How small and medium-sized enterprises in developing ... · HOW SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISES...

How small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries

can protect the ozone layer

UNEP

UNEP

United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and EconomicsOzonAction Programme

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

Copyright 2000 UNEP

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part andin any form for educational and non-profit purposes withoutspecial permission from the copyright holder, providedacknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP wouldappreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses thispublication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for anyother commercial purpose whatsoever without priorpermission in writing from UNEP.

The technical papers in this publication have not been peer-reviewed and are sole opinion of the authors. Thedesignations employed and the presentation of the material inthis publication therefore do not imply the expression of anyopinion whatsoever on the part of the United NationsEnvironment Programme concerning the legal status of anycountry, territory, city or area or of its authorities, orconcerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Moreover, the views expressed do not necessarily represent thedecision or the stated policy of the United NationsEnvironment Programme, nor does citing of trade names orcommercial processes constitute endorsement.

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

ISBN: 92-807-1717-0

How small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries

can protect the ozone layer

UNEP

United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and EconomicsOzonAction Programme

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

Acknowledgements

This handbook was prepared by the United Nations Environment ProgrammeDivision of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE), and funded as partof the UNEP’s Work Programme under the Multilateral Fund for theImplementation of the Montreal Protocol

This project was managed by:Mrs Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, Assistant Executive Director, Director, UNEP DTIEMr Rajendra M Shende, Chief, UNEP DTIE Energy and OzonAction Unit, Ms Cecilia Mercado, Information Officer, UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme Ms Céline Schwob, Programme Assistant, UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme

Consultant: Eleanor TorenEditor: Robin Clarke

Draft versions of this handbook were quality reviewed by:Dr Radhey S. Agarwal, co-chair, UNEP Refrigeration Technical Options CommitteeMr Brian Ellis, Member, UNEP Solvents Technical Options CommitteeMr Bert Veneendal, Member, UNEP Foams Technical Options Committee

UNEP Staff who assisted in reviewing the document:

Mr Jim Curlin, Information OfficerMr Heikki Willstedt, Junior Programme Officer

Design and Layout: Words and Publications, Oxford, UKIllustrations: Mr Joseph Kariuki

ii

HOW SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN PROTECT THE OZONE LAYER

Foreword

It has been more than ten years since a globalcommunity who agreed to protect the ozone layersigned the Montreal Protocol to phase out ozonedepleting substances. During this time, a number ofcases illustrating the success of this uniqueinternational agreement have been circulated, oftengiving rise to the notion that the ozone problem isnow solved.

As a large number of countries are receivingassistance from the Multilateral Fund of theMontreal Protocol, more projects to phase out theuse of ODS are getting completed. However, this isnot the reason for complacency. Although many large

enterprises in developed and developing countries are now using ODS-freealternatives, there is still a sector remains a challenge to the Protocol implementation:small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs).

Large numbers of SMEs are found in many of the rapidly growing ODS consumingcountries. Because of their size, and the nature of their enterprise, they are not veryeasy to reach, and are often difficult to locate. In many cases, they also have limitedor specialized technical capabilities. It is however recognized that they are animportant part of the efforts to phase out ODS, and contribute a substantial share ofthe ODS consumption of many countries.

UNEP, in its role as information clearinghouse under the Montreal Protocol iscommitted to providing assistance and knowledge to SMEs to help them with theirphase out efforts. Through this handbook designed specifically for SMEs, it is hopedthat these enterprises will assess their present operations and find out optionsavailable for them to phase out ODS in their specific sector. The handbook is alsoexpected to provide ways to eliminate or at least substantially reduce ODS usethrough illustration of case studies of specific SMEs who have succeeded usingalternatives. It presents both technical and policy options that an SME can considerand eventually adopt for the long term, including resources and contacts that theycan easily get in touch with if more detailed information is necessary.

It is hoped that this document, along with UNEP’s other existing informationmaterials, will contribute greatly to facing one of the remaining challenges under theMontreal Protocol, and that its use will facilitate the phase out of ODS in SMEs.

iii


Dr Klaus TöpferUNEP Executive Director


iv

Is this handbook for you?

If your enterprise is involved in one of the following businesses, this handbook is for you:

Refrigeration and air conditioning● refrigeration service companies which service and repair existing, installed

industrial, commercial, domestic and mobile refrigeration and air-conditioningequipment;

● manufacturers or installers of new refrigeration or air-conditioning equipment; ● manufacturers of compressors, condensers, evaporators and other refrigeration

components.

FoamsManufacturers of:● flexible polyurethane foams for comfort, automotive and packaging applications; ● rigid polyurethane foams for appliances, building, transportation and thermoware

applications;● integral skin or microcellular polyurethane foams for furniture, automotive and

shoe sole applications; ● extruded polystyrene foam sheet for food packaging;● extruded PE foams for general packaging and pipe insulation in building

applications.

AerosolsFillers of aerosol cans for:● personal household products such as colognes and perfumes, hair sprays, pet

sprays, glass cleaners; ● household cleaning products such as furniture polishes, fabric sizers, carpet and

upholstery cleaners; ● pesticides; ● solvents; ● medical products.

Solvents Preparation or users of solvents for:● cleaning during manufacture of jewellery, belt buckles, printed circuit boards; ● general metal cleaning during manufacture or maintenance of equipment; ● precision cleaning of medical equipment, aircraft controls, auto-rivetting; ● dry cleaning of fabrics and clothing; ● for adhesives in foam, particle board and plywood; ● manufacturers of cleaning equipment; ● blenders of custom solvents.


v

How to use the handbook

Read Chapters 1 to 3to learn about:

This Handbook • Ozone depletion • The role of SMEs

Read Chapter 4for general considerations forchoosing an ODS alternative

Choose the Chapterfor your sector

Review Chapters 9 to 10for more information on

sources of assistance

Refrigeration andair conditioning Foams

Chapter 7 Chapter 8Chapter 5 Chapter 6

AerosolsSolvents, coatings

and adhesives

vi


Part I: Introduction 1

About this handbook 2

Depletion of the ozone layer: a global problem with local solutions 5

How SMEs in developing countries can protect the ozone layer 9

Part II: Alternative technologies in ODS-using sectors 15

Options for change in major ODS-using sectors 16

Refrigeration and air conditioning 20

Foams 33

Aerosols 41

Solvents, coatings and adhesives 47

Part III: Sources of assistance 59

The Multilateral Fund for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol 60

Further information sources 62

Contents

1

2

3

4

7

8

9

10

5

6


1

PART I

INTRODUCTION


2

SMEs and the depletion of the ozone layerThis handbook is a tool to be used byyou, the owners, operators or employeesof small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs) in developing countries. It waswritten to assist you in looking at yourpresent operations to see if they includethe use of chemicals that are damagingthe ozone layer. If you find that you areusing these chemicals, this handbook willhelp you find ways to substantially reduceand eventually eliminate, their use.

Businesses which use ozone depletingchemicals are classified in four sectors:

● Refrigeration and Air Conditioning● Foams● Aerosols● Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives

If your enterprise is in one of thesesectors, this Handbook is for you.

It may surprise you to discover that yourrelatively small business could have animpact on something as distant and vastas the ozone layer far above the earth.But because there are so many SMEs in

most countries—they can account for upto 80 percent of the economy in somecountries—their activities taken as awhole significantly increase the amountof damaging chemicals being releasedinto the atmosphere. Ozone damagingchemicals are called ozone depletingsubstances or simply ODS; which is theterm we will use in this handbook.

World action to save the ozone layerfocused first on the large companies indeveloped countries, particularly themultinationals. Their activities were soextensive that it was important for themto lead the way in converting to non-ozone depleting substances. To a largeextent, they have been very successful inrising to this challenge. Now it is theturn of small business people, like you, todo their part to protect the ozone layer.

As the largest users of ODS, developedcountries agreed to start reducing theiruse of ODS first. You should be awarethat the first freeze on the consumptionof commonly used ODS in developing

About this handbook

The definition of small and medium

enterprises (SMEs) varies from country to

country. SMEs generally have a small

number of employees (from 1 to 150),

small production capacity, and limited

financial resources. In many countries

they dominate the economy, accounting

for up to 80 percent of economic

activity.

What is an SME?

The first control measure fordeveloping countries commenced in1999. Starting from July 1999, theconsumption of the followingchemicals are frozen at 1995–1997levels and will be graduallyeliminated by 2010.● CFC-11● CFC-12● CFC-113● CFC-114● CFC-115

The 1999 Freeze

1

3

ABOUT THIS HANDBOOK

countries, particularly CFCs, has comeinto effect in 1999. In following years,these chemicals will be phased outentirely. This marks the second stage ofa phase-out strategy which willeventually result in the elimination ofalmost all ODS production andconsumption in both developed anddeveloping countries.

There are good reasons to changeThis means that there are some goodreasons for you to start now to plan for achange in products or productionmethods used in your business:

● If a substance you now use is beingphased out globally, you will soonfind that it will no longer be availableor may only be available atsignificantly higher cost.

● It is also likely that your government,

as signatory to the MontrealProtocol, which contains measures toeliminate the use of ODS, hasintroduced or is in the process ofintroducing its own measures to endor discourage the use and/orproduction of ODS.

