RomeChapters 5 & 6

Geography

3 Eras of Roman History 753-509 B.C. E. Struggle to dominate other tribes on the Apennine Peninsula

509 B.C.E. to 31 B.C.E. establishment of Roman Republic and domination of the Mediterranean Sea and Europe

31 B.C. E. to A.D. 476 Roman Empire

Greeks and Romans Romans had a sense of history

What could they do with Greek Culture and Roman might?

Greeks: virtuous citizenship focused on city-state

Hellenization: cosmopoli left Greeks at a loss to define virtue

Romans: might makes right, Stoicism and Epicureanism

Romans: virtue is in the “doing”

What Caused Rome to fail? Barbarian invasions?

Did it just get too big?

Disparity between rich and poor?

Christianity?

Lessons from Rome’s Triumph and Rome’s Fall? Are there lessons to be learned?

Titus Livius, or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) admitted, “The study of history is the best medicine for a sick mind; for in history you have a record of the infinite variety of human experience plainly set out for all to see; and in that record you can find yourself and your country both examples and warnings; fine things to take as models, base things rotten through and through, to avoid."

Politicians, Preachers, Political philosophers often see Rome’s decline as a warning for every great civilization that has come after.

Roman History Livy was also careful to add that Roman legends depicted men and women

not as they were, but as they ought to be.

History for Livy is a moral story to instill common values

Early Romans and Etruscans 750 B.C.E.

Greek colonies in Southern Italy numbered about 50 Etruscan Confederacy dominated Northern Italy (Tuscany today)

Origins unknown Not Indo-European Similarities with Semitic peoples Perhaps Hittite origins

Etruscan Cultural Influences Etruscan alphabet (adapted from Greeks)

Fasces

Toga

Arch

Gladiatorial contests

Fasces Surprise

Assimilation: Resistance is Futile http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZEJ4OJTgg8

What happened to the Etruscans? Rather than simply conquer these people, the Romans assimilated them into the

Roman world. Livy “Events before Rome was born have come down to us in old tales with

more of the charm of poetry than of sound historical record, and such traditions I propose neither to affirm nor refute.“

Insight into Romulus and Remus? Virgil’s Aeneid

Aeneid by Virgil

He was to be ruler of Italy,Potential empire, armorer of war;To father men from Teucer's noble bloodAnd bring the whole world under law's domin

Lucretia and Tarquin the Proud

The Roman Republic

509 B.C.E. -31 B.C.E.

Early Roman Government Replaced the King with two consuls

Gave the Roman Senate control over public funds

One consul could veto the other consul’s decrees

In times of grave emergency the Senate could appoint a dictator who would rule for 6 months.

Cincinnatus

Struggle of the Orders 500-300 B.C.E.

Patricians = less than 10% of Rome’s population Defined in Roman Constitution as legally and socially superior to everybody else Perhaps old Etruscan families

Plebeians= everybody else Included everybody from landless peasant to wealthy merchants

Issue of Legality Constitution: Senate is only Patrician, Senate voted first Assembly of Centuries (comitia centuriata), conducted annual elections of

consuls, composed of all members of the army. In this assembly the wealthier citizen voted first with profound influence on voting.

Assembly of Tribes (comitia tributa), contained all citizens; approved or rejected laws and decided issues of war and peace.

Struggle of the Orders, continued 494 B.C. E., plebeians threatened to set up their own independent state

Patricians retained powers

Plebeians gained two representatives: the Tribunes (later there were ten tribunes). absolute veto power; could not be called to account for their actions; could not be harmed in any way or even touched. A tribune could not veto military commanders or dictators.

450 B.C.E. Law of the Twelve Tables codes specifying civic matters, crimes and the relations among citizens and

family members.

More Struggle of the Orders 445 B.C., plebeians won the right to inter-marry with the patricians (the Lex

Canuleia). allowed wealthy plebeians to become patricians themselves Wealthy could be elected to high positions within the Assembly or the Senate.

367 B.C., one consul every year must be a plebeian, law restricted amount of land held by any citizen.

287 B.C., decisions of the Assembly of Tribes binding on the whole state without action by

any other body

Why did the Struggle of the Orders not lead to Civil War?

Who got assimilated?

