CHAPTER TWO

History of Islam: The Context of Commemoration of the

Martyrdom of Hussein

In order to understand the significance of Muharram as the commemoration of

the martyrdom of Hussein, an attempt has been made to locate Shiaism historically and

ideologically within the broader canvas of Islam.

(i)

Islam and Shiaism

More often than not, an attempt to explain Shiaism in tenm of its historical

development and belief system gives rise to polemics with Sunni Islam. The western

scholars, (Goldziher, Gibb and other scholars of the Orientalist school), define Shiaism

with reference to Sunni Islam. The latter by virtue of it being followed by a majority of

Muslims is taken to represent the 'true' Islam as propounded by the Prophet. Shiaism is

seen as a dissenting dimension of Islam. It is often presented as a dangerous aberration,

which has continually threatened the mainstream of Islamic thought and practice. For

instance, S.A.A Rizvi quotes C.J. Adams on the imperialistic traditions of Islamic

studies. This is significant for locating the position of Shia within Islam.

35

" ... With very few exceptions the Western scholarly tradition tends to perceive Islam as a monolithic structure, with well defined nom1s of belief and practice which are usually identified with the reigning attitudes among Sunm Muslims, and are therefore often called 'orthodox'. Whenever in the course of Islamic history groups have differed from these norms, or have chosen other norms, the tendency has been to either consider such people as deviants and to assign them a role somewhere outside the mainstream of Islamic life or perhaps to ignore them altogether. .. The most important scholarly casualty of the monolithic mindset are the Isna Ashari Shia, the majority Shia community in Iran, Iraq and in the Indian subcontinent. .. Because the Shia have not belonged to the heart of Islam as scholars have perceived that heart, they have received only a fraction of the attention accorded to the Sunni commu1~ity.

Consequently, scholars of Islamic theology focus their attention exclusively on Sunni thinkers, Acknowledgement is nonnally given to the fact that the Shia opinions differ from Sunni opinions, but the differences are minimised and it is seldom thought necessary to consider Shia views at length in order to understand their peculiar spirit and religious Weltanschauung ... " ( Rizvi, 1986,1: 1)

The reconstruction of Shiaism in this chapter has not been undertaken in tem1s o1

these polemics. Shiaism is not viewed as opposed to Sunni Islam. In fact, Shia~

themselves do not perceive themselves in opposition to the Sunnis. The attempt is tc

understand Shiasim in terms of the way Shias themselves understand, perceive and define

Shiaism,- as an integral part of Islam-. The Shias perceive themselves first and foremosl

as Muslims. Their forms of piety are viewed as an authentic response to the event of the

Quranic revelations. Shiaism, here, is reconstructed in terms of, (a) its system of beliefs

and practices, (b) the context of its location within the history of Islam.

36

(ii)

Shia Islam as a system of beliefs and practices

Shiaism is one of the two major schools of thought and practice in Islam. The

word Shia derives from an Arabic word, which occurs in several Quranic verses.

According to Arabic lexicon, the friends or followers of a person are called his

Shias. The word Shia is singular but it is used alike for all forms and genders, (Ibid:: 8).

" ... The devotees of Prophet Muhammad, his Ahl-i-Bayt (members of the family defined by the Prophet), or a! (nearer or nearest relations) or qurba (relatives or kinsmen) or itrat (near relations) are Shias. According to the Prophet's own definition members of the Ahl-1-Bayt, al, qurba or itrat are the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet's daughter Fatima and her two sons, Hasan and Hussein. The Prophet's wives are not included in this restricted circle. This is confirmed by the exegesists of the Quran and works of Hadiths ... ' (Ibid:: 9). These five persons are also known as the holy Panjatan, (Ibid:: 1 0).

Shia Islam is structured around the following seven beliefs, (i) Tawhid- belief in

the oneness of God; (ii) Nabuwat - the Institution of Prophethood, where Muhammad is

the Seal of Prophets as stated in the Kalma - lailaha Illallah, Muhammad Ul Rasul Allah-

' i.e., there is only one God and Muhammad is his Prophet; (iii) Ma 'ad or resurrection;

(iv) Imamat -Imams as successors of Prophet; (v) Ad! or Divine Justice, (vi) Belief in

Quran and Hadith; (7) Love for the Ahl-i- Bayt (The household of the Prophet comprising

of the Prophet, his daughter Fatima, his cousin and Fatima husband Ali, Hasan and

Hussein (their sons).

