as mandala in this essay) serves as a rough architectural blueprint for the foundation of the temple.[8] But the mandala is much more than a physical outline of the temple form. More importantly, as Michell points out, it is a microscopic image of the Universe, a symbolic pantheon of the Gods and an image of the Cosmic Man.[9] Rao defines the mandala somewhat less esoterically as a pattern of powers, even as the human body is.[10] Thus, the mandala serves both a practical and a highly symbolic purpose, becoming the architectural and spiritual foundation of the Hindu temple. Like the classic analogy between the mountain and the temple, the mandala has its origins in ancient Vedic rituals. Volwahsen suggests the square shape of the mandala originated from square Vedic altars on which sacrifices were made.[11] Since ancient times, the square has represented order and perfection.[12] The building of temples upon a foundation composed of numerous squares can be seen as an attempt to establish order where none existed before, in an age of cosmic degeneracy. Thus, the pattern of the mandala itself enables the temple to become a crossing place of gods and man. As suggested earlier, the temple is also a microcosm of the Universe. The mandala reflects this aspect of the temple as well. The center square of the mandala stands for the mythical mountain of Meru, the geographic center of the cosmos.[13] Here, the imagery of the mountain is once again invoked. Both the outer temple structure and the innermost square of the mandala symbolize a holy peak. Around Mount

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Meru is arranged a symbolic pantheon of gods. Each god occupies its own square and is ranked in importance by its proximity to the center. To emphasize the temples role as a crossing place, the mandala also represents the Cosmic Man. An ancient story in the Rg Veda tells of how the entire Universe was created from the body of Purusa, the cosmic Person.[14] The mandala also represents beings on a lower level. Some accounts in Indian literature say the mandala was formed when the gods defeated a terrible demon, sitting on his body and squashing him into the shape of a square.[15] Finally, Kramrisch notes the proportions of the square correspond to the proportions of humans, whose heights are roughly equal to their arm spansthese also are the proportions of the Cosmic Man. On this simplistic level of measurement, the temple becomes a cosmic intersection, a trysting place where humans can be in the presence of their God. Indeed, measurements and proportions are crucial to the proper construction of a Hindu temple. Like the mandala, the Hindu preoccupation with mathematics originated with the Vedic sacrificial altar. For example, in order for the temple to face east, its width must be a perfect multiple of the fraction three-eighths. This is only the simplest of the necessary calculations. The outer dimensions of the temple must also satisfy five other equations relating to stars, planets and the passage of time.[16] Just as the mandala brings order to a degenerate world, careful mathematical measurements express the structure of the Universe. As Kramrisch succinctly notes, [t]o measure is to order.[17] The mandala is only the beginning of the rich symbolism inherent in the Hindu temple, whose individual parts are a perfect reflection of the greater whole. The next part of this essay analyzes separate elements of the temple, both interior and exterior, and places these elements within the context of the temples divine purpose?: to serve as a cosmic meeting place for devotee and deity. The garbhagrha, the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temple, presents itself as a convenient point of departure. Like the entire temple structure itself, the garbhagrha is inextricably bound with mountain imagery. If the temple is a mountain, the garbhagrha is the cave inside the mountain. Cave temples were built well before the modern temple emerged during the Gupta period. The cave was viewed as a special abode of the godsin fact, the cave and god were one and the same.[18] It is only appropriate, then, that the garbhagrha house the main image, the sacred material object in which the deity resides. A multitude of other conditions add emphasis to the sacredness of the garbhagrha. The center square of the mandala, representing Mount Meru at the center of the Universe, determines the perimeter of this holiest part of the temple. Thus, the sanctum resides at the exact center of the cosmos. The garbhagrha is dark, and its walls are largely undecorated. This starkly contrasts the exterior of the temple, which is often highly ornate and replete with thousands of sculpted images. The simple darkness of the sanctum reflects its function as a womb house, one of the meanings of garbhagrha. Like their born-again Christian counterparts in the West, Hindu devotees seek the darkness of the womb house to

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experience rebirth.[19] The theme of rebirth appears ubiquitously in Hinduism. By being in the presence of the deity in the garbhagrha, the devotee hopes ultimately to achieve moksa, final liberation. A second possible interpretation of garbhagrha symbolism is that God resides in each individual. The mandala is a pattern of powers in the likeness of the human body, and the deity dwells in the garbhagrha at the center of the mandala. The logical extension of this symbolism is that God exists in each person in a very real sense, at least ideally. As devotees work their way from the exterior of the temple to the sanctum, they shed the influences of the material world and find their center of being. They become one with God. In temple ritual, the garbhagrha is seen as the seed of the temple.[20] In the rite of garbha-dana, a pot containing precious stones and other ritual items is buried below the garbhagrha. The seed symbolically germinates, growing directly upward through the center of the sikhara, the spire positioned directly over the sanctum and reaching towards the heavens. The sikhara, also referred to as the vimana, is highly symbolic as well and deserves its own treatment. Hinduism has long spoken of a cosmic axis. Rao refers to it as the axis of divine consciouness.[21] This axis can be seen as a progression towards enlightenment, beginning with the seeding of the garbhagrha and culminating at the very tip of the sikharawhere the heavens meet the Earth. The sikhara is, therefore, the material embodiment of this cosmic axis, facilitating mans ascent toward the heavens. It functions as the mountain does, both in its architectural form and in its divine purpose. Michell observes the cosmic axis has mechanical, biological, and anthropomorphic symbolism.[22] The cosmic axis holds up heaven and earth, acting as Mount Meru, the universal tree or the spine of Purusa. If the mandala is a horizontal microcosm of the Universe, the sikhara is its vertical equivalent. Much like the mandala, the sikhara connects different realms of the cosmos and facilitates the meeting of deity and devotee. On the tip of the sikhara rests the kalasa, also called the amalaka. The elongated, bulbous fixture symbolizes new life and growth, its shape resembling a flower bud or a lamp.[23] The kalasa can be thought of as the fruition of the garbha-dana rituallike the pot buried beneath the garbhagrha, the kalasa is a vessel that holds precious gems. The kalasa also can represent the roots of an inverted tree, whose trunk runs along the cosmic axis of the temple and whose branches reach down toward Earth.[24] The representation of the Hindu temple as an upside-down tree encourages devotees to invert themselves and find their true roots, thus becoming a temple themselves. By transforming himself or herself into a temple, the devotee invites God to take up residence within. In a way, humans are born upside downthey are rooted in the material aspect of the world. Just as devotees find their true centers by making their way toward the garbhagrha, devotees also find their true origin by gazing up toward the kalasa.