● If you start phasing out now, youmay find you are eligible for technicalor financial assistance which will notbe available to those who wait untilthe end.

● If you are an exporter you may wellfind that in your export market,products containing or processed withODS may no longer be legallyimported.

● You will be protecting yourenvironment by helping to reduce thedestruction of the ozone layer.

● In many instances, the private sectorhas been highly successful in findingnew processes or substances toreplace the use of ODS. Researchand experimentation has alreadyproduced several alternatives whichwork as well or better than the oldones and …

● Some alternatives even cost less as well.

How to use this handbookThis handbook will help you get startedon the process of eliminating ODS usein your operations. Each Part isdesigned to address an aspect of yourneeds as you begin your plans.

● Read Part 1 (Chapters 1–3) to findthe background information yourequire to understand the globalprocess which is driving the need foryou to make changes in youroperations. It will answer many of the

questions you have about the impactof change on your business.

● Read Part 2 (Chapters 4–8) to findout about the alternatives which youwill want to consider as youundertake the conversion to non-ozone depleting practices. ReadChapter four first for a generaldiscussion of ODS alternatives andthe issues you will have to consider inmaking a change and then turn tothe sector chapter that applies toyour business.

● Use Part 3 (Chapters 9–10) to helpyou find sources of information,technology and financial assistance.

● ODS will be phased out globally

● alternatives are available and some

cost less as well

● technical and financial assistance is

available from the Multilateral Fund

of the Montreal Protocol

Why change?


4

What you will find in this handbookPart 1We begin, in Chapter 2, with some basicinformation on the ozone layer, what itdoes and why its preservation is crucialto life the earth. We also introduce youto the chemical processes which areresponsible for ozone depletion and listthe substances which trigger theseprocesses. Here you will find referencesto the chemicals you are currently usingin your business that will eventually haveto be eliminated. We introduce you tothe Montreal Protocol, providing youwith its key provisions and its timetablefor the phase-out of ODS inparticipating countries.

One of the most important sources ofassistance for developing countries is theMultilateral Fund for the Implementationof the Montreal Protocol which wasestablished specifically to assist developingcountries in meeting the requirements ofthe Protocol. The mandate, structure andactivities of the Fund are described here.You may find that the support you needwill be provided through the activitiessponsored by the Fund.

In Chapter 3, we look at SMEs to helpyou identify how you fit into thepicture. We take a general look at SMEsand their importance to their nationaleconomies. We look at the key concernsof SMEs and indicate how the strategiesadopted by various national andinternational organizations are helpingto meet these concerns.

Part 2This Part provides a discussion of themost viable ODS alternatives in four

sectors: refrigeration and airconditioning, foamed plastics, aerosolsand solvents.

In Chapter 4 we introduce the mainODS alternatives and discuss the criteriathat should be considered in selectingthe right option for you.

The chapters devoted to individual sectors(Chapters 5–8) include a discussion of thesector, current practices which involve theuse of ODS, and a description of viablealternative processes and substances. Thediscussion of each substance will provideyou with both the benefits and problemsrelated to its use. In many cases, a switchto a new substance will require differentor additional equipment, staff trainingand/or the adoption of an entirely newprocess. Of critical importance to you asyou consider various options is the listingof additional sources of information,assistance, technology and suppliers whichis provided at the end of each chapter.

Part 3In Chapter 9 you will find someguidelines to assess your eligibility forassistance from the Multilateral Fund.

Chapter 10 provides general informationsources as well as listing of agencieswhich have programs to assist SMEconversion.


5

What is happening to the ozone layer?Ozone is a naturally occurring gas whichis created by high energy radiation fromthe Sun. The radiation breaks downoxygen molecules, releasing free atomswhich bond with other oxygenmolecules to form ozone. The greatestconcentration of ozone, known as theozone layer, occurs at 20–25 kilometresabove the Earth in the stratosphere. Itscritical role for humans, animals andplants is the absorption of the certainultraviolet rays of the sun (UV-B) whichare harmful to almost all forms of life onEarth. UV-B radiation is known to causehuman skin cancer, eye damage andcataracts; and to increase susceptibility toinfectious diseases such as malaria.

In 1985 a ‘hole’ was discovered in theozone layer over the Antarctic, associatedwith increased levels of chlorine in thestratosphere. This confirmed growingscientific evidence that the ozone layerwas being depleted by the expanding useof certain man-made chemicals,commonly known as CFCs. Whenreleased to the air, chemicals containingchlorine and bromine gradually infiltrateall parts of the atmosphere. Once in thestratosphere they are broken down bythe high levels of solar UV radiation,freeing extremely reactive chlorine andbromine atoms which, through acomplex series of reactions, destroythousands of ozone molecules.

It is now known that even very smallconcentrations of chlorine or bromine canbreak down sufficient ozone to seriouslydeplete the ozone layer. For examplethere are large scale losses to the ozonelayer over the Antarctic every spring and

similar, though weaker, losses over theArctic. There is also evidence that ozonelevels decrease in the spring and summerin both hemispheres and also during thewinter in the southern hemisphere.

What attacks the ozone layer?A number of man-made chemicals arecapable of destroying stratosphericozone. They all have two features incommon:

● in the lower atmosphere they areremarkably stable, being largelyinsoluble in water and resistant tophysical and biological breakdown;

● they contain chlorine and bromine.

The stability and safety of thesechemicals, primarily CFCs, led to theirincreasing use by industry in a widevariety of areas. They include thefollowing, all of which are to be phased

out under the measures established bythe Montreal Protocol:

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are usedas a refrigerant in refrigerators and airconditioners; as a propellant in aerosolspray cans; as a blowing agent in themanufacture of foams and as a cleaningagent for printed circuit boards and otherequipment.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) arerelated to CFCs and were largelydeveloped as substitutes for CFCs,especially as refrigerants and blowingagents. HCFCs are less destructive thanCFCs because their extra hydrogen atommakes them more likely to break downin the lower atmosphere, preventingmuch of their chlorine from reaching the

Depletion of the ozone layer: a global problem with localsolutions

2

For humans

Increases in:

● skin cancer

● snow blindness

● cataracts

Less immunity to:

● infectious diseases

● malaria

● herpes

For plants

● smaller size

● lower yields

● increased toxicity

● altered form

For marine life

Reduced:

● plankton

● juvenile fish

● larval crabs and shrimps

The price of ozone depletion

When Where

Every spring AntarcticaArctic

Every summer Southern andNorthern Hemispheres

Every winter Southern Hemisphere

Decreasing ozone levels


6

stratosphere. However HCFCs still havean ozone depleting potential (ODP)which means they are unsuitable for longterm use.

Carbon tetrachloride and methylchloroform are chlorine-containingchemicals that have been widely used assolvents, mainly for cleaning metalsduring engineering and manufacturingoperations.

Bromofluorocarbons (BFCs) are bromine-containing chemicals called Halons thathave been used primarily to extinguishfires. Some of these are among the mostpotent ozone destroyers—up to tentimes more powerful than the mostdestructive CFCs.

Methyl bromide is mainly used as anagricultural fumigant used mainly in soilapplication.

The Montreal ProtocolConcerted global action to halt ozonedestruction began in 1985 with thesigning of the Vienna Convention forthe Protection of the Ozone Layer.Through the Convention, membercountries agreed to take ‘appropriatemeasures’ to reduce ODS consumption.These measures were transformed tolegal commitments in 1987 with theadoption of the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the OzoneLayer. With evidence mounting that theozone levels were in serious danger, aworldwide effort began to safeguard theozone layer. And for the first time,controls on the production,consumption and use of ODS wereglobally agreed.

The original Montreal Protocol called forthe limitation of the production andconsumption of eight ‘controlledsubstances’. At subsequent meetings of theParties to the Protocol held in London,Copenhagen, Vienna, Montreal andBeijing requirements for action havemoved from reduction in production andconsumption of 5 CFCs and 3 halons, tothe phase-out of 15 CFCs, 3 halons, 34HBFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methylchloroform. A longer-term reductionschedule has been agreed to for 40HCFCs and the list of controlledsubstances has now been extended toinclude methyl bromide.

By March 2000, more than 160countries had ratified the Protocol andwere legally bound by its requirements.About one-third of the ratifyingcountries are developed and two-thirdsare developing countries. Parties to theProtocol are listed in Appendix 1.

Recognizing the need of developingcountries for economic developmentand, until recently, their modest use ofCFCs, the Parties to the Protocol agreedto provide them with a ‘grace period’ often years more than developed countriesto implement the phase-out measures ofthe Protocol. The schedule for phaseoutby developing countries is provided onpage 14.

The Parties also agreed that developedcountries would provide technical andfinancial assistance to developing countriesthrough a financial mechanism, theMultilateral Fund for the Implementationof the Montreal Protocol.

DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER: A GLOBAL PROBLEM WITH LOCAL SOLUTIONS

7

Results of international actionParties to the Protocol agreed to reduceand then eliminate the use of ODSbefore substitutes and alternativetechnologies were fully available. Thishas proved to be a successful strategy.ODS replacement has been more rapid,less expensive, and more innovative thanwas anticipated. Industry has led the wayin developing alternative substances andprocesses for almost every use of ODS.And in many cases, the alternativetechnologies adopted have been effectiveand inexpensive enough that consumershave not yet felt any noticeable impact.Today many countries are well on theirway to a complete phase-out of ODS.

