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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am feeling highly elated to work on the topic “The Chola

Administration” under the guidance of my HISTORY teacher. I am very

grateful to her for her exemplary guidance. I would like to enlighten my

readers regarding this topic and I hope I have tried my best to pave the way for

bringing more luminosity to this topic.

I also want to thank all of my friends, without whose cooperation

this project was not possible. Apart from all these, I want to give special

thanks to the librarian of my university who made every relevant materials

regarding to my topic available to me at the time of my busy research work

and gave me assistance. And at last I am very much obliged to the God

who provided me the potential for the rigorous research work.

At finally yet importantly I would like to thank my parents for the

financial support.

-----------Thanking you

Nidhi Navneet

C.N.L.U.




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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODS

The project is basically based on the doctrinal method of research as no field

work is done on this topic.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES The aim of the project is to present a detailed study of „The Chola

Administration‟ through available texts and different writings, articles &

sources. Through this project, the researcher is trying to know more about the

administrative procedures of Cholas Empire, their functioning and government.

SOURCES OF DATA The whole project is made with the use of secondary source. The followingsecondary sources of data have been used in the project-

1. Articles

2. Books

3. Websites

METHOD OF WRITING

The method of writing followed in the course of this research paper is primarily

analytical.

MODE OF CITATION

The researcher has followed a uniform mode of citation throughout the course of

this research paper.

TYPE OF STUDY For this topic, the researcher has opted for Descriptive and Explanatory type of

study as in this topic; the researcher is providing the descriptions of the existing

facts.








5

Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century.3

Karikala Chola4

stands as

the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra

Chola and Kulothunga Chola I ruled as notable emperors of the medieval

Cholas. The Cholas reached the height of their power during the tenth, eleventhand twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son

Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in

Asia. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched

the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also

successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.

The notable cities of the Cholas were Tanjore, Trichanapolis,

Kumbakonam. The capital of the Chola empire was Gangaikondacholapuram

which was built by Rajendra-I who took the title of Gangaikondachola which

means the conqueror of Ganga. This capital is said to have existed between 11

and 12 century AD. The two centres of this period which depict the very

evidence of the Chola rule was PUHAR on the coast and the PURAIYUR

island.

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India came, for the first time,

brought under a single government5, when a reform movement attempted to face

and solve the problems of public administration. The Chola rule witnessed the

prosperity of trade and commerce. The Chola rule witnessed a large scale

development in all spheres of life. Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples,

literature and monuments speak much about the social, economic and religious

life of the people during the Chola period. The Chola kings followed a highly

systematised and efficient system of administration. The people of the Chola

Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration. The administration of

the Chola empire is going to be described in the subsequent chapters.

3The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to a bloody end with the assassination of

Virarajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I a distant relation to the main Chola line through marriage ascended the

throne in 1070.4

Majumdar, p 1375The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence

occured during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 – 1614)

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Karikala_Chola


http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ganges

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ganges







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plates and Thiruvalangadu copper plates give useful information‟s about theCholas.

Monuments: Monuments are useful source of information of the Chola

empire.The Brahadeeswarar temple of Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuramtemple, Airavateesvarar temple of Dharasuram and the Kambagareswarar

temple in Thirupuvanam are some of the important monuments of the Cholas.

Numismatic Sources

The Chola kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Specimen of gold coins is

extremely rare. Silver and copper coins are found in plenty.

Figure of tiger was engraved as the Chola emblem on every Chola coin issuedduring that period. Names of the Chola Kings are also engraved on chola coins.Chola Coins is useful to fix the chronology of the Chola rulers. Coins are also

useful to study the social and economic condition of the Chola period.

Literature

Literature sources are very useful for the study of both Sangam Cholas and later

Cholas. Sekkilar‟s Periyapuranam deals with the life of Saiva devotees. Sekkilar

was a contemporary of Kulothunga II Kalingathuparani of Jayamkondan, three

Ulas and the Kulothungan pillai tamil of Ottakoothar give useful information‟sabout the Cholas. Other literary works like Veerasoliyam. Sthalapuranam.Navachola charitham and Cholavamsa charitham speak about the early Cholas.