The Latin League 493 B.C., Romans established the Latin League to protect themselves from

rival neighbors such as the Etruscans.

396 B.C.E. Rome attacked the last Etruscan holdout: Veii and gave them privileges of Romans

Precedent: conquered communities were assimilated and made partners with Rome Some communities were granted full Roman citizenship. Some communities granted citizenship but could not vote in the Assembly Some communities received Rome's support in the event of an invasion.

Roman system of "confederating" states vs. Greek idea of domination and submission. Which was more pragmatic and successful?

“Latin Right” Intermediate Rights between full citizenship and non-citizen status

Commercium allowed Latins to own land in any of the Latin cities and to make legally enforceable contracts with their citizens.

Connubium permitted them to make a lawful marriage with a resident of any other Latin city.

Lus migrationis gave people with Latin status the capacity to acquire citizenship of another Latin state simply by taking up permanent residence there.

Roman Religion

Ancestor Worship: primary duty to honor one’s ancestors by his conduct and the greatest honor was to sacrifice oneself for Rome.

Roman Priests Guardians of sacred traditions. Prominent aristocrats rotated in and out of the priestly office while also

serving as leaders of the Roman state. Thus religion and politics were officially sanctioned as part of the state.

Roman polytheism: as long as the traditional gods were honored, new gods could be added and worshipped as well

Mystery religions: Mithraism

No known texts—mostly reliefs. Practiced primarily by Roman Soldiers.

7 Levels Corax, Corux or Corvex (raven or crow)

beaker Nymphus, Nymphobus (male bride)

lamp, bell, veil, circlet/crown Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,

drum, belt, breast plate Miles (soldier) pouch, helmet, lance,

drum, belt, breast plate Perses (Persian) Heliodromus (sun-runner) torch, Pater (father)

Civic and Religious Values Combined

Morality

Patriotism

Duty

Masculine self-control

Respect for authority and tradition

Roman Virtues Bravery Honor Self-discipline Loyalty to country and family

Punic Wars By 265 B.C.E. Romans controlled most of the Apennine Peninsula

Was further expansion deliberate, necessary or accidental?

First Punic War 264 B.C.E. Punic Wars begin

Punic Threat Carthage expands into Messina, an important port in Sicily near the mainland

Carthage Phoenician, Numidian and Libyan peoples,

Major city was Carthage (in modern day Tunisia)

Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries—Celts and Iberians

Light Cavalry: a significant part of it was composed of Numidian contingents and North African elephant corps The riders of these elephants were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the

elephants in case they charged toward their own army.

The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors

The trade of Carthaginian merchantmen was by land across the Sahara

And by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic to the tin-rich islands of Britain and to West Africa.

How Rome Won

Captured Phoenician ship and copied its design Created a corvus device for boarding ships

Spoils of War 23 year war

Carthage ceded Sicily to Rome Carthage paid large indemnity (money to pay for the war)

Many Romans killed. Conservative Senators: Rome should have invaded Carthage rather than agree

to a peace treaty

Hannibal

Hannibal’s Invasion of Apennine Peninsula

2nd Punic War 218 B.C.E. Rome declared war on Carthage

Considered expansion by Carthage into Iberian Peninsula (Spain) as a commercial and military threat

2nd Punic War lasted 16 years

Hannibal’s Invasion

involved the mobilization of 60,000 to 100,000 troops

Training a war-elephant corps

all of which had to be provisioned along the way

Crossed the Alps

2nd Punic War was a world war in the sense that it involved about three-quarters of the population of the entire Punic-Greco-Roman world and few people living in the Mediterranean were able to escape it.

Virtually every family in Rome lost at least one member

Battle of Cannae: 215 B.C.E.

Battle of Cannae Estimates: 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured

Among the dead the Roman Consul Lucius Aurelius Paulus, 29 out of 48 military tribunes 80 Senators (about 30% of the Senate)

one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day)

Inexplicable Decisions In History Hall of Fame

Hannibal recalled to Carthage without marching on Rome scarcity of supplies, money, manpower? political components? Did Carthage think Rome would sue for peace?