The need for alternatives initiated the useof several new substances and processes. Itnot only promoted technical creativity, itcontributed to the creation of newinformation networks and newcooperative ventures. It now providesconsiderable experience in carrying outconversions and a sense of sharedchallenges and commitments as those inthe global ozone network (includingindustry, scientists, governments and non-governmental organizations) worktogether to come up with practicalsolutions to this urgent problem.

As you read through the sections on yoursector you will see that you are not alonein finding a solution for your operations.Considerable work has already been doneto find a viable alternative for the ODSyou are using. Several organizations—international, non-governmental,industry, governmental—are there andready to provide information, technicalsupport and, in some cases, financialassistance to you.

The Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal ProtocolIn 1990 the Parties to the MontrealProtocol decided to establish theMultilateral Fund to provide financialand technical cooperation, includingtechnology transfer, to developingcountries to help them comply with thecontrols established by the Protocol.Since these countries operate underArticle 5 of the Montreal Protocol, theyare often referred to as Article 5countries. There are now some 120Article 5 countries.

The Fund provides a range of assistanceincluding:

● technical expertise● information on new technologies● training workshops and seminars● demonstration programs ● funding to develop and implement

investment projects and programmesto phase out ODS

Through these activities the MultilateralFund has been an important vehicle fortransferring environmentally sound andproven technologies to developingcountries.

The work of the Fund is carried out byfour implementing agencies:

The United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) assists inpreparing national—or country—programmes, investment projectplanning and preparation, training anddemonstration projects.

ODS Ozone-depleting substances

which include CFCs, HCFCs,

HBFCs, halons, methyl

chloroform (TCA), carbon

tetrachloride and methyl

bromide.

ODP Ozone-depleting potential: a

measure of the amount of

stratospheric ozone that can be

destroyed by a substance

compared to CFC-11, which is

rated as having an ODP of 1.0.

GWP Global warming potential: a

measure of the effect a substance

can have on warming the Earth’s

atmosphere leading to climate

change.

VOC Volatile organic compound: will

evaporate during use and

contribute to ground level air

pollution (smog).

HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons: a family of

chemicals related to CFCs but

which contain neither chlorine

nor bromine so they do not

deplete the ozone layer.

Some definitions

8


The United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP) Through theUNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme,UNEP collects data, provides aninformation clearinghouse and offerstraining and networking assistance.

The United Nations IndustrialDevelopment Organization (UNIDO)runs small-to medium scale investmentprojects and offers technical assistanceand training for individual enterprises.

The World Bank cooperates and assistsin administering and managing aprogramme to finance the costs of phase-out activities.

In addition to financial contributions tothe Fund, many developed countriescarry out bilateral cooperation projectswith developing countries. While carried

out within the provisions of theProtocol, these bilateral projects providean opportunity for donors to workdirectly with recipient countries and todemonstrate some of their leadingtechnological and training capabilities.

Requests for Multilateral Fund assistancemust be submitted by a nationalgovernment and require approval by theExecutive Committee of the Fund.Interested SMEs should request theirgovernments to submit their requests tothe Fund Secretariat, to animplementing agency or to an agencyproviding bilateral assistance. In all casesit is essential that you have the supportof your national ozone unit orenvironment department in developingplans for your project. For moreinformation on the Multilateral Fund,see Chapter 9.


9

What is an SME?SMEs are often called the backbone ofthe economy. This is not surprising. Inmany countries they account for thelargest share of economic activity and aneven larger share of employment. This isparticularly true of developing countrieswhere SMEs can account for up to 80percent of economic activity. Inaddition, many SMEs are family-ownedand operated businesses, providingemployment and income within theirlocal communities.There is no doubtthat SMEs are vital to the economic andsocial structures of their countries.

The definition of SMEs varies fromcountry to country. It can be based on thenumber of employees, annual sales, totalenterprise assets or a combination of thesefactors. In practice there is enormousvariability in the size of SME enterprises;ranging from larger, more established onesfunctioning within the formal economy(e.g. established as a legal entity,belonging to an industry association) tosmall one-person operations with no legalstatus. An SME may be a 5 person aerosolfilling operation, a 120 person customblender of solvents, a two unit spray foaminsulation contractor, or a one-manrefrigerator repair service.

Most SMEs are small, having fewer than50 employees. In some cases facilitiescan be quite basic, with hand-operatedsystems and few safety measures. SMEsare geographically scattered. Some areconcentrated in urban centres whileothers are distributed throughout thecountryside. Many small SMEs operatein the informal sector without legalstatus or the assistance of industryassociations or government.

Why are SMEs important to ODS phase out?As developing countries grow andindustrialize, consumer demand alsoincreases. Much of this growth indemand is for goods and services thatuse ODS in their production. The resultis increasing ODS consumption.

Large numbers of SMEs are found inmany of the rapidly growing ODSconsuming industries. For example,items such as refrigerators, airconditioners, specialized cleaningsolvents, aerosol dispensers and foampackaging are increasingly in demand.The SMEs that make or service theseand other products are significantconsumers of ODS. With the comingreduction on the consumption of severalCFCs used in these products, early plansfor a reduction and eventual phase outof their use is essential.

Industry, governments and internationalagencies recognize that SMEs are animportant part of the effort to phase outODS. They have therefore developed anumber of programs to assist SMES inmeeting the phase-out schedules adoptedas part of each government’s countryprogramme for ODS elimination. Theseschedules are often supported by lawswhich will restrict or ban the use,manufacture or importation of ODSover the next few years.

What are your concerns?As an SME owner or employee, you willbe familiar with many of thecharacteristics associated with SMEslisted above. If financial and technicalresources are not readily available for

How SMEs in developingcountries can protect theozone layer

3

● small production capacity

● limited financial and humanresources

● limited or specialized technicalcapabilities

● dependent on outside sources forraw materials and technology

● flexible and adaptable

● responsive to customer needs

● operate in competitive markets

General characteristics of SMEs

● Cost increases

● Product quality and effectiveness

● Maintenance of competitive position

● Technical complications

● Worker safety

● Access to funding

● Access to new technology,substances and equipment

SME phase-out concerns

10


conversion to a non-ODS alternative, itmay be difficult for you to change yourmode of operation. In addition, you maynot be familiar with the newtechnologies proposed for your industryand you may be unaware of some of theenvironmental, health and safety issuesassociated with the chemicals you willneed to use for conversion. The ozone

community (comprised of MontrealProtocol organizations, national ozoneunits and ozone specialists around theworld) recognizes that SME owners andoperators have major concerns aboutconversion to non-ozone depletingpractices and substances and is workingto address them.

In an effort to eliminate an important source of ODS consumption in the Philippines, a

project was completed that assisted 20 SMEs that are custom formulators of solvents to

eliminate the use of CFC-113, TCA, CFC-11 and CFC-12 in their operations. There is a

concern that ODS use in this sector is increasing rapidly. This is primarily due to the

expansion of the electronics and metal cleaning industries.

A number of incentives have thus been put in place to bring this change about:

Regulatory restrictions

The Philippine Government restricts imports of ODS to 1991–92 levels and has also

announced a ban on imports of TCA and carbon tetrachloride at the end of 1997, both of

which are 100 percent imported. In addition at the end of 1998, the import of CFC-113

will be banned and CFC-11 and 12 will be restricted to maintaining existing equipment.

Customer demand

Large corporations and multinationals are informing their suppliers, including custom

blenders, that they wish to see ODS removed from any product they purchase.

Public recognition

A publicity programme will give public recognition to the first six companies to be

converted. This is expected to give them greater credibility in the marketplace.

Financial and technical assistance

The remaining 14 companies will be encouraged to to step forward to obtain similar

benefits of acknowledgement and technology transfer. After the second wave of

conversion, no further funding will be made available.

Incentives for change: an example from the Philippines

Source: UNDP Project: Elimination of the Use of CFC-113, TCA, CFC-11 and CFC-12 at MultipleCorporations that Manufacture Special Formulations for Various Industrial Markets

HOW SMES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN PROTECT THE OZONE LAYER

11

Addressing your concerns: questions and answers

Cost increasesSME: Conversion to new technologies orsubstances implies changes for me and mycustomers. I operate in a highly competitivemarket; if my customers are dissatisfied Imay lose my share of the market. If newsubstances are more expensive or a largecapital investment in new equipment isrequired, my costs will be higher.

As the phase-out of ODS is adopted ona global basis the supplies of bannedsubstances will be limited, increasingtheir costs considerably. Many CFCs arealready more expensive. This means thatconversion to alternatives will be lessexpensive in the long run. In addition, asresearch and experimentation continues,several of the alternatives are no morecostly than current practices.

Product quality and effectivenessSME: My customers and I want to beassured that the new product will be asgood as or better than the old one. Will Ilose my customers if they have to changetheir operations or purchase additionalequipment to achieve the desired results?

