History of Forensic Science
Forensic Science
Application of science to the criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system
The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve (separate) criminal cases
1235: Sung Tzu solved a murder by instructing all suspects to bring their sickles to one location. Flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed.The book also offered advice on how to distinguish between a drowning (water in the lungs) and strangulation (broken neck cartilage).
Noticed no ashes in corpse, used pigs and set up experiment
Yi Yu Ji (A collection of criminal
cases)
1670First powerful microscope created by Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
1784Lancaster, England, John Toms was tried and convicted for murdering Edward Culshaw with a pistol. When the dead body of Culshaw was examined, a pistol wad (crushed paper used to secure powder and balls in the muzzle) found in his head wound matched perfectly with a torn newspaper found in Toms' pocket.
Father of toxicology
1814: Scientific paper on poison published by Matthieu Orfila of Spain
•the first person to systematise the study and classification of toxic substances when he found traces of poison in the liver of a dead dog.
•Father of Forensic Toxicology
Identification of remains (odontology and anthropometry)
1879: System of measuring people by body measurements developed by Alphonse Bertillon of FranceKnown as Father of Criminal IdentificationMost accurate until 1900s when fingerprints are used
1850s-60sCrime photography was established Used to record criminals and crime scenes
Francis Henry GaltonFather of forensic fingerprint
identification1892: Published Fingerprints, which is used in the present day
Calvin Goddard
1889: Bullets were matched to gun they were fired from, the start of ballistics
Sherlock HolmesFictional character
Author: Scottish author and physician Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
Used forensics to solve crimes before police did
Brought forensics to public
Fingerprinting (cont’d)1902: First person was convicted on fingerprint evidence1903: NYC police began fingerprint files of arrested persons
Who is the main suspect (s)?
Someone was attacked yesterday. There was a 7.7cm sized bruise on the victim’s face. There were 24cm sized shoe prints spaced 38cm apart. Who is your main suspect?
1905
Theodore Roosevelt establishes FBI
Albert S. Osborn 1910Established process for questioning authenticity of documentsWrote Questioned DocumentsStill used today
Hans Gross 1893
Publishes “Criminal Investigation” Discusses all parts of criminalisticsStart of all forensic journals
1910 – Edmond LocardMed and law school backgroundConvinced police department in england to give him two assistant and attic for forensic evidence analysisStarted 1st forensics labLater started 1st forensic university
Locard’s exchange principle
When 2 objects come in contact with each other, a cross-transfer of materials occurs.
Leone Lattes 1915
Discovered the blood group of a dried blood stain
1923First crime lab established in conjunction with LA police by August Vollmer
1930
FBI sets up national fingerprint file in US
1950
American Academy of Forensic Science (AAFS) founded in ChicagoAlso introduction of computer chromatography, electrophoresis, and spectrophotometry
1974Electron microscopy of gunshot residue starts
1977Automated Fingerprint Identification System of computer scans introduced in FBI
Walter C. McCrone
Became the premier microscopist in forensics careerTaught thousands his analytical study method
1981
FBI opens “Forensic Science Research and Training Center”
Research new methodsTrain personnel
1984
Sir Alec Jeffreys develops DNA profiling tests1986 – DNA used to convict Colin Pitchfork of 2 murders and establish innocence of another suspect.
1986FBI starts databases on DNA, fingerprints, bullets, and shell casing
More emphasis on the evidence
Constitutional right to counsel has limited confessionsSatellites allow for sharing of information butNO national systems of forensics labs.Increase in drug crimes
1990s
Increase in DNA technologyIncrease in drug analysis outways DNA cases
FBI has largest crime lab in the worldDrug Enforcement Administration labsBureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and FirearmsUS Postal Inspection Service
Crime Labs
Some states have state crime labs and work with local crime labs to share info and complete testsNYC has the largest crime lab in the stateEngland and Canada have federal system of regional labs, that charge for services
Parts to a Crime Lab1. Physical Science Unit
• Examine trace evidence back at lab, compare crime scene evidence, chemists, physicists, geologists
2. Biology Unit
DNA profiling, compare wood and plants
3. Firearms UnitDetect residue, casings, shells, and firearms
4. Document Examination Unit
Determine authenticity of documents
5. Photography Unit
Photograph scene, use infrared, UV, x-rays
6. Toxicology UnitBodily fluids and organs for drugs and poisons
7. Latent Fingerprint Unit
Process and examine evidence of fingerprints
8. Polygraph UnitDetermine authenticity of witness testimony
9. Voiceprint analysis Unit
Tying the voice to the culprit
10. Crime-scene Investigation Unit
Collect and preserve evidence to be processed
11. Forensic Psychiatry
Human behavior to test competency, disorders and for criminal profiling
12. Forensic OdontologyDental evidence, bite marks
13. Forensic EngineeringAccident reconstruction, cause and origin of fire/explosions
14. Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis
Preserving digital information, cell phones, computers, etc.
15. Forensic AnthropologyUsing skeletal remains to identify information of victim
Scientific Method
1. Question: who committed the crime?
2. Hypothesis3. Experimentation4. If validated by experimentation, it
becomes scientific evidence
What type of evidence is the strongest?
PhysicalEyewitness accounts and confessions can be misconstruded
Determining admissibility of evidence
Must meet “Frye Standard”
1923
Frye vs. United StatesEvidence must widely accepted by the scientific community to be used at trial
1993
Daubert vs. Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals
Decided it was the judge’s decision to ensure that the testimony is based on evidence and proper techniques
Start of “Expert Testimony”
Someone who possesses a skill or knowledge not expected of the average layperson.Must ensure the testimony is impartial so as not to minimize significance of the analysis.