Rome kept on fighting 201 B.C.E. Publius Cornelius Scipio invaded North Africa and defeated Hannibal at

Zama

Results of 2nd Punic War Carthage required to abandon all its possessions except city of Carthage

war indemnity 3X that of the 1st Punic War Estimate: 20,000 talents of silver(one talent= 71 pounds) over 50 years

In the 50 years between the 2nd and 3rd Punic wars: Rome invaded and conquered

former Macedonian empire Palestine Hispania

3rd Punic War By 151 B.C.E. Carthage repaid its war debt to Rome Carthage thought treaty was cancelled Rome decided on War

needed grain and area around Carthage was fertile Romans did not forget their losses at Battle of Cannae

149 B.C.E. war with Carthage again Demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and move 10 miles inland

Siege of Carthage: approximately 50,000 people died of starvation Six day battle

Rome made all inhabitants slaves and burned Carthage for 17 days

Carthage in Ruins

Consequences of Punic Wars

Millions of slaves from Carthaginian and Macedonian territories Most slaves were agricultural workers

Most economical use: work as hard as possible feed as little as possible, when one dies buy another very cheap because market was glutted

Extensive slave population: enabled large estates owned by wealthy aristocracy to force small

farmers to sell their land because they could not compete with the large agribusinesses

Plantation style economy

Former farmers became urban population of Rome Under-employment of free labor: slaves could do it more

cheaply Created a permanent urban under-class and political

instability

Rome failed to develop an industrial base that would have created jobs and opportunity for former farmers

Instability 146-30 B.C.E. Slave uprisings

134 B.C.E. 70,000 slaves revolt in Sicily 104 B.C.E. 2nd slave uprising in Sicily 73-71 B.C.E. Spartacus Rebellion

Trained to be a gladiator: certain death Escaped to Mount Vesuvius with a host of fugitive slaves Overran much of Southern Italy 6,000 slaves captured during the final battle were crucified along

the road between Capua and Rome (150 miles)

Barbarian Threats to Roman Power

Who is a “barbarian” Greeks: a barbarian is “anyone who is not Greek”

Romans:

“Barbarian” = anyone who did not live within the Roman empire and had no manners

“Barbar”: a Sanskrit word than means “dirty one” generally referring to a person who uses the same hand to eat as they use to wipe themselves after going to the bathroom

Throughout history the term “Barbarian” generally implies a person who lives outside of the boundaries of a particular territory/kingdom The Other who is “not like us”

Dynamic Roman Frontier Hispania: Iberian Peninsula and Western France

Cimbrians: Jutland Peninsula (modern Denmark)

Britannia (England) and Caledonia (Scotland)

Central Europe (East of Iberia) Celts Teutonnes/Germans Gaul Goths

Roman Empire

31 B.C.E. – A.D. 476

Julius Caesar July 13, 100 B.C.E. – March 15, 30 B.C.E.

Marius, Sulla & Caesar Marius:

a general in Roman Army elected as Consul by Plebian party reelected six times from 107 B.C.E. to 86 B.C.E.

eliminated the property qualification required to be a Roman soldier Provided opportunity for urban poor to gain political access through the military

Sulla : appointed dictator in 86 B.C.E. by the Senate curtailed the power of the Tribunes (Plebian leaders) assassinated any Senator who opposed him

Julius Caesar Marius’s nephew took his legions to the frontier to fight the Barbarians

political power and enrichment Hero of soldiers Demonized by Senators

The Triumvirate

Pompey: General who conquered Syria and Palestine

Julius Caesar: fought the Barbarians in Gaul and Britannia

Crassus: richest man in Rome, defeated Spartacus in the Battle of Siler River

Pompey, Caesar, Crassus

Breaking of the Triumvirate 52 B.C.E. : mob riots in Rome

Senate feared Caesar’s popularity among the Plebian class Convinced Pompey to declare Caesar who was in Gaul “an enemy of the state”

49 B.C.E. Caesar marched on Rome and Pompey fled to Syria Pompey defeated at Battle of Pharsalus in Greece and murdered by Caesar’s

supporters

Caesar becomes Emperor

Affair with Cleopatra left her pregnant with Caesar’s son Invaded Anatolia and victory was so swift that he declared “Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)”

46 B.C.E. Senate named Caesar dictator for 10 years 44 B.C.E. named dictator for life Authority to make war and peace

Beware the Ides of March

Caesar assassinated on March 15 “The Ides of March” Conspiracy of Senators who wanted to return to Republic (power in hands of Aristocracy) included former supporter Brutus (some argue Marc Antony)

Brutus committed suicide following his defeat by Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) at the Battle of Philippi.