In most cases quality alternatives havebeen developed. In some instances, itmay not yet be possible to convert toalternatives because a suitable one hasnot yet been developed. With improvedaccess to new technologies throughindustry associations, the private sector,national ozone units and internationalagencies, SMEs are being provided withalternatives which will ensure quality. Ininstances where you or your customershave to make equipment changes to

manufacture or use your new products,financial assistance may be available.

Maintenance of competitive positionSME: What will the impact on ourbusiness be if we convert to new processesor substances and our competitors do not?If we are ‘ahead of the pack’, will we enjoya competitive advantage? Or will we losecustomers if our prices are higher or ourproduct requires customer adjustments notimposed by our competitors?

If your country has imposed restrictionsor bans on the use of ODS, it is likelythat you and your competitors will haveto convert at about the same time, sothat you should be able to maintainyour competitive position. In manycountries efforts are being made to workwith SMEs on a sector, sub-sector orindustry-wide basis. Industryassociations and governmentorganizations frequently offer trainingprograms to assist with conversion.

Technical complicationsSME: It may be difficult for some of ourstaff to understand the requirements ofnew substances and technologies. Also Ibelieve that we lack the expertise requiredto assess the various options for conversion.We may have to rely on suppliers or localdealers or importers for information onnew products, and I am not sure that theyhave the necessary information or time topass it on to us.

A wide array of technical assistanceprograms are available to SMEs.Workshops and specialty programmesare offered by industry groups,international agencies, local NGOs andnational governments. In addition,


12

several international businessorganizations offer their assistance indeveloping countries. The OzonActionProgramme has a broad informationmandate and provides detailedtechnical information to NationalOzone Units (NOU) and throughpublications. You will find references toseveral useful information sources inthe sector chapters which follow.

Worker safetySME: Many of the alternative substancesare flammable or toxic. My first choicewould be the safest alternative, but whatdo I do if I have to choose a moredangerous substance? Facilities at my plantare not equipped to meet new safetyrequirements and I am concerned aboutthe safety of the workers and about thecosts of renovating the premises andinstalling adequate safety equipment.Employees will also need to be trained towork in these new conditions.

If you have to choose a substance that isflammable or toxic, trainingprogrammes are provided for you andyour workers through national andinternational groups. You can find outabout these programmes from yourNOU. For conversions that requiresafety renovations or equipment, fundsfor incremental costs are availablethrough projects approved by theMultilateral Fund. In some instances,centralized facilities are beingestablished to ensure that SMEs haveaccess to safe modern equipment.

Access to fundingSME: Where will I get financing to payfor the required changes? In mycommunity local financial institutions may

be unwilling to lend the money requiredfor conversion.

For eligible projects, financial assistancefor conversion is available through theMultilateral Fund. The steps required toapply for funding are listed in Chapter10. Information on available financialassistance is supplied by your NOU.

Access to new technology, substancesand equipmentSME: As I convert to non-ODSoperations,I want to be assured that I haveaccess to the most appropriate technology,substances and equipment. I want to knowhow to contact the suppliers who can bestmeet my needs.

The Technical Options Committees(TOC) established by the MontrealProtocol include many of the world’sleading experts on ODS replacements.Their advice is supplied through TOCReports or Source Books which providethe detailed technical information youneed to choose the most appropriateoption for you. These Source Books alsosupply the names of the major suppliersof the substances or technologiesrequired. Workshops on technologyconversion are available to SMEs.

Developing a strategy to reduceODS consumption The Ozone Community has developed awide variety of strategies to make youaware of ozone depletion and to helpyou find a suitable alternative to theODS you are now using. Thesestrategies include the preparation ofinformation material through books andpamphlets, workshops, training courses,

HOW SMES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CAN PROTECT THE OZONE LAYER

13

and industry and business organizations.They have also used the experience ofearly phase-out in developed and somedeveloping countries to help themdetermine the best options for you.Many of these options are beingintroduced in projects that assistconversion of a large number of SMEswithin a single project.

For your part, there are also actions whichyou can take to ensure that you make thechoices that are right for you and yourbusiness. The technological optionsavailable to you are discussed in Part 2. Inaddition to reviewing these options, youmay want to follow up on one or more ofthe following suggestions as part of yourown strategic approach to ODS phase out.

✔ Make sure you have all the information you need. Contact your local industry or

business association, national ozone unit, responsible government department, and

your buyers or suppliers and ask for information and up-coming activities that are

relevant to your sector and references guiding you to more detailed information.

✔ Learn all you can about alternative technologies and substances. After you finish this

chapter, turn to Part 2 where you will find an introductory discussion of the alternatives

recommended for your sector.

✔ Ask your suppliers to provide you with information on new substances or processes.

✔ If your present suppliers can’t provide the substances or information you need, find out

about other sources.

✔ Attend information sessions, training courses, technology cooperation workshops.

✔ Learn about your national phase-out strategy through your national ozone unit.

✔ Discuss the availability of technical and financial assistance with your national

ozone unit

SME action checklist


Year beginning Control measuresand thereafter

1 July 1999 Freeze of Annex A CFCs1 at 1995–1997 average levels5

1 January 2002 Freeze of halons at 1995–1997 average levels5

Freeze of methyl bromide at 1995–1998 average levelsPhase out of bromochloromethane

1 January 2003 Annex B CFCs2 reduced by 20% from 1998–2000 average consumption6

Freeze in methyl chloroform at 1998–2000 average levels

1 January 2005 Annex A CFCs reduced by 50% from 1995–1997 average levels5

Halons3 reduced by 50% from 1995–1997 average levels5

Carbon tetrachloride reduced by 85% from 1998–2000 average levelsMethyl chloroform reduced by 30% from 1998–2000 average levelsMethyl bromide reduced by 20% from 1995–1998 average levels

1 January 2007 Annex A CFCs reduced by 85% from 1995–1997 average levels5

Annex B CFCs reduced by 85% from 1998–2000 average levels6

1 January 2010 CFCs, halons and carbon tetrachloride phased out per the London AmendmentMethyl chloroform reduced by 70% from 1998–2000 average levels

1 January 2015 Methyl chloroform and methyl bromide phased out

1 January 2016 Freeze of HCFCs4 at base line figure of year 2015 average levels

1 January 2040 HCFCs phased out

Latest phase-out schedule for countries operating under Article 5as agreed by the Parties to the Montreal Protocol at their 11th Meeting (Beijing 29 November–3 December 1999)

1Annex A: CFCs 11, 12, 113, 114, 1152Annex B: CFCs 13,111, 112, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217. 3Halons 1211, 1301, 2402 434 hydrochlorofluorocarbons5calculated level of production of 0.3 kg/capita can also be used for calculation, if lower 6calculated level of production of 0.2 kg/capita can also be used for calculation, if lower

14


15

PART II

ALTERNATIVETECHNOLOGIES IN

ODS-USINGSECTORS


16

The major ODS sectorsIn chapters 5 to 8, you will find adiscussion of alternative substances andtechnologies for each of the major ODS-consuming sectors:

● the manufacture, maintenance andrepair of refrigeration and airconditioning equipment;

● the production of foamed plastics;● the production of aerosol products; and

● the manufacture, blending or use ofsolvents.

Each chapter contains a brief descriptionof the sector and its sub-sectors, a reviewcurrent CFC use and a discussion of thenon-ODS alternatives available to you.The properties of alternatives areprovided, together with an examinationof the advantages and disadvantages ofeach alternative. On their own, thesechapters will not provide you all the detailyou need to make a decision. What they

are designed to do is provide you with anintroduction to the options available andto guide you to the sources of moredetailed information and assistance.

Considerations in choosing a non-ODS alternativeWays of reducing or eliminating ODSThere are four general methods ofmaking a change:

● Conservation of ODS—where there isreduction of CFC losses by capture,recovery, recycling and/or reuse. Thisis important in the refrigeration andsolvent sectors where losses arerelatively high.

● Process changes and technologicalalternatives—where conditions are

changed or equipment is adapted sothat the ODS is no longer required.

● Product substitution or not-in-kind—where the product is replaced bysomething completely different, forexample, rigid foam insulation isreplaced by a vacuum chamber.

● Alternative substances—where the ODSis replaced with an alternative substance.

Factors to consider when choosing an ODS alternativeThe selection of an ODS alternativerequires consideration of a number ofissues. As you review your sector you willfind that several considerations must becarefully examined and compared. A majorconsideration will be cost. For example,the best alternative for the environmentmay also be the most expensive one. Insuch a case, you will have to measure thetrade-offs of a cost reduction against theimpact on the environment in order to

choose the best alternative for you.

The factors to be considered in making adecision are listed below with samples ofthe questions you will want answered asyou evaluate the impact of variousoptions on your operations.

1. Economic considerations● What is the least expensive alternative

that meets my needs? ● Can my company obtain the capital

to pay for equipment changes thatmay be required?

2. Technical considerations● Will the alternative do the job

properly so that product quality orreliability is maintained?

Option for change in majorODS-using sectors4

OPTION FOR CHANGE IN MAJOR ODS-USING SECTORS

17

● Will I have to retrofit or replaceequipment in order to introduce thenew process or substance?

