How do I write ‘academically’?

Dr. Courtney Hopf Academic Skills Adviser ask@brunel.ac.uk

Session Overview

• What is meant by ‘academic writing’? Conventions Style Voice/Tone

• The pitfalls of trying to ‘sound academic’ ‘Overwriting’ Loss of clarity

• Writing with sophistication and authority Referencing Synthesis

What makes writing academic?

Responsibility Peer Review

Dialogue

Structure

Tone and Style

Authority

Formality

Context

The biggest misconception

ACADEMIC WRITING SHOULD BE DIFFICULT AND COMPLICATED.

The truth is…

‘Easy reading is damn hard writing.’ - Nathaniel Hawthorne

‘The best style is the style you don't notice.’

- Somerset Maugham

What makes writing academic?

Academic writing is…

• Clear, structured and concise – not overblown and wordy…

• …but also sophisticated and interesting!

• More critical than descriptive

• Balanced, using rhetoric for argument rather than emotive language

• Meticulously referenced

• Part of a larger conversation

Which is an example of critical writing?

Schenkman (2003) discusses in detail various aspects of Parkinson’s Disease treatment programs, looking mostly at evaluation.

Though Schenkman (2003) emphasises that Parkinson’s Disease treatments should undergo constant evaluation, he does not refer back to the earlier work of Butler (1998) and Peabody (1987), both of whom can provide a useful perspective about how such processes have evolved over time. CRITICAL

DESCRIPTIVE

It’s about creating a balance.

Academic Writing Conventions

What’s wrong here?

The choices made by the Education Committee in the California legislature are clearly designed to benefit the corporate university structure and not the students. As a former undergraduate I find their policy decisions reprehensible. • Avoid inflammatory or emotive language. • Evidence needs to come from academic sources

Academic Writing Conventions

All that said, is there anything wrong with this?

When the California House Education Committee consented to a rise in state tuition fees, the outcry among both academics and members of the public was swift and widespread. I contend that only a change in the structure of California legislative committees can improve conditions for universities statewide.

• ‘I’ is not always a forbidden word. • What referencing work does the author need to do

to make this statement valid?

So can I use my opinion?

Subjective Objective

‘Lay’ opinion Academic opinion

I think education should be something anyone can access no matter how old they are.

Popular images of ageing are often constructed in negative terms, which stereotypes older people (Ang 2000). Educational policies are informed by such stereotypes (Burns 2002), and this leads to the exclusion of older demographics from educational opportunities.

Remember…

It is the

that drives us.

But it is the

we must use to communicate.

Academic Writing Conventions

What about this?

As many have argued (Harris 2004, Holbright 2006, Xu 2007), the California legislature is in desperate need of reform. You cannot expect change at the local level without a fundamental ideological shift at the top.

• Avoid the reflexive ‘you.’ • How could these sentences be rewritten to

avoid the ‘you’ construction?

Academic Writing Conventions

Just one more…

In this day and age, recent graduates must leave no stone unturned in the search for work, and they’re all in the same boat.

• Avoid clichés! Overused expressions make your writing dull and make it sound like you don’t have your own ideas.

• How might you express the same idea of the above sentence in interesting, sophisticated prose?

In short, academic writing…

• Expresses your opinion implicitly – you do not need to say ‘I think’ to say what you are thinking.

• Constantly backs up its claims with the help of other academics.

• Does not have to be dry and dull! Be aware of your word choices!

• Is clear and concise, saying what it needs to say as economically as possible.

What is overwriting?

‘Overwriting’

• Too many big words, too much jargon • Antiquated words and constructions • It obfuscates meaning by burying the subject

of sentences instead of starting with them • An attachment to the belief that big,

complicated ideas require complicated, confusing language and structure.

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

An example:

A sentence, overly and perhaps overtly complexified, turgid with rarified language, gains the semblance of scholarship though it may indeed lack the capacity to communicate its import to any but a reader utterly dedicated in his attentions. Which means:

A complex sentence may seem scholarly but will confuse casual readers.

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

Another example: In so far as manifestations of infestation by a small faunal species were evident in the residential facilities provided for the agricultural labourers, an unwillingness to occupy, utilize, or in any manner inhabit the facilities was therefore demonstrated by the aforementioned labourers. Which means: Because rats infested the house, the workers refused to enter.

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

In so far as manifestations of infestation by a small faunal species were evident in the residential facilities provided for the agricultural labourers, an unwillingness to occupy, utilize, or in any manner inhabit the facilities was therefore demonstrated by the aforementioned labourers.

Nominalisation: Trapping active, interesting verbs within dull, confusing nouns. Eg. Most words ending in –tion, but also words like ‘transmittal,’ which could be ‘transmit’

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

Nominalisation causes you to need more helping words, which makes your sentences longer and more difficult to understand.