Marc Antony committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium

Marc Antony and Brutus

The Principate 27 B.C.E. – 187 C.E.

Caesar Augustus (63-B.C.E. – 14 C.E.)

Adopted by Julius Caesar at age 18 as his heir Joined with Marc Antony and Lepidus to secure his succession Defeated all competitors to become Emperor

Pax Romana

Octavian returned from his victory at Actium and declared peace was restored Granted titles of Imperator (victorious general) and Augustus

(worthy of honor) by the Senate Octavian preferred title princeps (first citizen) PAX ROMANA: Relative peace i.e. no major wars

Octavian Reforms

New coinage

Introduced public services

Reorganized the army

Allowed cities and provinces rights of self-government

Appearance versus Reality Senate had no power

Augustus controlled the army

Reforms of traditional civic values were superficial Rebuilt temples Prohibited Romans from worshipping foreign gods Fined citizens who failed to marry Required widows to marry within 2 years Punished adultery (by women) Made divorce more difficult

Augustus himself had many affairs His daughter Julia had so many affairs that he was forced to banish her

Aristocrats still controlled large farming estates

Underemployment remained a serious problem

No industrial development

Pax Romana Lasted from 28 B.C.E. to 180 C.E.

Few powerful external enemies

Mediterranean Sea controlled by one military power: Rome

Land frontiers/borders– Scotland to Persia

Exceptions to peace were rebellions by Britannia and Hebrews.

Assimilation of residents along the frontier into the common cultural and political life of Rome

Juvenal’s Observance Though we hurry, we merely crawl;

We're blocked by a surging mass ahead,    a pushing wallOf people behind. A man jabs me,    elbowing through, one socksA chair pole against me, one cracks my    skull with a beam, one knocksA wine cask against my ear. My legs are    caked with splashingMud, from all sides the weight of    enormous feet comes smashingOn mine, and a soldier stamps his    hobnails through to my sole.

A Stroll at Night Look at other things, the various dangers

     of nighttime.How high it is to the cornice that     breaks, and a chunk beats my brains out,Or some slob heaves a jar, broken or     cracked from a window.Bang! It comes down with a crash and     proves its weight on the sidewalk.You are a thoughtless fool, unmindful of     sudden disaster,If you don't make your will before you     go out to have dinner.There are as many deaths in the night as     there are open windowsWhere you pass by, if you're wise, you     will pray, in your wretched devotions.People may be content with no more     than emptying slop jars.

Bread and Circuses…with no vote to sell, their motto is "couldn't care less," Time was when their plebiscite elected generals, heads of state, commanders of legions: but now they've pulled in their horns, there's only two things than concern them: BREAD and CIRCUSES. –Juvenal

Aristocratic Women Owned property

Invested in commercial ventures

Made public contributions to particular causes

Priestesses & civic patrons

NO public office

Nominally under authority of nearest male relative (perpetual minority)

Educated to be accomplished wives and mothers

Certain sexual freedom

Plebian Women Little is known

Early marriage

Husband’s helpers

Engaged in shop keeping

Motherhood 3-4 children

Life expectancy 34 years

Roman Law Civil Law: applied to Roman citizens

Law of the Peoples: applied to everyone and supplemented civil law

Natural Law: founded on Stoic philosophy Natural order of nature Embodied justice and right All men are entitled to it Conceptual but not applied

Religions Roman gods

Judaism

Christianity

Mystic Religions

Christianity Jesus was a historical figure

Tacitus & Pliny the Younger Mention Jesus, confirm he was crucified by Pontius Pilate, identify Christians as a

religious sect (they don’t like them)

Josephus Jewish historian Wrote a Roman friendly history of the Jews

Mentions Jesus, John the Baptist and James Mentions Paul and the early church A confession that Jesus was the Christ in Josephus’s history is believed to have been

added by the Church

Christian Beliefs in the 1st Century

Based on Gospels: Matthew, Mark, & Luke John is believed to have been written as much as two decades after the other

three

Considerable disagreement among scholars as to dates of writing

Paul’s Letters to early churches Some believe written before the gospels—some after Paul and Peter killed during Nero persecution of Christians around 64 C.E.

according to Eusebius If Paul is the author of these letters then they must have been written before 64

C.E.