Along with this system of belief there are certain obligatory duties which are

referred to as 'Faraez '.

37

1. Namaz or Salat- This is a prominent aspect of Muslim personal piety. It is an intense,

highly regulated formal observance of prayer that features cycles of bodily postures

climaxing in complete prostration toward the Ka'ba in Mecca. A Muslim is required

to perform the namaz five times a day and jointly on Friday. ( The namaz performed

five times a day are: (I) Namaz of Zuhr- the meridian prayer (ii) Nama:: of Asr- the

afternoon prayer (iii) Namaz of Maghrib - The sunset prayer (iv) Nama:: of Isha­

The night prayer (V) Namaz of Fajr- prayer of dawn)

2. Zakat - Legal alms giving. It is a legal obligatory act, more like a tax paid once a

year. It involves giving away a percentage of ones various forms of wealth. It is

applies only to the Muslims who have reached adulthood and to those who are sane.

3. Roza, Sawn - Fasting during the holy month of Ram::an which is. one of the most

sacred months for the Muslims. It is the month during which the Quran was first

revealed.

4. Haj- Pilgrimage to Mecca. It is required of every Muslim to make a pilgrimage to

Mecca during the holy month of 'Dhu al-Hijja once in his lifetime. The pilgrimage is

organised annually in this month. A Muslim is required to make this pilgrimage if

he/she is legally an adult and capable both physically and financially.

5. Jihad- Sometimes this is also included amongst the basic, acts of ibadat -(worship)

for Muslims. Meaning 'struggle' in the way of God, it has two aspects- inner Jihad,

i.e. Jihad bin-nafs -spiritual Jihad within a person and external Jihad- struggle

against enemies of Islam only in self-defense.

38

The Faraez which are the ritualistic expression of the beliefs, express the

relationship between man and God, through prayer and obedience; and between men as a

community, based on sharing and communal togetherness deriving out of this relation to

God.

The holy Quran and Hadiths

The Quran is the principle source of religious thought in Islam. Further, according

to Tabatabai, Quran has made the sayings of the Prophet complementary to the words of

the Quran, and has declared them to be authoritative like the Quran. These sayings are

compiled in the form of Hadith (Traditions). He quotes the following ve:-ses from the

Quran.

"And we have revealed unto the remembrance that thou mayest explain to mankind that which has been revealed for them" (Quran, XVI, 44). And, "He it is who hath sent among the unlettered ones a messenger of their own, to recite unto them his revelations and to make them grow, and to teach them the scripture and wisdom" (Quran LXII, 2),[Tabatabai, 1971: 93].

Hence the words of the Prophet are regarded as authoritative and have to be

accepted by those who have heard them orally or through reliable transmission. And

through such transmission it is asserted, that the Prophet said, "I leave two things of value

amidst you in trust which if you hold on to, you will never go astray: the Quran and the

members of my household. These will never be separated until the Day of Judgment",

(Ibid).

It is believed that similar injunction of the Prophet, received through reliable

means of transmission constitute a corpus of writs and are authoritative.

39

It is clear that Islamic religious thought according to the Shias, is derived from the

Quran, and the Sunnah Hadiths (Traditions) received from the Prophet, and his

Household.

The Quran is the principal source of Islamic thought. It provides general

principles, injunctions, laws etc. The clarification and elaboration of their details can be

achieved only by referring to the Tradition of the Prophet and his household. The lives of

the Prophet and his household constitute the true interpretations of the Quran. They are

models to be emulated, and should be regarded with love and devotion. It must therefore

be comprehensible to all.

Altl-i-Bayt (or Paujatan) - Household of the Prophet

"Shia Islam can be described as the Islam of personal allegiance and devotion to

the Prophet Mohammed" (Schubel, 1993: 187). Shias accept the authority of the Quran

and the Prophet. They believe that the Quran is the book of God because Muhammad

says it to be so, and he can never lie. But they also believes that the Quran can only be

properly interpreted by Muhammad and his family- Ahl-i-Bayt- and for the Ithnashari

majority of the Shia, a group of nine Imams, the (first three being Ali, Hasan, Hussein,

and the last being the twelfth "hidden" Imam to whom God has given divine

responsibility for the interpretation of the Islamic revelation, and who it is believed, will

eventually return to establish justice in the world). Thus for Shias, Islam requires

allegiance not only to Muhammad, but also to his Ahl-i-Bayt and to the twelve Imams.

