HISTORIA DE LA EVOLUCIN DE LA DIDCTICA DE LAS LENGUAS
EXTRANJERAS: DE LOS MTODOS DE GRAMTICA- TRADUCCIN A LOS ENFOQUES
ACTUALES. Tema 13
Slide 2
INTRODUCTION 1. Ways of teaching English have been shaped by
developments in many disciplines including linguistics, psychology
and education. 2. It is important to remember that most second
language learning, both in the past and today, has not been
influenced by any methodology. Monolingualism is the exception
rather than the norm. Most second languages are still learnt
informally. Formal methodologies have tried to copy certain
features of informal 2LL. 3. While the term method might be used to
describe any practical procedure for teaching a language, the term
methodology implies the existence of a set of procedures related by
an underlying theory of teaching and learning language.
Slide 3
We are going to examine each of the methods by considering
three questions: - What is the desired outcome? - What model of
language is it based on? - What model of learning is it based
on?
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HISTORICAL/PRE-WORLD WAR II GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD By the
19th century, grammar-translation was the dominant methodology.
This was because of the importance given to the study of Greek and
Latin in schools. The study of Latin and Greek at this time focused
on accessing their literature by consciously memorizing the
grammatical rules and lexical items of the target language. The
basic unit of the study was the sentence and, as the name of the
methodology would suggest, learners spent a lot of time translating
both into and from the target language. Such techniques were not
only thought to help learning, but also to develop mental
discipline.
Slide 5
Reviewing the principles of Grammar-Translation Method 1.
Goals. Fundamental purpose of foreign language learning is to be
able to read literature written in the target language. To do this,
students need to learn grammar and vocabulary. 2. Teacher's role.
The teacher is the authority in the classroom. 3. Teaching/learning
process Translation. Grammar is studied deductively. Memorizing
grammatical paradigms and native-language equivalents. 4.
Student-teacher interaction. Most of the interaction in the class
is from the teacher to the students. 5. Language and culture.
Literary language is considered superior to spoken language and
therefore is the one that students study. Culture is vied as
consisting of literature and fine arts. 6. Language areas that are
emphasized. Vocabulary and grammar. Reading and writing are primary
skills the students work on. 7. The role of the students native
language. Students native language is used widely in the class. 8.
Evaluation. Written tests with translation tasks and grammar
exercise.
Slide 6
THE REFORM MOVEMENT The 19th century saw a gradual
disillusionment with grammar-translation method. So, by the end of
the 19th century ideas which were previously had only a limited
impact became more widely promoted. Central to this was the Reform
Movement, an international movement which grew out of the formation
of the International Phonetic Association in 1886. The key
principles of the Reform Movement were: the primacy of speech, the
centrality of the connected text as the kernel of the
teaching-learning process, and the absolute priority of an oral
methodology in the classroom. (Howatt, 1984) It is important to
note that it is not just the ideas of the Reform Movement which are
significant, it is approach also shaped developments which
followed, such as Direct Method, Oral Approach and Audio-Lingual
Approach.
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DIRECT METHOD The Direct method, which arrived at the end of
the nineteenth century, was the product of a reform movement which
was reacting to the restrictions of Grammar-Translation. This
method was popularized as the Berlitz Method by Maxilillian
Berlitz. Translation was abandoned in favour of the teacher and the
students speaking together. The sentence was still the main object
of interest, and accuracy was all important. Crucially, it was
considered vitally important that only the target language should
be used in the classroom. Reviewing the principles of Direct Method
1. Goals. Communication in the target language. Students learn to
think in the target language. 2. Teacher's role. The students role
is less passive than in the Grammar-Translation Method. The teacher
and the students are seen like partners.
Slide 8
3. Teaching/learning process Students need to associate meaning
and the target language directly. No translation is used. Students
speak in the target language and communicate as if they were in
real situations. The syllabus is based in topics or situations.