Hebrew Monotheism The belief that a single god is the creator and ruler of all things

Yahweh is transcendent: exists outside of time, nature, place and Kingship

Ethical monotheism: obligations owed by all human beings toward their creator, independent of place or political identity Yahweh created man in His image Yahweh is exclusively a god of righteousness Evil comes from man not Yahweh Micah 6:8 Yahweh requires man to live justly, love mercy and walk humbly

Christian Monotheism Adopted basic principles of Hebrew ethical monotheism

Rejected most ritual practices of Judaism for Gentile believers

Salvation offered to everyone without Jewish ritual observance based on faith in Jesus Practiced sacrament “means of grace” of Holy Baptism Practiced sacrament of Holy Communion

Sects developed and arguments arose over teachings of Jesus and Paul during the 1st and 2nd centuries and have continued to the present What is the meaning of Grace? Must gentile Christians observe Jewish religious practices? Ecstatic Utterances (speaking in tongues)? Apocalyptic writings and interpretations? Women’s role in the local Churches? Eating meat offered to idols?

Roman Issues with Christianity

Feared destabilization

Christianity recognized no other gods (Romans allowed other gods but expected people to show respect to theirs)

Christians refused to worship the emperor as a god

Despite growth of Christianity no more than 5 – 10% of people in Roman Empire were Christians before the 4th century

Crisis of the 3rd Century Nero and Caligula (poor emperors) succeeded by capable emperors who

ruled until 180 C.E.

After 182 C.E. Provincial armies engaged in civil war and victors ruled as military dictators From 235-284 C.E. 26 “barracks Emperors ruled Rome

Elements of the Crisis Civil War

Economic woes War ravaged agriculture Inflation Taxation

Plague Galen a Greek Physician

diarrhea, fever, inflamed throat with dry pustules appearing on the 9th day of illness

Modern historians conclude smallpox

Decimated population, economic crisis and ravages of civil war lead Roman armies to pull back from previous frontiers

Rome in Decline Rome recovered by 289 C.E. but never returned to its former glory

Roman rule continues for another 200 years in the West

Roman rule continues for another 1,000 years in the East

Some Causes of Decline argued by historians today

Barbarian attacks

No clear law of succession

Lack of constitutional means for reform

Allowed too much power to military

Slave system and failure to develop industrial economy led to unstable economy required dependence on taxes Required tribute from conquered lands

Declining population due to disease, civil war, constant foreign warfare

Aristocrats contributed very little to economy and relied on legislated privileges that exempted them from taxes

Local elite could not keep up with demands undermining urban basis of classical Roman civic ideals

Lack of interest in preserving Rome by its citizens

Diocletian

Diocletian Ruled from 284-305 C.E.

Autocrat Dominus (Lord)

Formal rules off succession Split empire into East & West: 2 augusti 2 Caesars Known as the Tetrarch

Moved capital from Rome to Nicomedia (in Turkey). Diocletian ruled from Nicomedia Senate remained in Rome

Constantine

Constantine Ruled from 312-337

Built a new capitol in the East: Constantinople

Abandoned Tetrarch in favor of dynasty

Eastern Empire Richer More populous More central to imperial policy

Western Empire Poorer Peripheral Not well defended

Legalized Christianity within Roman Empire

Popular Version of Constantine’s Conversion

Saw a Christian symbol while preparing to battle the “Barbarians” at Malian Bridge

Voice said, “In this sign, conquer”

Constantine ordered men to paint the symbol on their shields

He won Constructed churches Did not prohibit pagan worship Christianity became favored religion

MaxentiusWestern Roman Emperor. Defended Romeagainst various revolts. -Engaged in 5 year war with Constantine over who controlled the Western Roman Empire.-Army in the Eastern Empire declared Constantine, the son of the previous emperor Constantius to be Augustus.-Army in Western Empire favored Maxentius, the son of Constantius’s predecessor, Maximian as emperor. Constantine had Maximian executed.

Historical Accounts of Constantine’s Conversion Lactantius: North African Latin historian who tutored Constantine’s son:

The night before the Battle of Milvian Bridge against Maxentius (Western Roman Emperor) Constantine dreamed of being ordered to place a heavenly divine symbol upon his soldiers’ shields.

Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century Christian Bishop who wrote a history of the early church) Well before the battle, Constantine looked up at the sun and saw a cross of light

above it and the words “In this sign, conquer.” The next night Christ came to Constantine in a dream and told him to use the

sign against his enemies.

Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano (1520-1524) Fresco Apostolic Palace, Vatican City

Constantine’s Symbol: Chi Rho

Chi Rho Formed by imposing the 1st two capital letters of the Greek word for Christ

X and P

Not technically a cross, symbol invokes the crucifixion and the title “Christ”

Symbol was often used by ancient Greeks as a symbol for “good fortune”

Chi Rho became Constantine’s Labarum

Constantine’s Labarum

New Contours of 4th Century Christianity

Basic doctrinal disputes resolved Arianism vs. Athanasians Trinity Council of Nicea Clearly defined hierarchy

Patriarchs Bishops Primacy of Bishop of Rome: Pope

Spread of Monasticism

Western Christian Thought Saint Jerome (340-420)

Translated Bible into Latin (vulgate) Argued that classical learning was important for Christians

Saint Ambrose (340-397) Archbishop of Milan Argued that Emperor not above the Church Admired Cicero but said highest virtue is reverence for God

Saint Augustine Bishop of Hippo in North Africa

How could humans be so profoundly sinful when they were created by an all-powerful God whose nature is entirely good?

Augustine’s answer: all evils are result of the innate human propensity to place our own desires above God’s

No one has the grace necessary for salvation Grace is God’s gift: given in greater portion to some

Wrote City of God in response to those who blamed Christians for fall of Rome

Barbarians at the Gates Huns

Nomadic tribes from east of the Volga River Origins and language are subject of debate Mounted archers Atila the Hun

Repeatedly attacked Eastern Roman Empire forcing Theodosius to pay tribute The barbarian territory of the Huns, (in Thrace, became so great that more than a

hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers. (Callinicus, in Life of Saint Hypatius)

Died in

Borders of Thrace

Illustration from NuremburgChronicle

Statue of Unknown Origin c. 1800-1900

Germanic Invasions Germans were settled agriculturalists and sophisticated metalworkers

Traded with Romans Settled inside the empire Adopted Arian Christianity

Goths settled along Danube 378 Goths revolted Theodosius accommodated Goth demands for food and land Alaric invaded Rome in 410 476 last Roman Emperor toppled by army of Germans, Huns and

Roman soldiers

Sack of Rome by the Visigoths, J.N. Silvestre, 1890

Alaric

Causes of Collapse of Western Roman Empire

Military failure

Economic failure

Division of Empire

Invader Kingdoms collected taxes but did not pay them to Rome

People moved out

Roman Institutions Roman cities survived in Gaul and Spain

Roman agricultural patterns remained

Roman aristocrats dominated civic life

Roman law

Roman authority in the Christian Church

Justinian

Emperor of Byzantium Planned to re-conquer Western Roman Empire

Enormous cost Insufficient manpower Distracted attention from dangers in the east

Codified Roman Law

Late Antiquity Assimilation of Roman culture by Barbarians

Migrations caused frontiers of empire to be indistinguishable from interiors of Western Empire Learned culture of Greek and Roman world extended to larger numbers of people Increasingly Christian character of Roman world

Fusion of Christian culture and late Roman governance Still centered around Mediterranean Sea

Contours of the Roman Empire Between 285 and 475

Theodosius I

Emperor from 379-395

• Made Nicene Christianity the official religion within the Roman Empire.

• Persecuted non-Nicene Christian sects and traditional Roman and Pagan religious practitioners.

• Last emperor to rule over both eastern and Western Roman Empire. He divided the rule of the eastern and western empire to his two sons and it was never again united.

• Likely outlawed the Olympic games which ended in 393. They were not reinstated until 1896.

Bibliography http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/etruscans.htm

Virgil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia by Jean-Joseph Taillasson 1787 (National Gallery, London)

The Story of Lucretia by Sandro Botticelli (1500-1501) Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston

Cincinnatus leaves the plow for the Roman dictatorship - Juan Antonio Ribera, c. 1806