This allegiance, particularly to the Ahl-i-Bayt, is distinguished by the emphasis on

the necessity to have love for the Prophet and his Ah/-i-Bayt.The argument is that

Muhammed is the beloved of God (Habib Allah), and if one truly wishes to love God one

40

must also love the Prophet whom God loves, and this love must be further demonstrated

by expressing love for and allegiance to those who were closest to the Prophet during his

life time, i.e, the Ahl-i-Bayt.

"The Prophet's household or as the Holy Quran describes them, the Ahl-i-Bayt are

the guiding stars of the fim1ament of Islam, models par excellence; they personify the

light of the Quran and the teachings of the Messenger of Allah in their lives. They

imbibed Muhammad's knowledge, grew up in his house and followed in his footsteps;

calling people to the Book of Allah and urging them to hold fast to the traditions set by

the final messenger to mankind. They are, as the Hadiths say: 'The companions of the

Quran and never part from it,' because they embody all the concepts, guidelines and

values brought to us by the Quran ... " (Al-Balagh Foundation, 1992:75)

"Their close proximity to the Prophet, together with their vast knowledge, piety, morals, high ideals, steadfastness in defending the rights of the oppressed and fighting tyranny and despotism by knowledge, and at times by sword if circumstances compelled, have made the Ahl-i-Bayt a unique group. All Muslim scholars are unanimous that besides Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), his rl:mghter Fatima, her husband Ali, and their two sons Hasan and Husain" (a.s.), were the ones whom Allah kept pure from errors and sins" (Ibid:: 13).

Thus for the Shias the events of the lives of the Ahl-i-Bayt fom1 the ultimate

commentary on the Quran. These events carry with them a reality and a meaning that

transcends and encompasses all of human and spiritual history. The most important of

these events is the martyrdom of Hussein in the battle ofKarbala.

Imam at

Imamat is a distinctive institution of the Shias. According to the Shia perspective,

the successor to the Prophet of Islam must be one who not only rules OYer the community

with justice, but is also able to interpret the Divine Law and its esoteric meaning. He 41

must therefore be 'masum' i.e. free of error and sin and must be chosen by divine decree

through the Prophet.

"Imam or leader is the title given to a person who takes the lead in a community in a particular social movement or political ideology or scientific or religious form of thought. Naturally because of his relation to the people he leads, he must conform his actions to their capabilities in both important and secondary matters ... "(Tabatabai, 1971: 173 ).

The Imamat, or guidance according to the Shias, has to be in three areas of life,

viz, Islamic government, Islamic sciences and injunctions, and leadership in the spiritual

life. In other words, the guidance has to be in political life, intellectual life and spiritual

life of an individual and the community. Just as the Prophet himself was appointed by

God, the person who performs this function and occupies this position must be appointed

by God and the Prophet.

(iii)

Rise and development of Shiasim: a historical perspective

It is essential to start by attempting to grasp the reason for the depth and intensity

with which the martyrdom of Hussein is commemorated. In other words, since the rise of

Islam.This section describes the socio-economic, religious and political conditions of

Arabia in which Islam arose and its subsequent development, till the martyrdom of

Hussein.

42

AI Jahiliya (Age of Ignorance): The pre-Islamic beliefs, values and way of life of

Arabia.

The Arabs traditionally trace their roots back to two major sources the Southern branch

centred in Yemen and the Northern branch settled in Hejas, Nayd, Palmyra and Nabataea

(Denny, 1985: 48).

The pre-Islamic Arabian past, to which Islam looks back is the pastoral­

dominated past of Hejas which is considered to have been wild and barbaric. No outside

power succeeded in subduing the region due to its remoteness, difficult tenain, and the

extreme fierceness of the inhabitants. The term 'A/-Jahi/ya' is applied to the life and

times of the Arabs in Hejaz before the rise of Islam. The tenn, literally, means

"ignorance" but its meaning also includes the notion of barbarism. It is a term, coined in

Islamic times, which is intenc:-r1 t,.... r1;5credit the idolatrous and licentious days of old.

(Ibid, 46).

Social structure and economy

The dominant parttern of life w1s pastoral, the population was divided into more

or less independent tribes. Although these tribes concluded alliances with one another in

an adhoc manner as and when the need arose, such arrangements were fragile and subject

to rapid dissolution; genealogy was an important concern of the Arabs for the

preservation of family clan and tribal purity; and honour was more important than

anything else.