I made my presentation of my idea to the president, whose reception of it was characterized by enthusiasm, resulting in its transmittal to the Action Committee. Why not just… I presented my idea to the president, who received it enthusiastically and transmitted it to the Action Committee.

Nominalisation is sometimes essential, especially if you work in the sciences. If you are expected to distance yourself from your writing, you will nominalise and write passively quite a lot. Don’t let this make your sentences over-long and confusing, though.

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

A caveat…

Avoiding ‘Overwriting’

In summary, how do I avoid overwriting?

• Cut most adverbs, they are truly just fluff (see what I did there?)

• Avoid passive constructions unless they are absolutely necessary

• Use nominalisations sparingly (if you can) • Think carefully about your meaning for each and

every sentence, and select accurate verbs • In later stages: force yourself to cut 10 words per

page – you’ll be astonished to find that you can.

Writing with Authority

Okay, so how do I avoid overwriting, but still write with authority and sophistication?

Writing with Authority

We create authority in several ways, beyond using the right words and the right level of complexity.

• How you reference • How you integrate quotations and data • How you synthesise the material with your

own arguments

Writing with Authority

• Don’t get bogged down by references and paraphrasing, though it is tempting.

• Remember that you control the content and argument.

• References are there to support, not overpower your points.

• Perform authority, even if you don’t feel it.

Writing with Authority

Most importantly, avoid the summarising trap. So how do we demonstrate and enact critical analysis in our writing?

TOPIC SENTENCES

Writing with Authority

Good topic sentences are essential because they help you to…

• Guide your reader through your points • Ensure that you own the argument and speak

knowledgeably about it in your own words • Avoid just summarising articles, studies or theories • Synthesise and critically evaluate your sources • In the editing process, they can help you determine

if your argument flows logically, and also to identify redundancies that should be cut.

Writing with Authority

A topic sentence is NOT…

• A summary • An announcement of a fact or statistic • A definition (unless you link it to a claim) • A quotation that stands by itself with no interaction

from you

Writing with Authority

A weaker topic sentence would be… Mackinnon (1994) states that the law should provide women with special treatment because they are different from men. But a stronger topic sentence is… Although the common goal for feminists is to remove inequalities from the law, there are different views among feminist legal thinkers towards how this ought to be achieved.

In short, topic sentences are:

CRITICAL. NOT DESCRIPTIVE.

Referencing with sophistication

To ensure your topic sentences are supported by solid evidence, follow the ‘SEE’ paragraph method:

• Topic Sentence

• Evidence

• Explanation

S

E

E

In the tea industry, which relies heavily on reputation and taste over trend, the benefits of direct and organic marketing far outweigh the more traditional elements of the marketing mix. Direct marketing can provide a more personal service (Fill, 2005), whilst organic marketing can provide a sense of community and allows contact and the transferring of knowledge with customers (Ghambari, 2008). In considering community in marketing strategy, Booms and Bitner (1981) suggest an extended marketing mix including people as a key element. This emphasises the impact of culture on the success of the tea industry, and in turn allows for the inclusion of cultural practices in marketing strategy development.

S

E

E

Identify the ‘SEE’

Referencing with sophistication

Your evidence, of course, is your references.

Sophisticated Writing… • interrogates sources • synthesises sources • puts itself in conversation with those

sources • references consistently and correctly

Never let a quotation speak for itself.

Referencing with sophistication

Integrate references with sophistication by…

• Using a mix of direct quotes (in inverted commas) and indirect quotes (paraphrasing)

• Only directly quoting what you couldn’t have said better yourself

• Working partial direct quotes into your own sentences

• Making sure they are relevant and authoritative • Referring to multiple references at once and

putting them all in brackets at the end

Know (and vary!) your toolbox

Indirect quotation (paraphrasing)

• Demonstrates broad knowledge and understanding • Distils ideas and conserves word count • Allows for sophisticated synthesis of ideas

Direct quotation (in speech marks)

• Brings ‘punch’ and interest to a point • Demonstrates ability to integrate others’ ideas

grammatically • Should only be used if you couldn’t have said it

better yourself

Referencing with sophistication

Something else to worry about… Over-referencing.

• It can undermine your authority • Examiners can infer that you don’t have any of

your own ideas

Remember

Referencing is not just something you do to show you haven’t plagiarised. It is an integral part of the process through which you build academic authority.

In Summary

Writing ‘academically’…

• Can mean resisting the urge to ‘sound academic’

• Involves a fervent focus on structure and clarity

• Does not mean you have to write yourself out of the equation

• Means a dogged dedication to referencing • Is writing to persuade, so never forget your

audience

Any questions? http://dissertationforum.wordpress.com/

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