● Will the new process require new orupgraded technical skills?

● Is financial assistance available tocover the incremental cost of trainingor new equipment?

3. Health and safety considerations● Is the alternative safe or will it require

worker protection?

● Does the alternative require

protective equipment ?● Is it flammable, requiring special

procedures, equipment and/orinsurance?

4. Company considerations● Is the alternative compatible with

company objectives such as qualityand performance?

● What impact will it have onproduction?

● If it requires a temporary shut-down,how will I look after my customers?

Ozone-depleting chemicals Chemical names, common names, trade names

Chlorofluorocarbons Chemical Names:1,1,2,2,-tetrachlorodifluoroethane;

(CFCs) 1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane; 1,2-dichlorotetrafluoroethane; chlorofluorocarbons;

chloropentafluoroethane; chlorotrifluoromethane; dichlorodifluoromethane; pentachlorofluoroethane;

trichlorofluoromethane

Common Names: CFCs; CFC-11;CFC-12; CFC-13; CFC-111; CFC-112; CFC-113; CFC-114; CFC-115;

CFC-500; CFC-501; CFC-502; CFC-503; CFC-504

Trade Names: Algofrene; Arcton; Arklone; Asahifron; CG Triflon; Daiflon; Flon Showa; Floron; Forane; Freon;

Friogas; Fronsolve; Genetron; Isceon; Korfron; Mafron; Magicdry; Taisoton

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Common Names: HCFC-21; HCFC-22; HCFC-31; HCFC-121; HCFC-122; HCFC-123; HCFC-124;

(HCFCs) HCFC-131; HCFC-132b; HCFC-133a; HCFC-141b; HCFC-142b; HCFC-151; HCFC-225ca; HCFC-225cb.

Trade Names: Algofrene; Arcton; Dymel; Floron; Flugene 22; Forane; Formacel; Frigen; Genosolve;

GHG-12; Halotron; Isceon; McCool; Solkane; Suva; Taisoton; Vertrel

1,1,1-trichloroethane Chemical Names: 1,1,1-trichloroethane; methyl chloroform; CH3CCl3Common Names:1,1,1-Tri; TCA.

Trade Names: AC Delco Fabric; Aerolex; Aerothene; Aquadry; Ardrox; Asahitriethane; Baltane; CG Triethane;

Chemlok; Chlorothene; CRC; Dowclene; Electosolve; Ethana; Genklene; JS-536B; Kanden Triethane; Krylon;

Molybkombin; New Dine T; Norchem; Prelete; Proact; Propaklone; Shine Pearl; Solvathane; Sunlovely; Swish;

Tafclen; Three Bond; Three One; Toyoclean.

Carbon tetrachloride Chemical Names: CCl4; carbon tetrachloride

Chemical, common and trade names for ozone-depleting chemicals

This information was obtained from the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme’s Information Paper on Trade Names of Chemical Products Containing Substances ControlledUnder the Montreal Protocol. March 1996


18

5. Environmental considerations● Does the alternative cause ozone

depletion?● Does the alternative cause global

warming?● Is the alternative classed as a volatile

organic compound which could causesmog formation?

● Does the new process use water whichwould then be contaminated andcould pollute local bodies of waterunless treated?

● Does the new process involvechemicals which could pollute theground water if there was a spill?

6. Regulatory considerations● Does the alternative meet local and

national government regulationscovering things like air and waterquality?

● Is this a transitional substance whichwill have to be phased out in the future?

● What are the regulations regarding

this substance in my export markets?

Alternative substances— some general issuesMany of the alternative substancesdiscussed in the sector chapters haveapplications across several sectors. Ageneral discussion of the advantages anddisadvantages of these substances istherefore included here.

Will you choose a current or ‘transitional’ alternative?Current options: In many instancesthere will be an existing alternativewhich is currently commerciallyavailable, works satisfactorily andpresents no serious health, safety orenvironmental problems which cannot

be effectively controlled. You will wantto consider these options carefully.

Transitional options: In some cases,current alternatives may have anundesirable health, safety orenvironmental characteristic. ReplacingCFCs with HCFCs may provide somebusinesses with an important transitionalperiod, while manufacturers, rawmaterial suppliers, governments andother researchers work towardsdeveloping long-term replacements.

Long-term options: These arealternatives which have no ODP andinsignificant other unwanted side effects.

Characteristics of leading ODSalternativesWhen you examine alternativesubstances you will note that there arefew that can fully replace all the positivequalities of CFCs. You will thus haveconsider whether the problems presentedby the alternatives are manageable inyour current situation.

It will be relatively easy to evaluate thetechnical considerations by matching thephysical and chemical properties of eachalternative to the requirements of eachapplication to determine the best substanceto do the job. But the equipment andsafety issues will be more complicated.

The leading alternatives have at least oneserious disadvantage that must beconsidered, such as:

● ammonia is toxic and flammable;● hydrocarbons are highly flammable

and are VOCs;● HCFCs are ODS;

OPTION FOR CHANGE IN MAJOR ODS-USING SECTORS

19

● HFCs are expensive, may not bereadily available in many countries,and are greenhouse gases with longatmospheric lives; and

● methylene chloride is a VOC and toxic.

Your choice will depend on productapplication and availability, size andlocation of your enterprise and localregulations. Some of the alternativeswhich are hazardous in certain situationsare being widely used by largecorporations which have the experience,training, equipment and finances to dealwith any difficulties. However, use of thesame substances in small, basic operationsin enterprises that may not have theproper equipment, experience, training ortechnical personnel to handle them couldbe very dangerous. Many developingcountry SMEs, for example, are located incongested urban areas where the risk ofleaks, fires or explosions could have aserious impact on employees and thesurrounding community.

HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons have numerousadvantages including their widespreadavailability, low cost, low toxicity, lowGWP and zero ODP. However theirhigh flammability is an importantdisadvantage. It requires safetyprecautions for all aspects of useincluding transportation, handling, andstorage. Higher equipment costs couldresult from the need for explosion-proofequipment and better ventilationfacilities. Employees will also requireadditional training to deal with thesafety aspects. Hydrocarbons are alsovolatile organic compounds (VOCs),which means their use may be restrictedor prohibited in some areas.

HCFCsProbably the most controversialalternatives are the HCFCs. Becausethey have ODPs (ranging from 0.055 to0.11 ) they are classified as ODS and arescheduled to be phased out under theMontreal Protocol. For this reason theyare considered to be ‘transitional’alternatives rather than ‘long-term’alternatives. Yet they are a very practicaloption for smaller enterprises indeveloping countries because they arereadily available and do not have theflammability or toxicity disadvantages ofsome of the other alternatives.

HCFCs have many of the same propertiesthat make CFCs so useful as solvents,refrigerants, aerosol propellants andblowing agents for foams. This meansthat in many applications they can besubstituted as a ‘drop-in’ replacementwithout costly changes to equipment andextensive training. For all these reasons,HCFCs are sometimes a practical way ofbuying time while better ‘long-term’alternatives are being developed and madeavailable. And while they are ODS theywill still reduce the ODP by about 90percent (HCFC-22 has only 5 percent ofthe ODP of CFC-12).

However, there is a cost in using thesetransitional substances. Technical andfinancial assistance from the MultilateralFund is available on a once-only basis.Thus you cannot get assistance forconverting to an HCFC system and thenfurther assistance for converting from atransitional solution to a final one. Youwill want to keep these issues in mind asyou review the alternatives for ODS inyour sector, which is included in one ofthe four following chapters.

20

IntroductionRefrigeration has become an importantcomponent of the domestic economiesof many developing countries. Asindustrialization increases, the demandfor domestic and commercialrefrigeration grows with it. The need forsophisticated and mobile refrigerationequipment has also grown to facilitatethe distribution of food on a nationalbasis and to transport a variety ofperishable products, such as food,flowers and plants to export markets.

The tourism industry has also increasedrefrigeration and air conditioningrequirements for many countries.

The refrigeration and air conditioningsector accounts for the largest share ofconsumption of ODS in developingcountries, ranging from 50 to 90 percentof national consumption. Depending onwhether a country has manufacturingfacilities or not, servicing andmaintenance of refrigeration equipmentcould produce between 60 and 100


Refrigeration and air conditioning5

Management and elimination of ozone-depleting refrigerants

Retrofit blendsService blends

New equipmentExisting equipment

Replacement substances

Eliminationof ODS

ContainmentRecovery

ReuseRecycling

Reclamation

Conservation of ODS

Current practices

Other processesAbsorption systems

Adsorption systemsEvaporative cooling

Sterling cycle

21

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

percent of ODS consumption in thesector. Most service companies areSMEs, and most of these are smallenterprises that consume less than 10tonnes of ODS annually.

Conditions in the refrigerant sectormake it important for SMEs to planfor current and future requirements.Most important to planning is theupcoming reductions on theconsumption of CFCs, many of whichare commonly used refrigerants.Combined with this is the currentwidespread use of refrigerationequipment using CFCs. Since it isunlikely that these units, particularlydomestic, commercial and industrialrefrigerators and air conditioners, willbe replaced before they becomeobsolete, competent maintenance andrepair service of equipment will becritical. Of equal importance to userswill be the recapture and re-use ofexisting CFC refrigerants.