43

These tribes were not aimless wanderers. Pastoralist as nomads everywhere

moved their flocks people and minimal domestic goods seasonally according to the

availability ofpastureland in a highly regulated manner. The old Arabian way of eaming

livelihood was highly conservative, with change coming rarely.

The main means of livelihood were raising of camel and sheep, hunting,

occasionally serving as body gaurds or escorts to caravans, or serving as mercenaries in

areas such as Syrian and Iraqi frontiers (Ibid: 49). Raids were another means of acquiring

wealth. This was common among the Bedouin groups as well as between them and

sedentary peoples. The raiders hoped to particularly capture camels horses, slaves

(especially women), gold, fine fabrics and other luxury items. The raid known as the

ghazwa was more than a means of adding to the clan's or tribe's store of goods, it was a

sort of national sport with well defined rules that included refraining from bloodshed if

possible.

The Arab habit of r::ic1; ... :.3 rl-:-veloped over centuries as a tradition of skillful

weapon handling, and building loyalties based on certain tribal affiliations. It provided a

cohesion which was passed down through generations. But the law of retaliation also

reigned supreme. Sometimes inter-clan, inter-tribal feuds continued for several years.

The basic social organisation started with the family, represented by a tent; a

number of tents pitched together made up a hayy, which constitutes a clan (quam).

Several related clans together comprised the tribe. Tremendous solidarity existed

at the level of the clan; each clan had a shaykh. The Prophet belonged to one such clan -

Banu Hashim (meaning, the sons of Hashim). (Ibid, 50)

44

Apart from pride of lineage and blood relationship, personal honour was very

important. Any attack on it was a ground for deadly retaliation. Dishonour could come

especially through women. Women were regarded as weak by nature and apt to yield to

temptations of all kinds (sexual and material etc.) A man's honour was protected by

means of his "manliness". Courage was displayed in raiding and generosity through

hospitality. The camel was a measure of wealth and property. It was a great dishonor to

have a female of the clan compromised in any way.

Religious beliefs

The religious beliefE; included worship of stones, wells, trees and sacred precincts

connected with the origins of tribes. The nomadic Arabs were not pmiicularly pious.

Many deities were recognised and the Kaba. Mecca's very archaic sanctuary contained

representations of 360 of them, the chief among them was Hubal. People made sacrifices

at various shrines and each community or town had its own patron deity. The divinities

were both male and female. Among the latter were three, called the daughters of Allah:

al-Uzza, who was Venus, the morning star, the chief deity to whom human sacrifices

were offered; al-Lat the goddess whose sacred precincts near a! Tawaf were places where

no tree felling, hunting or human killing could take place; Monah the goddess of fate or

destiny.

The Arabs made pilgrimages to the shrines of their dieties and perfonned in a

characteristic ritual circumambulation known a tawaf This continues to the present day

in the sevenfold circling of the Kaba during Haj or pilgrimage to Mecca. (Ibid, 56).

45

It appears that despite all their gods, shrines, genealogies etc the old Arab

nomads, are believed to have been basically fatalistic. They had no rea.l belief in a

transcendental source of personal meaning and thus no hope. The idea of resuiTection was

alien to them. To them life is all there is and so make the most of it. One of the ways in

which life was enjoyed was by drinking wine, an act which was later regarded as

punishable by Islam, (Ibid, 66).

Advent of Islam

The Prophet was born in this age, in the clan of Banu Hasim of the Quraysh. He

began receiving revelations (wahy) in 610 AD and ushered in Islam and a process of

radical social change and refom1 in Arabia. He had to face severe opposition and

antagonism from Arab tribes and clans.

The Prophet was a manifestation of the struggle of an age in which true believing

Muslims confronted anti-Muslims known as kajirs (Shariati, 1985: 160).

The Jahilya was an age marked by distinct power and wealth structures, and

polytheism. The Prophet first went through phase of personal development and then he

began his struggle. He fought sixty-five battles within a period of ten years (Ibid, 156).

He was a voice against the prevailing structures and beliefs. He brought in the doctrine of

Tawhid, the doctrine of the unity and uniqueness of God which is a central concept of

Islamic theology; it eliminated the discord brought about by polytheistic religion. He

gave an equal status to the slaves by declaring equality for all.