Grammar is taught inductively. 4. Student-teacher interaction.
Interaction goes both ways, from teacher to student and vice versa.
5. Language and culture. Language is primarily spoken. Students
study common, everyday speech. 6. Language areas that are
emphasized. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Oral
communication is seen as basic, although all four skills are worked
on. 7. The role of the students native language. Not used. When
behaviourist accounts of language learning became popular in the
1920s and 1930s, the Direct method morphed into the Audiolingual
method in the USA and Oral Approach (Situational Approach) in the
UK.
Slide 9
AUDIO-LINGUALISM AND SITUATIONAL APPROACH The Second World War
provided a great spur to language teaching, especially in the USA.
The Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP) was established in
1942 to provide the large number of foreign language speakers
required by the military. This programme influenced the development
of what became known as Audio- Lingualism. Audio-Lingualism (ALM)
saw itself as the first scientific language teaching methodology.
The linguistic principles of audio-lingualism are based on those of
structural linguistics: language is primarily oral and it is a
rule-governed system understandable in terms of increasing levels
of complexity (Charles Fried). The other important strand of
Audio-Lingualism was that of a behaviourist psychology.
Behaviourist models of learning essentially saw language as a
behavioural skill where learners receive a stimulus (such as a cue
in a drill), respond (by providing the correct utterance) and then
have correct responses reinforced. Error was not tolerated as it
was thought that this will lead to the errors being reinforced (bad
habits).
Slide 10
Language Teaching Methods: Audio-Lingual Method (3:08)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pz0TPDUz3FU
Slide 11
This method has been subsequently attacked for its promotion of
mindless repetition over communication. This is rather unfair as it
saw communication as being its goal. From these roots,
Audio-Lingualism developed into a system which is still used in
many parts of the world. However, as a coherent, self-contained
system it has no proponents today. Its theoretical basis was
demolished when Chomsky exposed his theory, showing that language
is not just a learnt habit but something created by the speaker
using an innate language facility. Reviewing the principles of
Audio-Lingual Method 1. Goals. Communication in the target
language. Language should be learnt automatically. The students
achieve this by forming new habits in the target language. 2.
Teacher's role. The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing
and controlling the language behaviour. She is also responsible for
providing a good model for imitation.
Slide 12
3. Teaching/learning process New vocabulary and structural
pattern are presented through dialogues. The dialogues are learned
through imitation and repetition. Drills are conducted based upon
the patterns presented in the dialogue. Students successful
responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the
examples given. 4. Student-teacher interaction. Student-student
interaction in chain drills, but this interaction is teacher
directed. 5. Language and culture. Everyday speech is emphasized.
The level of complexity of the speech is graded. Culture consists
of the everyday behaviour and lifestyle of the target language
speakers. 6. Language areas that are emphasized. The natural order
of skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing. The oral/aural
skills receive most of the attention. Pronunciation is taught from
the beginning, often in language laboratories. 7. The role of the
students native language. The habits of the students native
language are thought to interfere the target language acquisition.
Therefore, the target language is used in the class. 8. Correction
of errors Students errors are to be avoided.