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The unity of the garbhagrha and kalasa is reflected in the anatomy of the kalasa itself, which on many modern temples contains two structural motifs recognized as lotus flowers. Below the very tip of the kalasa, the petals of the lotus are turned upwardthe lotus is rooted in heaven and points toward Earth. The second lotus forms the bottom of the kalasa, where it is attached to the top of the sikhara. The petals of this lotus are turned downward, symbolizing the plight of man, whose is artificially rooted in the material world. Thus, as the axis of divine consciousness progresses upward, the lotus inverts itself, symbolizing the progression of man to a higher state of being. The final part of this essay considers the structure of the Hindu temple as a whole. The temple ultimately becomes a point at which the devotees can access and integrate themselves into the entire Universe. According to Rao, each part of the temple corresponds to one of the five elements that make up the cosmos.[25] The foundation represents earth, the walls of the garbhagrha represent water, the sikhara corresponds to fire, the kalasa symbolizes air, and the space above the kalasa is the formless ether. The perceived cosmic makeup of the temple emphasizes its role as a universal crossing place. Other imagery reinforces the concept of the temple as a universal entity. As Sarkar has observed, Vaisnava temples in Tamil Nadu are built as three-story structures corresponding to the three cosmic zones, established when Visnu created the world in three great strides.[26] Furthermore, the temples repeating architectural forms illustrate the cyclic nature of time and underscore the unity of the cosmos.[27] Several examples of this architectural repetition have already been discussed, such as the structural relationships between the sikhara and the mandala, the mandala and the garbhagrha, and the gharbagrha and the kalasa. Through its rich symbolism, the Hindu temple facilitates the ascent of man toward heaven and vice versamatter flows up while spirit flows down.[28] This is why the temple has become such an integral element of bhakti yogadevotees use the temple as a way of meeting their deities, of experiencing God in a very real way. The structural aspects of the temple, from the spiritual mandala to physical spires, serve functions well outside their aesthetic and architectural purposes. Kramrisch best sums up the overall purpose of the Hindu temple. Like the Himalayas, the temple points to the heavens, the abode of the gods. In this cosmic age, the human race has descended from heaven and now occupies a lower state of consciousness. The Hindu temple, step by step, shape-by-shape reverses this primeval descent and places man back on the path toward heaven.

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NOTES[1] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976), p. 142. [2] George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), p. 49. [3] Ibid., p. 68. [4] K. V. Soundara Rajan, Invitation to Indian Architecture (New Delhi: ArnoldHeinemann, 1984), p. 18. [5] S. K. Ramachandra Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning (Bangalore: IBH, 1979), p. 10. [6] Diana Eck, Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India (Chambersburg: Anima Books, 1985), p. 60. [7] Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, p. 68. [8] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 11. [9] Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, pp. 7172. [10] Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning, p. 126. [11] Andreas Volwahsen, Living Architecture: Indian (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1969), p. 44. [12] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 22. [13] Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning, p. 135. [14] Eck, Darsan: Seeing the Divine Image in India, pp. 59-60. [15] S. K. Ramachandra Rao, Indian Temple Traditions (Bangalore: Kalpatharu Research Academy, 1997), pp. 145-147. [16] Andreas Volwahsen, Living Architecture: Indian, p. 50. [17] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 132. [18] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 169. [19] Ibid., p. 163. [20] Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, p. 126. [21] Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning, p. 92. [22] Michell, The Hindu Temple, p. 70. [23] Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning, pp. 87-88. [24] Rao, Indian Temple Traditions, p. 330. [25] S. K. Ramachandra Rao, The Indian Temple, Its Meaning, pp. 83-84. [26] Shri H. Sarkar, Vaisnava Symbolism in Indian Art and Architecture in K. K. A. Venkatachari, ed., Proceedings of the Seminar on Symbolism in Temple Art and Architecture held in February, 1981 (Bombay : Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1982), p. 58. [27] George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, p. 68. [28] S. K. Ramachandra Rao, The Indian Temple, It's Meaning, pp. 92-94.