" ... The Prophet of Islam was appointed to complete the movement which has existed throughout history in opposition to deception, falsehood, polytheism, discord, hypocrisy, aristocracy and class differences. This was made a goal of the struggle by the announcement that all humanity is of one race, one source, one nature and one God. Equality was declared for all; and with philosophical

46

disputation as well as fighting against the economically powerful regime, social equality was upheld. (Ibid, 158).

The Prophet attacked and destroyed all values of aristocratic thinking and of

jahilya. He instructed the people to shorten their long flowing robes and to trim their

beards, as these were signs of aristocracy. He ordered people not to strut with pride

through streets, and to ride two at a time on horseback. In order to breakdown the values

of the aristocracy in the eyes of the people he sometimes would ride a donkey, bare back

(Ibid, 159).

Rise of Shiaism

The death of the Prophet marked the beginning of disruptions in his divine

mission. It marked the rise of Shiaism as a movement of dissent and protest against these

disruptions, which it marked the beginnings of falsification of all that was upheld by the

Prophet, i.e, it marked the beginning of the decline oflslam.

The death ofProphet's in AH11!632 AD (Rizvi, 1986, I: 19) marked the end of

Divine RevelatioiY. According to a Quranic verse (III, 3,4).

["Nor doth he speak of (his own) desires

It is naught save an inspiration that is inspired"]

The Prophet made no statements unless he received the Divine Revelation. His

remarks concerning the Ali's succession and the Ahl-i-Bayt are also equivalent to Divine

Revelation. Hence, it was naturally believed that his wishes would be accepted.(Ibid, 22).

However, this did not happen. Signs of discord had already begun to emerge as the

Prophet lay dying. Divisions had already begun to occur in the Islamic movement

spearheaded by the Prophet.

47

It is important to note here that the principles of Islam revealed to Mohammad

were not called to attention in the debate on succession.

Before his death, the Hashimites, the Muhajirun and Ansar (the tribes which had

accepted Islam) got divided into two parties. Ansar feared that Muhajirun 's domination

would undermine their future. Thus the power struggle was on when the Prophet died.

Abu Bakr, Umar, (the leaders of the Muhajirun) were at the Prophet's house preparing for

the last rites, along with Ali. But they went away when they received infonnation that the

Ansar had gathered in the hall of Banu Saida and might take steps, which might provoke

war (Ibid, 23). But what followed was a debate as to on which group and who should

come to power, on the basis of its contribution to Islam. Abu Bakr pleaded that only a

Quraysh leader would be an acceptable ruler to the Arabs as their genealogy, blood and

country were most superior. (Ibid). After aggressive debates and negotiations Abu Bakr

was elected the successor of the Prophet. But the Hashimites were absent from this

gathering as they were attending the funeral of the Prophet. Abu Bakr received oaths of

allegiance from the crowd in the Prophet's mosque, after having received them in the

hall. A number of people refused to take the oath. Umar (who was to later become the

second Caliph according to the Sunnis) hounded out all those he considered recalcitrant

including Ali, and brought them to the mosque, where Ali protested at this election. (Ibid,

24).

The dissenting group made an alleged ijma (consensus) on Abu Bakr's bayt (oath

of allegiance) as void (Ibid, 25). This group separated from the majority group, following

Ali and became Shia-i-Ali (followers of Ali). The majority group constituted the Sunni

group.

48

The Shia protest was not only against the act of choosing the caliph by

consultation or election, but also against those who were responsible for carrying it out.

According to Shias, political expediency was no excuse to ignore all Hadiths urging the

Muslims to love and respect the Ahl-i-Bayt, (Ibid).

The supporters of the caliph considered caliphate to be a matter of consensus of

community (ijma) and considered those who objected as the opponents of allegiance.

They claimed that the Shia stood opposed to Muslim society.

The Shia protest was against the method of election. According to the Shias, since

succession and the caliphate of the Prophet is as sacred and a responsible function, as that

of Prophecy, it must the designated by God. One who occupies this position is called the