Slide 13
HUMANISTIC METHODOLOGIES During the 1970s a number of
methodologies appeared which were labelled as Humanistic. This
label applies to those methodologies which see the learner as a
whole person and the classroom as an environment where more than
transfer of knowledge occurs (Moskowitz, 1978). Although none of
them have become widely popular, they are worthy of some attention
as they attempts to approach language learning from directions
other than linguistics. We will have a look at four methodologies:
THE SILENT WAY COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING SUGGESTOPEDIA TOTAL
PHYSICAL RESPONSE
Slide 14
THE SILENT WAY Galeb Gattengo proposed the Silent Way in two
publications in 1970. The Silent Way's goals are self expression in
the target language, learner independence and the development of
the learner's own facility to assess correctness. The way they are
to be achieved is unique. The roles of teachers and learners are
the key to this. Teachers, silent most of the time, should be
constantly monitoring the learners. Learners are expected to be
responsible for their own learning, to make their own
generalizations from the language presented to them and to
self-assess their own input. Peer correction is encouraged. It is
also thought that learners can learn what they have been exposed to
while they are sleeping. Silent Way lessons are characterized by
the use of Cuisenaire rods (coloured wooden rods of different
lengths), Fidel charts (colour coded pronunciation charts),
vocabulary charts and the fact that the teacher is silent whenever
possible. The Silent Way takes an essentially traditional
structural view of language. But it sees the spoken language as
paramount. Reading and writing are not explicitly taught. Language
Teaching Methods: The Silent Way
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xqLzbLCpack
Slide 15
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE TEACHING CLL is the name given to a teaching
methodology developed by Charles Curran in the 1970s based on
psychological counselling techniques. The teacher acts as the
councellor, and the learners are the clients. In practice this
means that the teacher provides a translation of what the learners
wish to say from their L1 to the target language, allowing the
learners to interact using the target language. It is important to
create an unthreatening supportive atmosphere within the classroom
as it seen to be crucial for successful learning. The relationship
teacher-learner should include the discussion of the learners
feeling about the learning process. The relationship could be
compared to that of a parent helping a child to attain greater
levels of independence. The desired outcome: communicate in the
target language + learn about his/her learning and take
responsibility for it. Initially CLL was not based on any new
theories of language. Traditional structural syllabus was used.
Later, La Forge, Currans successor in promoting CLL, suggested a
theory of language which sees language as a social process.
Language Teaching Methods: Community Language Teaching
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tx_we_P3Pic
Slide 16
SUGGESTOPEDIA Suggestopedia, the system designed by Georgy
Lozanov, is perhaps the best known humanistic method due to the
media interest it attracted and the extent of the claims made by
its proponents. It is famous for its use of music to create a
non-threatening atmosphere conductive to learning. Focus on
creating the appropriate mental state to facilitate learning.
Lozanov claimed that language learning based on his method could be
25 times more effective than the other methods. It is its model and
conditions of learning that characterize Suggestopedia the creation
of the right learning environment and the fact that learners are
expected to have faith in the system and accept that they are in
childlike situation where they follow the teacher. Language
Teaching Methods: Suggestopedia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3rkrvRlty5M
Slide 17
TOTAL PHYSICAL APPROACH Total Physical Approach (TPR) is a
learning teaching methodology proposed by James Asher throughout
the second half of the 1960s and 1970s. It is distinguishing
feature is the linking of language learning with physical movement.
TPR also draws on models of first acquisition, in particular the
ideas that comprehension comes before output and that early
learning is associated with concrete not with abstract. Learners
respond physically to commands given by the teacher. Learner output
is not required until the learner feels he/she is ready.
Limitations: used at the beginning level. Various techniques of
this method still are widely used by many CLT teachers. TPR is not
based on any model of the language. Simple structure are usually
selected and vocabulary is selected for its relevance to learners
needs. TPR proponents claims that meaning is considered paramount.
The teacher directs the lesson. The materials to be taught are
selected by the teacher. The learner is required to listen and act
upon the instructions given. The method clearly has some links with
habit- formation theories of language-learning. The method is
considered to be humanistic because it is believed to reduce the
stress.
Slide 18
Humanism in practice Paul Bress Teaching 'language items' In an
attempt to be a humanistic language teacher myself, I introduce
every new language item at the optimum time of readiness for my
class. I firstly elicit the target language. This fosters a sense
of co-operation between the students and me. Then I try to make the
meaning of the language items as clear as possible by using a
number of techniques (e.g. pictures, mime, or a mini-explanation).
Such work on the concept of the target language needs to be
repeated later in a way that is appropriate to the abilities and
progress of the group. At the appropriate time, students also need
to practise speech production by saying or writing the target
language. After enough practice, through both teacher-centred and
student-centred phases, the student should gradually learn the
target language. The student will have fundamentally changed.