National Refrigerant Management PlansIn low-volume consuming countries aRefrigerant Management Plan (RMP)has been adopted to provide acomprehensive approach to CFC phase-out at the national level. This nationalstrategy is structured to:

● contain, recover and recyclerefrigerants in order to provide theCFCs needed for CFC-usingequipment that is not yet obsolete;and

● provide for retrofits and timelyreplacements of equipment to ensurea smooth transition to non-ODSequipment and operations.

If your country has an RMP it will beimplementing programmes—including arecovery and recycling system andtraining—to meet thesetargets. Action will beencouraged throughvoluntary agreements,legislation, regulationsand economic incentives.You should contact your NOU so thatyou can participate in these activities.

Whether or not there is a national RMPin place, it will be important for you toundertake your own refrigerantmanagement plan in order to ensurethat you are prepared for futureconditions. Training is an essential partof the RMP, as it is an almost inevitablecounterpart to non-ODS conversion, itis important for countries to initiate thepreparation of their own RMPs toensure phase out in this sector.

Refrigeration sub-sectorsThe sector has been divided into theeight categories listed in the table onpage 23. The table also indicatesapplications, currently used ODS andpotential alternative substances forconversion. The sub-sectors accountingfor the largest ODS use are mobile airconditioning, commercial refrigerationand cold storage and food processing.

Current practices The vast majority of present refrigerationand air conditioning equipment uses thevapour compression cycle because of itssimplicity and good efficiency. This isunlikely to change with the introductionof new refrigerants.This cycle uses a fluidcalled a refrigerant and has four basic


22

components: evaporator, compressor,condenser and expansion device.

Because they have so many of theproperties required in a refrigerant,CFCs have been used for many years asthe refrigerant fluid in domestic andcommercial refrigerators, for cold storageand food processing, in industrial andtransport refrigeration equipment, andin stationary and mobile airconditioning units. The most commonODS refrigerant is CFC-12 (60 percentof total). Others include CFC-11, CFC-114, R-500 (CFC-12 and HFC-152a),R-502 (CFC-115 and HCFC-22) andHCFC-22.

Conservation of CFCsWhy conservation is importantRefrigerant conservation serves twoimportant purposes:

● it minimizes damage to theatmosphere by reducing refrigerantemissions; and

● it provides a supply of CFC refrigerants after CFC production stopsby ensuring that refrigerants are reused.

Conservation of CFCs will ensureavailability as supplies of new CFCsdecline. Supplies of CFC-11, CFC-12,CFC-113, CFC-114 and CFC-115 arenow frozen at 1995-97 average levelsand will be completely eliminated by2010. If you are using any of thesesubstances you will have to conserveyour supply or change to a replacement.

Besides protecting the environment,conservation will also help you reducebreakdowns, lower your operating costs

and prolong equipment life. In addition,the reduction in CFC losses will greatlyreduce your refrigerant costs especially asthe price of CFCs increases.

Containment: the prevention and reduction of CFC lossesRefrigerant losses account for a largeproportion of ODS consumption. Forexample, in industrial refrigeration,with equipment that has a life span ofup to 30 years, about 60 percent of allCFCs required are used to replace lossesthrough leakage and servicing. Incommercial refrigeration world-wideaverage yearly leakage is estimated at20-25 percent of the operating charge.In addition, disposal and servicingfurther add to the consumption ofCFCs. On the other hand, theoperation of domestic refrigeratorsinvolves relatively little leakage becausethe units are sealed and few needservicing. In this case problems ariseduring disposal.

While various refrigeration sub-sectorshave different problems with refrigerantlosses, there are three general sources ofloss which affect them all in some way.These are:

● losses from leaks during operation● venting and disposal during servicing● disposal of obsolete equipment and

refrigerant

To be effective, containment techniquesmust be applied to equipment design,operation, maintenance and servicing,and to refrigerant use, recovery, reuse,transport and storage.


23

Sub-sector Application Current ODS Alternatives

Domestic Household CFC-12 HFC-134a and isobutane

refrigeration refrigerators (new equipment); HFC/

HCFC and propane/

isobutane blends (existing

equipment)

Commercial Medium and high CFC-12, HFC-134a, HFC blends

refrigeration Temperature HCFC-22, R-502 (new and existing equipment)

Low temperature HCFC-22, HCFC blends

(new and existing

equipment)

Cold storage Chilled and long term CFC-12, R-502 HCFC-22, HCFC blends

and food storage, dairy and (new and existing

processing soft drink industries. equipment)

Industrial Chemical, CFC-12 HCFC-22, HCFC blends,

refrigeration pharmaceutical, Ammonia (new and

petrochemical and existing equipment)

metallurgical industries

Air-cooled air Domestic and small HCFC-22 HCFC blends (existing

conditioning commercial use equipment), HFC-134a,

(heat pumps) HFC blends (new equipment)

Air Commercial building CFC-11, CFC-12 For CFC-11, HCFC-123

conditioning air conditioning and HFCs; for CFC-12,

(chillers) systems HFC-134a, HCFC and

HFC blends

Transport Truck, rail, ships CFC-12 HCFC-22, HCFC blends,

refrigeration HFC-134a (new equipment)

Automotive Automobiles CFC-12 HFC-134a (new vehicles),

air HCFC blends

conditioning

Alternatives to ozone-depleting substances: refrigeration and air-conditioning sector


24

DesignThe first step in containing refrigerantsis therefore the design of equipment tominimize losses during use. A good

design will include:

● tight systems which will not leakduring the normal life of theequipment

● leak tight valves that permit theremoval of replaceable parts withoutloss of refrigerant

● hermetically sealed compressors● valves located at low points for

efficient liquid refrigerant recoveryduring servicing or disposal ofequipment.

InstallationProper installation of refrigerationsystems by well-trained people isimportant for efficient operation of theequipment during its useful life. Makesure that:

● joints are tight;● proper piping materials are used;● the size of the refrigerant charge is

kept to a minimum;

● the system is tested for leaks anddefects;

● the system is evacuated to remove airand non-condensibles.

Operation● improve maintenance of existing

systems to detect and reduce leaks.

ServicingServicing should be done on a regularbasis by trained personnel. It shouldinclude:

● recovery of refrigerant into propercylinders (cyclinders certified for filling);

● minimization of refrigerant venting tothe air;

● detection and repair of leaks andmeasurement of performance.

containment the prevention of refrigerant waste and leakage at all stages, from

equipment design,through installation and servicing to disposal

recovery removing refrigerant from a system in any condition and storing it in an

external container

reuse putting recovered refrigerant into a system without testing or

cleaning it

recycling cleaning refrigerant, usually on-site or at a local vehicle servicing

centre, for reuse in the same type of equipment. This involves reducing

contaminants by separating oil, removing non-condensibles, and

using devices such as filter-driers to reduce moisture, acidity, and

particulate matter

reclamation reprocessing refrigerant, usually at a reprocessing facility, to new

purity specifications

Elements of refrigerant conservation


25

Disposal of equipmentOne of the major sources of emissions isfrom the improper disposal of oldequipment. Use proper recoverycylinders to capture refrigerant:

● liquid recovery is the quickest form;● compressor technique is the usual

method; ● vapour recovery is also done with a

compressor.

RecoveryCylinders used to recover CFCs shouldbe clearly labelled and identified to

prevent mixing different refrigerants.Small diameter hoses and connectionsshould be avoided because they can slowdown recovery time greatly. Liquidrecovery is the quickest and best methodespecially when recovering amounts over50 kg. Several techniques are availablefor liquid recovery. The most developedis by compressor; others include usingdifference in static pressure, difference intemperature, centrifugal or pneumaticpump. Vapour recovery is necessary toget all of the refrigerant out of thesystem. The usual method is thecompressor/evaporator method.

Conservation of CFC refrigerants

Causes of CFC losses

Equipment CFC conservationmethods

Leakage

Flushing and leak testingwith CFCs

Leaks

Venting/disposal

Venting/disposal

Design

Installation/testing

Operation

Servicing

Disposal

Leak-tight valvesDesign for recovery

Flushing and leak testingwith HCFC or nitrogen

Leak detection and repair

Capture/recovery

Capture/recovery

RECLAIMRECYCLEREUSE


26

ReuseUsing recovered refrigerant withouttesting or cleaning it is most commonlydone in the same equipment that therefrigerant was recovered from. It is asimple way of saving money if therefrigerant is not too highlycontaminated with oils or other non-condensibles which would lower theefficiency of the system.

RecyclingThe high cost of CFC refrigerants

compared to the cost of a technician’stime means that recycling is costeffective in developing countries. Unlikedirect reuse, recycling equipment isdesigned to remove oil, acid, particulate,chloride, moisture and air from the usedrefrigerant. A variety of recyclingequipment is available over a wide pricerange. Recycling is most common in theautomobile air-conditioning industry atpresent. One problem, however, is thatrecycling equipment can neither detectnor separate mixed refrigerants.