Imam (as discussed earlier). According to the Shias the first Imam to be chosen by God

through the Prophet was Ali. They give the following evidence for this assertion:

a) Ali Ibn Abu Talib was the cousin and son-in law of the Prophet

b) During the first day of his prophecy, the Prophet, in accordance with the text of

the Quran (XXVI, 214) was commanded to invite his closer relatives to accept his

religion. When Muhammad did so, he clearly said whoever would be the first to

accept his invitation would become his successor and inheritor. Ali was the first to

step forward and embrace Islam (Ibid, I 0)

c) The event of Ghadir Khumm in AH 111632 AD is regarded as the pnmary

evidence of Ali's legitimacy as a successor to the Prophet. On returning from the last

d) pilgrimage to Mecca, on the way to Medina, the Prophet chose Ali as his

successor at a place called Ghadir Khumm before a vast crowd that was

accompanying him. The Prophet declared. " ... He of whom I am the mmvla (the

49

protector, patron, master, leader), of him Ali is also the maw/a (man kuntu mawlahu

fa· Afi-un mawlahu)". He then prayed, "0 God, be the friend of him who is his friend,

and be the enemy of him who is his enemy. (Allahumma wali man walahu wa 'adi

man adahu) (Ibid:: 18). The Hadith ofGhadir Khumm in its different versions is one

of the definitely established Hadiths among both the Shias and the Sunnis. More than

a hundred of his companions have accounted it with different chains of transmission

and expression and it has been recorded in the books of Sunnism and Shiaism, alike.

e) According to several unquestioned and completely authenticated 1-fadiths, both

Sunni and Shia assert that Ali was preserved from error and sin in his thought words

and actions. What ever he said and did was in perfect conformity with Islam and he

was the most knowledgeable of men in matters pertaining to Islamic sciences and

injunctions as he was trained by the Prophet himself.

In the Shia perception the succession to the Prophet necessarily involves inherited

charisma, nomination by the Prophet and a perfect character of the chosen one. Thus the

election of Abu Bakr as the first caliph becomes unjustified and becomes an act of

injustice as he was elected in the absence of those who were accepted as very close to the

Prophet, and was elected in a haste, a fact regarded as questionable by the Shias.

Thus, the death of the Prophet marks the beginnings of deviations from the

Islamic pat~. The rise after Shias under the leadership of Ali, marks the beginning of a

protest against this deviation and a struggle between these two forces - the former

attempting to twist the interpretations of Islamic teachings to fit individual and political

interests and the latter against this trend.

50

These deviations gradually became greater and continued to develop generation to

generation. By the time of Usman, the third caliph, the deviations became severe. The

reign of the three caliphs was full of games of power struggles and political conspiracy.

Ali did not swear formal allegiance to Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and the latter in

his tum was satisfied with Ali's peaceful scholarly life style. Ali's self-sacrifice {of not

wielding sword to get the leadership, which was rightly his) for the sake of Islamic values

averted a crisis. (lbid,28).

Abu Bakr died in AH 13/634 AD, and Umar became the next caliph. A number of

Muslims had strong reservations about his capability as a caliph, due to the harshness of

his nature. (Ibid). Further, in Umar's succession, Ali was not consulted hy Abu Bakr

(Ibid:: 29). Umar's administrative and religious rules and regulations were largely based

on his personal judgment. Ali remained aloof from his administrative and political

policies. However, he did not hesitate to express his candid opinion on any rabid

violations of the Shari at either by Umar or hie; arlvi sors (Ibid, 29).

Umar was fatally wounded in AH23/644AD. Even though he admitted Ali's

superiority and was convinced of his competence to lead on the right path he did not wish

to appoint him as his successor. The manner in which the third caliph was elected is

questionable.

" ... Umar appointed a committee consisting of the same six people whom he had considered as his successors but dismissed as unsuitable for one reason or another. They were Usman, Zubayr, Sa'd, Abdur-Rahman bin Awf, Talha and Ali. He introduced akravish system of election. Should five members agree, the dissenting sixth should be killed, should four agree then the other two dissenters should be killed. If the votes were equally divided his own son, Abdullah should be appointed arbitrator. Should there still be disagreement the power of veto should be given to Abdur-Rahman bin 'Awf. Those who opposed this decision should be killed. When Ali left the meeting he told to Banu Hashim that if he

51

continued to obey the men in power, they would never allow a Hashimite to become a caliph. When ibn Abbas met Ali, the latter predicted that the Hashmite would again be deprived of the caliphate. He explained that Usman had been made his competitor. The caliph would be appointed by the majority decision. If the votes were divided equally the verdict would favour the one whom Abdur-Rahman supported, of the committee members Sa'd would not oppose his uncle's son, Abdur-Rahman, while Abdur-Rahman and Usman were bound by matrimonial ties. Consequently either Usman would make Abdur-Rahman caliph or vice-versa. Even if two members supported him he would not win. Possibly only one member of the committee would favour him ... Subsequently Abdur-Rahman surrendered his candidature to facilitate Usman's election .... Ali disagreed with this succession claiming that Abdur Rahman had wrongfully given the caliphate to an unworthy candidate ... " (Ibid, 33-34).