Foreign sources

Mahavamsam the Ceylon literature talks about the relationship between the

early Chola country and Ceylon kingdom. European traveler Marcopolo andforeign writer Megasthanese give interesting information‟s about the Cholas. Al-beruni a Muslim historian writes about the Cholas.

An early silver coin of Uttama

Chola found in Sri Lanka showing

the Tiger emblem of the Cholas




8

The Rulers of Chola Dynasty

There are descriptions of various rulers belonging to the Chola Dynasty, there is

a long lineage but many of them didn‟t get much recognition. The Sangam

literature also testifies the rule of several Chola rulers. The first ruler is said tobe the feudatories of Pallavas of Kanchi, he was Vijalaya Chola.

Vijayalaya: (850-870 AD). In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya8

founded the

dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the conflict

between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his

capital and thus, was also called the master of Tanjore. He was succeeded by hisson Aditya-I.

Aditya-I: He defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana,

the Kongu ruler.He was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I.

Parantaka-I: He ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached

supremacy under his reign. He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon

conquered the Vadumbas. He swept away all the traces of Pallavas power, but

received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.

Sunder Chola: He ruled between 957-973 AD. Not much information is

available about him. He is succeeded by Rajaraja-I.

Rajaraja Chola: (985-1014 AD). He was the one of the imperialistic and

greatest rulers of South India. He was known as „Rajaraja, the Great‟. Under therule of Rajaraja, the Chola kingdom grew into an extensive

and well knit pire. It maintained diplomatic ties with

countries as distant as Burma (now Myanmar), China andMalaysia across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja I with the help of

his able son Rajendra conquered nearly the whole of the

present Madras Presidency. He defeated the eastern

Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas

of Mysore. He was an able administrator and also a great

builder. Rajaraja chola built a magnificent temple at Tanjore,which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.

8The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga

Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna.






10

Pandyan kingdom had already weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava chief

declared independence. The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among

themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire ceased to existfor ever.

THE GENEOLOGICAL TABLE

Vijayalaya

Aditya-I

Parantaka-I

Rajaditya- I Arinjaya

Parantaka-II

Aditya-II Rajaraja-I

Rajendra-I

Rajadhiraja-I

Rajendradeva-II

Rajamahendra

Virarajendra

Adhi-Rajendra

Dau. Ammangadevi

Rajendra-III

RajarajaMummadi-

CholaVira Chola

VikramaChola

Kulottungachola

Dau.Kundavva




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The Chola Administration

The Chola kings followed a highly systematised and efficient system of‟administration. The details of this administration were based primarily on

literary sources. The form of government was usually hereditary which was

occasionally modified by the ruling kings choice as „Yuvaraj‟. The coronation

was celebrated with „pomp and show‟ at different places like Tanjore,Gangaikondacholapuram, and other places. The entire Tanjore district, parts

of‟Trichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of‟ the CholaMandalam. Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire embraced the entire

south Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded

to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengifrontier. Although Vengi had a separate political existence, its intimate

connection to the Chola Empire extended, for all practical purposes, the Chola

dominion to the banks of the Godavari river11

. Tanjore was the capital of the

Cholas.

The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central

Government, Provincial Government and Local Government. The

efficient Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many

historians and rulers.

1. The Central Administration

The Central Government remained under the headship of the King.

Administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical12

. The king was a benevolent

dictator and the supreme commander. He issued oral commands to responsible

officers when representations were made to him. In the tasks of administration

and in executing his orders a powerful bureaucracy assisted the king. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of Central

Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower

officials were called Siruntaram. The justice of the orders of the King

depends on the goodness of the man and in his belief in a sense of righteousness.