Teaching skills As I want my classes to be able to understand the
'gist' of a spoken interaction, I make sure that they are mentally
prepared for it. This means that: The 'text' is not dauntingly hard
for them I create the right conditions for understanding the text
by, for example, arousing interest and pre-teaching lexis Then, by
setting an appropriate task I am setting a problem for the students
to solve. If I can steer my students towards focusing on the main
points of the text then I am enabling learners to become more
successful listeners. After this, students can be encouraged to
carry out their own, related, role plays, with the result that
students' ability to carry out certain situation-specific
interactions will be enhanced. It's worth noting that these
principles relate to reading texts too! The teacher's status It
cannot be denied that the teacher plays a different role from that
of his/her students. We each have a particular job. This does not
mean, though, that we have higher status. We are certainly not in
the classroom to order people around. I try to provide students
with learning opportunities, which the students are free to take or
not. However, if a student chooses not to take up an opportunity,
and then goes on to become a malign influence in class, I then ask
the rest of the class if their learning is being affected and
whether they want the offending student to stay in class or not. I
then have the authority to ask the student to leave. Flexibility
Without flexibility, a teacher cannot teach humanistically, because
students will never learn completely in step with any designated
syllabus. This is why I always make a point of observing my
students very carefully so that I know when to introduce certain
tasks, according to the progress they're making. The same applies
to lesson plans. I know that if I plough on through my plan
regardless of how my students are responding, some students will be
lost forever and lose confidence both in me and their own ability
to learn English.
Slide 19
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING CLT can be said to be the
current dominant methodology. Even in countries where CLT has not
been adopted in the state sector, most ministries of education
appear to be moving in its direction. CLT has become un umbrella
term which covers a wide range of classroom practices. Desired
outcome: to communicate successfully in the target language in real
situations, rather than have a conscious understanding of the rules
governing the language. Model of language: Language as it is used
rather than an abstract system. The concept of the communicative
competence (Widdowson, Hymes, Swain). A theoretical model was
developed to include ideas about how language is actually used to
communicate in real life situations. The Chomskys idea about a
distinction between competence (what learner knows) and performance
(what he does). This ideas was developed to include ideas of
appropriacy and the social use of language, giving rise to the
concept of communicative competence. Hymes (1971) four point model
of communicative competence includes both what is speaker knows and
is able to use.
Slide 20
CLT has been described as an approach that aims to: a) make
communicative competence the goal of language teaching b) develop
procedures for the teaching of the four skills that acknowledge the
interdependence of language and communication (Richards and
Rogers). These basic principles have been applied in a variety of
ways. However, Richards and Rogers have isolated three key elements
of CLT classroom practice and the theory of learning: - the
communication principle: activities that promote real communication
promote learning. - the task principle: activities in which
language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote
learning. - the meaningfulness principle: language that is
meaningful to the learner support the learning process.
Slide 21
IMMERSION PROGRRAMMES AND THE NATURAL APPROACH Parallel to the
development of CLT in the late 1970s and early 1980 another
methodology was being developed which was based on studied of
students in Canadian immersion programmes. This methodology was
called the Natural Approach and its proponents were Steven Krashen
and Tracy Terrell. The Canadian immersion programme dates back to
the 1960s, but really became widespread in the 1970 s and 1980s. It
marked a move away from teaching of French in Canadian schools to
the teaching in French of other subjects. It was felt that while
the content would be clear to the students through the context,
they would be acquire the language through exposure. The experiment
led to high level of proficiency in target language in the areas of
discourse and strategic competence. However, they have not been
successful in promoting grammatical proficiency. In 1983 Krashen
and Terrell published The Natural Approach, containing Krashns
theoretical perspectives and Terellss guidelines for their
classroom application. They see their approach as similar to the
other communicative approaches.