In 1996 Zimbabwe established a National CFC Refrigerant Recovery and Reclaim

Network to:

(1) prevent the release of ODS—particularly CFC 12, CFC 22 and CFC 502—into the

atmosphere during the service and disposal of refrigeration equipment;

(2) reclaim a substantial part of these refrigerants;

(3) educate the industry and the public on the dangers of emitting ODS

Services provided by the Network include:

(1) improved maintenance procedures for cooling equipment

(2) the introduction of up-to-date practices in CFC charging and handling

(3) the distribution of modern recovery machines

(4) establishment of a central reclamation unit in Harare to ensure reclaimed

refrigerants are not contaminated

(5) a training and awareness campaign with the refrigeration industry, stakeholders

and the public

(6) enactment of relevant legal and regulatory measures to make it mandatory to

participate

SMEs in the refrigerant servicing sub-sector will have access to the most up-to-date recovery

equipment free of charge including clean tested cylinders/tanks to recover used

refrigerant, delivery and collector services, laboratory analysis of the refrigerant, and a

training and up-dating program. In addition, reclaimed refrigerant will be available at a

competitive price

Refrigeration management in Zimbabwe

Source: Zimbabwe Ozone Solutions, The National CFC Refrigerant Recovery and ReclaimNetwork and Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Network Progress Report


27

ReclamationReclaimed refrigerant refers torefrigerant which has been cleaned andtested to new product specifications so ithas the advantage that it can be used inany system without danger of damagingthe equipment.

Options for change

Equipment needsWhen you have to stop using ODSsubstances and turn to an alternative,there are two general options:

● Keep your existing equipment andadjust it to use an alternativesubstance. This can be either a minorchange (retrofit) or a major one(re-engineering).

● Buy new equipment designed to usean alternative substance.

Retrofitting involves using a refrigerant ina system which was not designed for itsuse. In cases where you can use a ‘serviceblend’ which has very similar properties tothe ODS refrigerant you can make smallchanges to your system. This is calledusing a ‘drop-in’ replacement—forexample, HCFC-123 as the retrofitalternative to CFC-11 centrifugal chillers.

In cases where the chosen replacementrefrigerant has very differentcharacteristics from the old one, changeswill have to be made to the system suchas replacement of major components likethe compressor, heat exchanger orpipework. This is more generally knownas ‘re-engineering’ and often involves theuse of ‘retrofit blends’—for example,R-410A as the alternative to HCFC-22.

If your equipment is old or in very poorcondition it may be better to install newequipment designed to operate with anon-ODS refrigerant rather than makemajor repairs and changes to yourexisting equipment.

General considerations when retrofitting● Make sure your equipment is in good

condition.● Do tests before retrofitting to

determine your normal level ofperformance for comparison after thechanges are made.

● Get information from suppliers aboutrecommended changes to equipmentand operating procedures needed fora successful retrofit.

Planning for new equipmentYou will also want to plan for newrefrigeration equipment which uses non-ODS refrigerants. For manufacturers,this may involve new equipment and

training; for service companies,technicians will have to be trained in theuse and management of new equipmentand substances. In this rapidly changingarea it will be important to ensure thatyou are supplied with up-to-dateinformation on new substances andequipment.

Alternative refrigerantsThe most important current alternativesto ODS are discussed below. The sub-sectors where they are suitable are shownin the table on page 23. Properties ofthese alternative refrigerants are shownin the table on page 29.

HFC 134aThere are a number of HFC compoundswhich are being used in ‘retrofit blends’


28

as non-ODP alternatives but the mostcommonly used and most readilyavailable is HFC-134a. This refrigerantis already used widely in newrefrigeration equipment in developedcountries. It is regarded as an importantalternative in the phase out of CFC-12and R-500 in medium- to high-temperature applications such as mobileair conditioning and refrigerationequipment, some stationary air-conditioning equipment (air- and water-cooled), and domestic refrigerators. Itdoes not work well for low-temperatureapplications (freezing) with evaporatingtemperatures below –30˚C.Improvement in compressors andlubricants are among the continuingchanges which are making this anacceptable alternative to CFC 12.

Retrofitting from CFC-12 to HFC-134arequires the following systemmodifications:

● change of mineral oil to polyol esterlubricant;

● adjustment or change of theexpansion device;

● change of desiccant filter;● if necessary, change compressor, or if

open compressor is used, increasespeed.

HFC 134a has a significant globalwarming potential (GWP), and HFCemissions are now regulated under theKyoto Protocol. If HFCs are used,emissions must be reduced to aminimum.

HCFC-22 The most common replacement for new commercial and industrial

refrigeration is HCFC-22. A number ofcommercial blends based on HCFC 22are being used. While these areconsidered as transitional substancesbecause of their ODP, they will beimportant alternatives until suitablesubstitutes have been developed.

HCFC blends resemble existingrefrigerants and can be used as drop-inreplacements which require minimumchanges to existing systems. Retrofittingfrom CFC-12 to HCFC-22 requires thefollowing system modifications:

● change of compressor or reduction ofcompressor speed;

● change of expansion device;● change of desiccant filter; and● installation of an oil separator.

HCFC-123This is the only currently availablealternative to replace CFC-11 in existing

centrifugal chillers. One problem withusing it is its toxicity. Worker time-weighted exposure limit is 30 ppmwhich requires good ventilation systemsand gas detectors to warn workers ifthere is a leak. It also requires replacingnon-metallic seals and gaskets because itis a strong solvent. Typical modificationsfor retrofitting CFC-11 installations are:

● if a semi-hermetic compressor is used,switch to an open compressor;

● change O-rings to materials that willwork with HCFC-123;

● adjust or change the expansion device;● change desiccant filter.

Custom blendsThe above substances can either be usedalone or in custom blends with other


29

Property HCFC-22 HFC-134a Ammonia Hydrocarbons

Cost moderate most expensive cheapest low

(CFC-12 =1) (1.5) (3 to 5) (0.2) (0.4)

Flammability non-flammable non-flammable moderately high high

(LFL-%) (0) (0) (15.0) (1.5 to 2.1)

Toxicity low low high low

(TLV-ppm) (1000) (1000) (25) (800 to1000)

Ozone-depleting low none none none

Potential (ODP) (0.055) (0) (0) (0)

Global Warming high high low low

Potential (GWP) (1600) (1200) (3) (1)

Volatile Organic no no no yes

Compound (VOC)

Molar Mass 86.47 102.03 17.03 44.10 to 58.13

(kg/kmol)

Normal Boiling -40.8 -26.1 -33.3 -0.4 to -42.1

Point (˚C)

Critical

Temperature (˚C) 96.2 101.1 132.3 96.8 to 152.1

Critical Pressure 49.9 40.6 113.3 36.7 to 42.6

(bar)

Properties of alternative refrigerants

From Refrigeration Source Book (1994) p 3–25, p 3–27

materials that diminish or eliminatesome of the problems associated witheach substance.

‘Service blends’‘Service blends’ are custom blends whichcopy existing ODS refrigerants very

closely so that they can be used as ‘drop-in’ replacements. There are a number ofthese commercially available refrigerantblends based on HCFCs (mainlyHCFC-123 and HCFC-124). Somecustom blends also contain HFCs. Theyhave some ODP and some GWP.


30

Except for HCFC-123, they have lowtoxicity and they are non-flammable.The blends that have been designed toreplace CFC-11, R-12 (R-500) andR-502 in existing equipment are listed inthe box upper right.

‘Retrofit blends’‘Retrofit Blends’ are a second type ofcustom blends. They are mainly HFCsand are not ‘drop-in’ replacements.Significant modifications have to bemade to existing systems which can betime-consuming and costly. This majorretrofitting can involve replacing majorparts such as the compressor, heatexchangers or pipe work and is moregenerally called re-engineering. Thechange to HFC blends also requires anoil flushing procedure because theseblends are not compatible with mineraloils currently used in most equipment.

Retrofit blends have zero ODP but asignificant GWP. Like service blendsthey have health and safety advantagesbecause they are non-flammable and havelow toxicity. The refrigerants and blendsthat have been designed to replace ODSrefrigerants after re-engineering areshown in the box lower right.

Other alternative substancesAnhydrous ammonia and hydrocarbons(isobutane, propane, LPG, HC blends)are used in some instances as CFCrefrigerant alternatives. However, theyhave properties such as toxicity,flammability and high working pressureswhich require costly and sophisticatedsafety equipment. Their advantage isthat they have zero ODP and GWP.Ammonia and hydrocarbons are notrecommended for field charged units.

Propane (R-290), iso-butane (R-600a),butane and other hydrocarbons haveexcellent properties for refrigerants,however, because of their flammabilitythey should only be used in smaller sealedunits with low refrigerant charge, such asdomestic and commercial refrigerators andfreezers where health and safety hazardscan be controlled.

Ammonia is an excellent alternative forreplacing CFCs in new equipment. Withzero ODP and GWP, it is a long termalternative and there is a great deal ofexperience with it because it has been usedfor many years. Because it is toxic andflammable, the use of ammonia has beenlimited to large industrial applications. Itis available commercially as R-717.

Other processesExperimentation and testing with oldand new processes is producing new

cooling systems which do not use ODSrefrigerants. These are shown below.They may point in the direction of awhole new generation of refrigerationequipment.