The first six years of Usman's rule were peacefui but gradually his policy of

distribution of wealth and high positions among his kinsmen shocked his supporters.

Usman's rule was marked by appointment of unworthy people to important positions.

One of them was Muaviya who was one of the person whose functioning led to the

creation of conditions culminating in the battle of Karbala-(this will be discussed later in

the chapter). Umar had made Muaviya govef'1nr of Syria, but Usman promoted him to the

governorship of all the four Syrian provinces. During Usman 's reign Mauviya

consolidated his position as a semi-independent ruler and became a real threat to

Osman's successor. (Ibid, 35). Usman violated the Prophet's traditions, and encouraged

nepotism. Ali did not support him but remained neutral.

After Usman 's death in AH35/655 AD Ali did not claim his right to succession.

Unlike the preceding caliphs who nominated each other Ali was urged by the people of

Medina to accept the caliphate, (Ibid, 37).

Thus, the distance between honesty, rectitude, truth and justice widened so much

that in about fourteen years, Usman (the third caliph according to the Sunnis), like a

52

magnetic pole, attracted all the counter - revolutionary agents who were scattered

about. .. Thus Usman acted like a bridge between the Islamic revolutionary period and

the period of degeneration into the mentality of the 'Jahiliya. He and other companions

of the Prophet, led way to the phase of 'Neo-Jahilya', (Shariati, 1986: 159). Ali came to

power under such conditions when he was faced with enemies from within. During his

leadership of nearly four years and nine months he followed the way of the Prophet and

gave on his caliphate the form of a spiritual movement and renewal and initiated

different types of reforms (Tabatabai, 1971: 192 ).

Ali was the first victim of revival of Jahi~ya. The movement against Ali was

spearheaded by Muaviya who wanted the caliphate after Usman, (Rizvi, 1986, I: 37). He

was stabbed in 41 AH/ 661 AD in a mosque in Kufa (Ibid: 41) and he died two days later.

Ali bequeathed the Jmamat , he had obtained from the Prophet through divine injunction.

to Hasan. The people of Kufa, took an oath of allegiance to him. But Muaviya marched

agaiPst him in full strength to overthrow him (Ibid, 41 ). Muaviya was the son of Abu

Sufiya who was the Prophet's inveterate enemy. Abu Sufiya was known for his deceit.

hypocrisy, foul language and vile behaviour in Arabia. He was a cousin of the Prophet, a

part of the Quraysh tribe into which the Prophet was born. Further, he was the strongest

opponent of Islam and an upholder of the values ofthejahilya or pre-Islamic era. He was

instrumental in instigating people against the Prophet and was responsible for major

battles against the Prophet. Later on he accepted Islam when his plot to kill the Prophet

failed, since the hired killer confessed it in front of everybody. This acceptance is viewed

as an act of deceit and hypocrisy, where he accepted Islam only after realizing that he

could not usurp power by armed struggle, (Rahmati, 1992: 20).

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Hasan became the head of an army reeking with conspiracies. Most of the men

were not loyal to him and were bought off by Muaviya. Most of the troops joined

Muaviya. Hasan, therefore abdicated on the following conditions

1. Muaviya would rule according to the book of God, the Sunna of the Prophet and the

traditions of the Rashidun (righteous) caliphs.

2. None from Iraq and Hejaz would be persecuted by Muaviya.

3. After Muaviya's death the caliphate would be restored to Hasan.

Hasan's abdication legalized Muaviya's usurpation, but the latter's violation of other

clauses of the treaty made it meaningless (Rizvi, 1986, I: 42). Hasan died in 49AH/ 669

AD at the age of forty-six, of posion, administered by one of his wives. at Muaviya's

instigation.