Slide 22
The Natural Approach uniqueness lies in its model of learning.
Krashen drew a distinction between conscious learning and
acquisition. Only language which is acquired is seen as being
available for natural language use. Language which has been learnt
can be used to monitor and correct output based on acquired
learning, but that is all. KRASHENS MAIN IDEAS -Learners acquire
new language by being exposed to comprehensible input. Such input
should be comprehensible for the learner but contain language just
above the learner's current level. -Only comprehensible input
facilitates acquisition, learner output is essentially irrelevant.
- The Natural order Hypothesis: learners are only available to
acquire new grammatical structures in certain order. It is based on
studies of children learning their L1 which suggested a certain
order of acquisition. - The Affective Filter: learners who were not
motivated, lacked confidence or who were anxious would not do as
well as motivated, confident and relaxed. Learning is influenced by
the learner's emotional state, an idea shared by humanistic
approaches. Most of Krashens ideas were debated and criticized.
However, we should acknowledge its role in increasing our
understanding of the language learning process. Krashens model of
language learning was an attempt to find a broad universal
framework and although it is not widely accepted now, it has acted
as a sour for a great deal of subsequent thinking and debate.
NATURAL APPROACH https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K2ZxixAzcek
Slide 23
POST COMMUNICATIVE METHODS: TASK BASED LEARNING (TBL),
TEXT-BASED TEACHING AND CONTENT BASED APPROACH Task based learning
of languages is currently attracting a lot of attention. The
definition of this methodology is not fixed. The common idea:
giving learners tasks to transact, rather than items to learn,
provides an environment which best promotes the natural language
learning process. (Foster, 1999) The Bangalore Project (Bangalore
Communicational Teaching Programme) in India. It was established by
N.S. Prabhu in 1979 and formed the basis of his Second Language
Pedagogy (Prabhu, 1987). Prabhus version of TBL was build around a
syllabus which contained a series of task in the form of
problem-solving activities. Grammar is constructed through a focus
on meaning. This approach focuses on the input the students receive
and the cognitive processing which they required to carry out.
Unlike the other TBL approaches it does not focus on interaction as
a facilitator of acquisition. Groupwork is allowed, but not
actively encouraged. He found that the best activities were
reasoning-gap activities, which involve deriving new information
from given information through processes of deduction, reasoning,
etc.
Slide 24
TEXT-BASED TEACHING Another new post-CLT approach has been
text-based teaching (also known as genre-based). Unlike TBL, which
we saw grew out of a model of learning, text based learning grew
out of a model of language, namely Systemic-Functional Grammar.
This approach can be summarised in the following observation:
Language occurs as a whole texts which are embedded in the social
contexts in which they are used. People learn language through
working with whole texts. (Feez 1998) This approach was developed
and still highly applied in Australia for teaching migrants, as
well as more generally in language and literacy programmes. English
for Academic Purposes (EAP) programmes have also been influences by
its innovations. Systemic-Functional Grammar describes language not
only in terms of linguistic system, but relates it to the social
interaction and culture in which it is used. This model of language
was first proposed by Halliday. And also greatly influenced CLT
(Haliday 1973).
Slide 25
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION Content-based instruction (CBI) is
teaching organized around the content or information that students
will acquire, and not around the linguistic or other type of
syllabus. CBI is built on the principles of Communicative Language
Teaching. Classroom needs to be filled with real and meaningful
communication where information is exchanged. Content-based
instruction is based in two principles: People learn a second
language more successfully when they use the language as a means of
acquiring information, rather than as an end in it. It better
reflects learners needs for learning a second language. Many
ESL,EFL programs focus on preparing students for academic studies.
Theory of Language: CBI sees language as combination of several
skills used together. Grammar is seen as a component of other
skills. Theory of learning: CBI makes an assumption that learners
learn best when they are given language in a meaningful,
contextualized form with the primary focus on acquiring
information.