UDAN-KUTTAM were the high officials of the state and they served as the

intermediaries between the king and the regular Bureaucrats. KANKANIS were

the supervisors who are the agents of central department of control and audit.

11Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 448

12 Kulke and Rothermund, p 104




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They also served as a check on the officers of various departments in each

locality. As regards the methods of appointment including the promotions of

these officers, we have very less information.

Role of the King in Chola Administration

The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queenswere considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The

Chola kingship was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle

that eldest son should succeed the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent

was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs enjoyed enormous powers and

privileges. The Chola kings took up titles like Chakrvartigal (or Chakravarti).

which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. The

palace servants were called as „Vellams‟ and they were settled in separatequarters in the city. Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem. The Chola

kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth13

. The temples acted

not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefitingtheir entire community

14.

All handles and levers of the administration were controlled by King as

he enjoyed absolute power. Council of ministers and officials took active part in

running the administration of Central Government. The Chola administration

system was a highly centralised one. The feudal chiefs were kept away from

administration. The government had a direct link with the peasants instead of the

feudatories. The Chola kings had adopted the Yuvaraja during king‟s rule. The

orders of the kings were written and copies of it would be sent to respectivedepartments and officers. The royal priest was the reliable advisor of the King.

Law and Order Under Cholas

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. The Chola king

was the chief justice. The Chola kings gave enough care for the judicial

administration. Justice was administered through village courts, royal courtsand caste panchayats. Minor disputes were settled at the village level. Village

assemblies exercised large powers in deciding local disputes. Punishment was in

the form of fines or donation for some charitable purpose. Crimes such as

manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as

treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in

these cases was either execution or confiscation of property. Disputes were

13 Vasudevan, pp 20 – 2214

Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of thewealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and

contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. – Keay, pp 217 – 218




13

settled with proper evidences. Punishments were awarded by the judicial

officers.

Military Administration of Cholas

The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola army consisted of

elephant, cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training.Commanders enjoyed the ranks of NAYAKS and SENAPATHIS.

KARUMIGAL and PANI-MAKKAL are the general terms given to the

officials. The exact functions of the officials are not given in the records. The

army was divided into 70 regiments. The Chola army had 60,000 elephants. The

Chola kings defeated the Cheras at Kandalur salai. The kings of Ceylon and

Maldives were also defeated. The Chola navy was formidable one in South

India. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled Coromandal andMalabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola lake. The Chola army and

navy together had 1,50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary

chieftains also joined Chola army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was

led by the King or Yuvaraja. The king was the commander of army and navy

which acted under his instructions. They helped the king in temple protectionand revenue collection other than participating in a war.

Revenue System under Cholas

The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola

Government. Proper land survey was made. „PURAVU-VARI-TINAIK-

KALAM‟, this is the term given for Land Revenue Department, which ismentioned in the literary evidences. Agriculture was the principle occupation of the people, the land tax was termed as „IRAI-KUDIGAL‟. The taxes werecollected in cash or kind which was the chief source of revenue.

Lands were classified as taxable land and non taxable land. There were

many grades in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed according to these

grades. Generally 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in cash or inkind or both according to the convenience of the farmers. Besides land revenue,

there were some other sources of income like customs and tolls. Taxes on mines,ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax and house tax were

also collected. Many other taxes were levied. Tax burden was more on the

society. State revenue was utilized in public works, in construction, maintenance

of institutions and temples. In the village and town, the residential part of the

village , temples, tanks, burning grounds and others were exempted from all

taxes. Many irrigation projects were undertaken by the Chola kings like dam

construction. Lake Cholagangam was an artificial reservoir build during the






15

The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three

categories: the UR consisted of the tax paying residents of an ordinary village;

the SABHA was restricted to the Brahmans of the village or else was found

exclusively in villages gifted to Brahmans; and finally, the NAGARAM was

found more commonly in trade centers. In some villages the Ur and the Sabhawere found together. Very large villages had two Urs if this was more

convenient for their functioning. The working of these assemblies differed

according to local conditions. The Ur was open to all male adults of the village

but in affect the older members took a more prominent part, some of them

forming a small executive body for routine matters. The Sabha had the samesystem and in addition had the power to constitute smaller committees of any

size from among its members.