(iv)

Context of Karbala

'.';vlating the terms of the treaty, Muaviya nominated his son Yazid as the

successor to the caliphate and obtained the oath of allegiance from the Mus! im population

in favour of his son. But Imam Hussein the brother of Imam Hasan refused to take oath of

allegiance tu Yazid. So long as Muaviya was alive, he left Imam Hussein alone, but after

his death. Yazid demanded the oath of allegiance from Imam Hussein, which the latter

refused. Feeling that it was undesirable to stay at Medina. Imam Hussein left the city on

281h Rajah AH60 68 AD. and went to Mecca along with his relatives including the

women and children of the Prophet's family. But he was harassed here too and so he left

Mecca two days later without performing Haj (pilgrimage). From Mecca he proceeded to

a place called Kufa in Iraq as he had received invitation by the people of Kufa to come

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ana accept me1r aueg1ance and be the1r Imam. He sent his cousin Muslim to Kufa to

study the situation. Muslim was killed there by the order of the govemor of Kufa (Rizvi;

1986, I, 44). The inforn1ation ofMus1im's death reached the Imam when he was already

on his way to Kufa. He knew that he had been betrayed by the people of Kufa, but still he

decided to continue the journey. When he reached a place called Zu-Husan he was

blocked by a detachment of the arn1y of Ibn Ziyad under Hurr. According to the Shias,

Hurr and his contingent were badly in need of water. They were dying of thirst. Imam

Hussein gave them water to drink (Rizvi, 1986, 1: 45). But even after being given water

they prevented the hw.un from moving ahead and did not even allow him to go back.

Eventually on 2nd Muharram the Imam was forced to pitch his tent in the sandy

desert ofKarbala. The next day the armies ofYazid poured into the battle field from all

sides and Imam Hussein and his group of 72 people was besieged. The Shia's allege that

Yazid's army comprised of thirty thousand persons. For seven days the Imam tried to

come to some peaceful settlement, but in vain. From ih Muharram their access to all

water and food was stopped. On the 9111 Muharram the commander-in-chief of the Yazid's

army received a letter from Yazid to immediately declare war if Hussein did not

surrender unconditionally. Imam Hussein asked for another day so that both sides could

think over the matter. On the 1 01h morning after praying for most part of the night, the

Imam came out of his tent and addressed the men of the opposite side to consider the

righteousness of his cause. Hurr was moved by his address and came over to the Imam's

side, (Ibid, 46).

The war started, and the first to die were the Imam's friends followed by his

relatives including his son Ali Akbar and nephew Qusim (son of Imam Hasan). In the end

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the standard bearer of Imam- Hazrat Abbas- came to the battle field. In fact, The Imam

did not pennit him to fight but allowed him to fetch water for the thirsty children of the

camp. Abbas successfully made his way to the river and he was able to even fill up the

water bag (mashk) with water, but when he was returning, both of his arms were severed

and the bag was pierced with arrows. Finally, Abbas succumbed to the blow of a club on

his head, Hussein then brought out his six month old son Ali Asghar, who was dying of

thirst; but even the sight of the innocent one did not move the heart of the soldiers and

they killed the infant with a an arrow. Finally, Hussein went to face his enemy. He fought

gallantly and was killed by the dagger of Shimr.

Hence, according to the Shia perception, history reveals that they have had to

struggle and often in silence for Islam. They had to bear extremities and injustices

throughout and have borne these in silence,out of strength and not weakness. Right from

Ali to Hussein the silent submission to injustice was not because they could not fight it.

On the contrary, if they wanted they could have got justice, by a display of their physical

valour and spiritual strength. But they voluntarily abstained and suffered and preferred to

die to ensure that the true spirit of Islam prevailed. Martyrdom of Hussein and what

followed therefore represents the height of Shia suffering and pain.

The observances of Muharram have to be viewed in this perspective. The

stereotype image ofMuharram, as violent self-flagellation- has also to be viewed in this

light. The frenzied bloodshed is a symbolic sharing of the pains of the Imam and his

family. It is an expression of love for the Ahl-i-Bayt. Further, this is just one dimension of

Muharram. The observance of Muharram comprise primarily in the organisation of

'majalis' - mourning assemblies - which have a definite structure and forn1. These are

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fora of contemplation and education where Shias gather and reflect about Islam and

realise, each year, the greatness of the sacrifice of the Imam. They re-affinn the

conviction that forces of truth and justice prevail over those of evil and injustice. The

sacrifice by the Imam Hussein and his companions transcends religious boundaries and

highlights the fundamental human ethic of fighting for justice and standing up against

tyranny. The structure of majlis as discussed in the next chapter shows the

commemorations of martyrdom of Hussein during Muharram as a fom1 of reflection and

how it channelises the hurt and pain arising from a deep sense of injustice, towards

inward contemplation.

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