Generally mandalams or provinces were named after the original names orthe titles of the Chola kings. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close

relatives of kings were appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant

touch with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from the king.

They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had a large number of officials

to assist them in the work of administration.

There were officials of various grades organized in higher and lower ranks.

Every village was a self-governing unit. The general assembly was classifiedinto tax paying villagers, Brahmins and traders. The central government officers

examined accounts and supervised the work of the tax paying villagers. Thevillage assemblies received gifts from rich men or from king for developmental

activities. The feudatories were unable to impede in the village management.

Their job was very clerical in the sense it was a mere collection of taxes and

passing the share to the King. The land revenue was core of public finance,

thereby assessment of revenue being done carefully. Rajaraja I had introduced

periodical land surveys. Tax exemptions were carefully noted. The village as a

whole was responsible for payment of entire tax of a village. The other revenuesources were professional tax, salt tax, tax on goods and so on.

3. Local Administration

The most important feature of the Chola administration was the local

administration at districts, towns and villages level. Uttaramerur inscriptions

speak much about the Chola administration. Village autonomy was the most

unique feature of Chola administrative system.

Nadu

http://www.indianetzone.com/21/brahmins_indian_caste.htm

http://www.indianetzone.com/50/rajaraja_ii.htm

http://www.indianetzone.com/50/rajaraja_ii.htm

http://www.indianetzone.com/21/brahmins_indian_caste.htm




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Nadu was one of the important administrative units of the Cholas. Nadus

had representative assemblies. The heads of the nadus were called Nattars. The

council of nadu was called nattavai. Representatives of the Nattavais and nattars

promoted agriculture. They also took care of the protection of the people and tax

collection.

Village administration

The lowest unit of the Chola administration was the village unit. The

entire responsibility of the village administration was in the hands of the village

assembly called Grama Sabha. The village assemblies looked after the

maintenance of peace, tanks, roads, public ponds revenue collection, judiciary,

education and temples. The village assemblies were in charge of the payment of

taxes due from the villages to the treasury. They regulated public markets andhelped people at times of famine and flood. Assemblies provided provisions for

education. The village assemblies possessed absolute authority over the affairs

of villages. They maintained law and order in every village. Brahmin settlementwas called Chathurvedi mangalam.

Variyams

Village Assemblies carried on village administration effectively with the

help of variyams. Male members of the society were the members of these

variyams. Composition of these variyams, qualification and durations of

membership differed from village to village. There were many variyams in

every village. Niyaya variyam administered justice, Thottavariyam looked after

flower gardens. The Dharma variyam looked after charities and temples.Erivariyam was in charge of tanks and water supply. The pon variyam was in

charge of the finance. The Gramakariya variyam looked after the works of all

committees. The members of these varivams were known as “Varivaperumakkal

They rendered honorary service. The village officials were paid salary either in

cash or in kind. Good functioning of these variams increased the efficiency of

the local administration of the Cholas.

Kudavolai System

Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about Kudavolai system. This system was a

very notable and unique feature of the village administration of the Cholas.

There were 30 wards in each village. A representative for each ward was elected

through Kudavolai system. Names of the contestants from whom one could be

chosen were written on palm leaf tickets. These palm leaves were put into a pot

and shuffled. A small boy picked up palm leaves one by one from the pot.Persons whose name tickets were picked up by the boy were declared elected.








19

Tribhuvanam. The mutt of Thiruvavaduturai had run a school of medicine.

Apart from the medical and religious education, general education was alsoimparted. Scholarships were given to students.

Status of Women

Women were given high status and freedom in the Chola society. Chastity and

modesty were considered important. The women of upper classes enjoyed the

right to property. Some queens were associated with the admimstration of the

kingdom. Queens gave liberal donations to temples. Queen Sembian Mahadevi

and Kundavai were patrons of temples. Monogamy was prevalent in society.Less skilled jobs were given to female laborers.

During the Chola period Sati was commonly practiced among the women of royal family. Women were also appointed as officers in the Chola Government.

There were child marriages among the higher castes. Women who were talentedin music and dance were attached to the temples. They performed programs

during festival times. There were also women slaves. Writings of Morcopolo

and some inscriptions speak about the position of women during the Cholaperiod.

Economic Conditions Under Cholas

The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and commerce. Income through

agriculture yield, land tax, trade tax and other taxes were main revenue of the

Government. King was the owner of all public land. Special officers were

appointed to look into the income and expenditure of the state. Governmentmoney was spent on public works, defense, justice, education, temples,

irrigation, police, king and his households, secretariat etc., The Chola kings

issued gold, silver and copper coins. Merchant guilds were functioning to take

care for the welfare of the merchants and commerce. The Chola economy

mainly depended on agriculture and trade. Agriculture was the main occupationof the people. The ownership of the land had a high social value. The landlords

were members of the village administrative units. Generally the economiccondition of the people during the Chola period was good.

Foreign Trade

According to information‟s given by writer‟s like Ibin Batuta and Morcopolo,

the Cholas had trade relationship with China and other South East Asian

countries. Elephants, cardamom, cotton, textile were exported. Arabian horses

were imported. Mahabalipuram, Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai were Cholaports which were useful for foreign trade. The liberal taxation policies of King






21

CONCLUSION

The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamil-nad since the first century

A.D. Towards the middle of the ninth century, one of them conquered the region

of Tanjore (the heart of Tamil-nad), declared himself the ruler of an independent

state, and sought to establish his status by claiming descent from the Solar race.

With the passage of time because of weak successive rulers, the chola

power rapidly declined. The power of the Cholas declined around the twelfthcentury with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an

end towards the end of the thirteenth century. From the 4th

to the 9th

century, the

cholas played a very marginal but effective part in the South India‟s history.

The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil

literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of

Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings avidly built temples,

envisioned them in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also ascentres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralized form of government

and established a disciplined bureaucracy. They were known for their trade

practices and land surveys done by Rajaraja-I and Kulottunga-I. Also, their

administrative policies were known for their effectiveness at both the central and

provincial level. The local self government was known as the best part of Chola

Administration. Chola political system was the only one which still maintained

contact with the cultivator on a wild scale, and retained characteristics of a

centrally organized administration.

The Chola government during the imperial period (850-1200 CE) was

marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness. Cholas were the first dynasty who

tried to bring the entire South India under a common rule and to a great extent

succeeded in their efforts. Although the form and protocols of that government

cannot be compared to a contemporary form of government, the history of the

Chola empire belongs to a happy age in their history and great things wereachieved by the government and the people. Development of local self

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Temple

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Temple






23

people as they had to pay different taxes and custom tolls along with the land tax

which was the main source of revenue. Still the people were happy with the

administration as the Chola period is somewhere attributed as the golden period.

Because of the paucity of authentic and elaborative sources which could

give detailed information, not much can be said about the Chola empire. But

with the help of the available sources, it could be said that Cholas managed to

operate their empire with efficient local, provincial and central level

administration.




Bibliography

List of sites-

1. http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html

2. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho

la_local_administration.php

3. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho

la_administration.php

4. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chola_Dynasty

5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty

List of books-

1. „A History of South India‟, K.A. Nilakanta Shastri

2. „Ancient India‟, V.D. mahajan 3. „An advanced history of India‟, R.C. Majumdar,

H.C.Raychaudhuri & Kalinkinkar Dutta

4. „A History of India‟, Burton Stein

5. „India‟s Ancient Past‟, R.S. Sharma

http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html

http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/chola_local_administration.php




http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/chola_administration.php




http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chola_Dynasty




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty









http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html

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