● absorption systems for industrialrefrigeration using ammonia or wateras refrigerants.

● adsorption systems using zeolite/wateras a refrigerant are being tested inGermany for use in mobile coolers,domestic refrigerators and automobileair conditioners. Not available in theshort term.

● evaporative cooling is a very oldtechnology which uses the coolingeffect of evaporating water into air.This is a simple and economical systemwhich works well in hot, dry climates.


31

● Stirling Refrigeration Cycle is ahighly efficient, experimental systemusing helium gas which can be usedover a wide temperature range. Thelimited supply of helium could limitits widespread use. Not available inthe short term.

Sources of technology, informationand assistanceIf you require additional informationbefore taking action, there are a numberof organizations that may be able to helpyou. These include the refrigerationindustry association in your country,your National Ozone Unit, Ministry ofthe Environment or similar authority inyour country. Lists of these are availablefrom the UNEP DTIE OzonActionProgramme by mail or on the internet athttp://www.unepie.org/ozonaction.html

● The Catalogue for Refrigeration, AirConditioning, and Heat Pumps (1997)contains alternative data sheets whichinclude a description, use andavailability, environmental, healthand safety considerations, materialand equipment changes required (ifany), associated costs or savings. Itgives case studies of alternativetechnologies which are being used indeveloped countries to eliminate theuse of CFCs. There are also suppliers’lists for alternative and traditionalrefrigerants, lubricating oils,compressors, components and heatexchangers, and sources for moreinformation.

● UNEP 1998 Report of theRefrigeration, Air Conditioning andHeat Pumps Technical Options

Committee 1998 Assessment This report contains information onpresent practices and properties ofexisting refrigerants, possibilities foralternative refrigerants, new equipmentand properties of alternatives,retrofitting, alternative technologies,refrigerant conservation methods, leakdetection, containment and recovery,recycling and reclamation, servicepractices and training.

● Recovery and Recycling, UNEP IE, 1994● Training Manual on Good Practices in

Refrigeration, UNEP IE, 1994● Training Manual on Chillers and

Refrigerant Management, UNEP IE,1994

● Blends as Refrigerants to replace CFCsand HCFCs, Information Papers,UNEP IE, 1995

● Mobilizing Developing Country MACTechnicians to Reduce CFC Emissions,Stratospheric Protection Division,

US EPA, 1995● Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling,

Case study, UNEP IE 1995● Safety Aspects of Hydrocarbon

Refrigerators, UNEP IE● Phase Out Ozone-depleting Refrigerants

in Developing countries:implementation and design of codes ofgood servicing practice in refrigeration,UNEP IE, 1997

● How the Hotel and Tourism Industriescan Protect the Ozone Layer,UNEP IE, 1998

● Study on the Potential for HydrocarbonReplacements in Existing Domestic andSmall Commercial RefrigerationAppliances, UNEP DTIE, 1999

● Protecting the Ozone Layer, vol. 1:Refrigerants, 2001 update, a technicalbrochure, UNEP DTIE, 40 pp.

32

The World Bank, Ozone OperationsReport Group Reports:

● Domestic Refrigeration RefrigerantAlternatives

● Chiller Refrigeration ODS PhaseoutAlternatives

● Commercial Refrigeration and HCFCsin Developing Countries, ReportNumber 13, July 1995

● Mobile Air Conditioning (MACS)Conversion to Zero ODS Use

● Reducing ODS use by DevelopingCountries in Refrigeration

● Reducing ODS use in DevelopingCountries in DomesticRefrigeration/Freezer

To order, contact: Ms Louise Shaw, World Bank GlobalEnvironment Division, 1818 H Street,N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, USA Tel: (1) 202 473 2124, Fax: (1) 202 522 3258

Ecofrig publication

● Refrigeration Appliances andHydrocarbon Refrigerants

Free of charge from:InfrasGerechtigkeitsgasse 20CH 8002 ZurichSwitzerlandFax: +41 1 205 9599E-mail: [email protected]



33

IntroductionSMEs are important producers of foamin both developed and developingcountries. Growth in all sector segmentsis rapid in developing countries andwithout conversion to non-ODSsubstances damage to the ozone layerwill be significant.

On a global basis reductions in the useof CFCs have been significant. In 1993the foam industry used 133 000 tonnesof CFCs worldwide, an importantreduction from the 267 000 tonnesconsumed in 1986. This 50 percentreduction took place despite a 45percent increase in the size of the foammarket during that time. The use ofCFCs in foam manufacture wascompletely phased out in developedcountries in 1996. Phase-out has takenplace through conservation, productreformulation and the use of alternativeblowing agents and new manufacturingtechnologies.This means that severalalternative technologies and substancesare already proven and are available toyou in the market place.

It is important to remember that the useof all the CFCs used in foams—CFC-11, 12, 113 and 114—are nowfrozen at 1995–97 levels and will be

reduced in stages until January 2010when they will be phased outcompletely.

There are four main types of foams thathave been made using CFCs. In 1990their relative consumption of CFCs wereas shown in the box above.

Building and appliance insulationaccounts for close to 80 percent of theCFCs used in foams. The rest is used incushioning, packaging, flotation andmicro cellular foams.

The major applications by foam sectorsegment are included in the table onpage 35.

Current practices Foams are produced by using gas orvolatile liquid ‘blowing agents’ to createbubbles or ‘cells’ in the plastic structure.

In some foams, the cells are closed,trapping the blowing agent inside, whilein others, the cells are open and theblowing agent escapes. A number ofmaterials have been used as blowingagents, including CFCs (mainlyCFC-11, with some CFC-12, CFC-113in phenolic foams and CFC-114),HCFCs, hydrocarbons and carbon

Sector segment Share of CFC consumption

Polyurethane foams 84 percent

Extruded polystyrene 7 percent

Polyolefins 7 percent

Phenolic foams 2 percent

CFC consumption by foam type (1999)

Foams6

‘In India 80 percent of the foam sector is

comprised of small enterprises and

growth in the rigid polyurethane sub-

sector now averages 30 percent a year.’

(UNDP Project Report)


34

dioxide. To be considered a goodblowing agent a material should havethe following properties:

● non-reactive with the plastic;● sufficiently soluble in liquid plastic,

but insoluble in solid plastic;● suitable boiling point and vapour

pressure;● preferably non-flammable.

Since CFCs met these requirements anduntil recently were relatively inexpensive,they have been commonly used asblowing agents for many years. CFCs areused as a blowing agent (non-insulatingfoams) or as a combinedblowing/thermal insulation agent(insulating foams). Other functionsinclude acting as a softener, as a heatsink and as a viscosity reducer. Due tothese different functions a universalreplacement is not possible.

Options for changeThere are three potential methods ofreducing CFCs in the production offoam products. They are:

● changing the production process orusing an alternative technology;

● replacing the CFCs with analternative blowing agent; and

● replacing foam products with analternative product

The recovery and recycling of CFCsfrom existing stocks of foam isimpractical because of technicalproblems so the best option isincineration combined with energyrecovery.

Changing the productionprocess/alternative technologyThere are process changes and newmethods which reduce CFC emissions.These are:

● Preventing the release of CFCs intothe atmosphere during foamproduction. Using best managementpractices you can reduce CFCconsumption by up to 10 percent.This can be done by using a closedloop CFC unloading system, using aclosed CFC blending system orflushing without CFCs. One methodfor capturing CFCs and HCFCs iscarbon adsorption. This works bestwith open-cell foams such as flexiblepolyurethane foams because of thelarge amounts of CFCs releasedduring manufacturing.

● Reducing or eliminating the need forCFCs. Changes in polyols and otherchemicals used in the foaming part of

the production process can also reduceor, in favourable cases, eliminate theneed for CFCs in both rigid andflexible foams. New equipment suchas variable pressure foam equipment(which lowers the external pressure)allows lower density flexiblepolyurethane foams to be producedwithout an auxiliary blowing agent.You can also modify the productionprocess for polyurethane foams by theuse of increased levels of water in thechemical reaction so that CFC use canbe reduced.

Replacing CFCs with alternative blowing agentsEvaluation of CFC alternativesIn addition to the general considerationsinvolved in choosing an alternative to an

Alternatives to ozone-depleting substances: foams sector


Flexible Slabstock—bedding, CFC-11 Methylene

chloride,

polyurethane cushions, carpet lining water blown,

Liquid CO2

Flexible Moulded foam—seating, CFC-11 Water blown

polyurethane sound barriers

Flexible Integral skin—steering CFC-11 Water blown,

polyurethane wheels, automobile HCFC-141b,

bumpers, shoe soles pentane

Rigid Appliance foams— CFC-11 Cyclopentane,

polyurethane Refrigerators, freezers, HCFC-141b

air conditioning units,

water heaters

Rigid polyurethane Construction foams— CFC-11, HCFC-141b,

Lining and roof boards, CFC-12 n- and iso-pentane

pipe sections, cold

store panels, doors,

spray systems

Rigid polyurethane Transportation foams— CFC-11, HCFC-141b

Sandwich panels for , CFC-12

trucks reefer boxes,

flotation

Phenolic Foams Building and CFC-114 HCFC-141b,

pipe insulation pentane,

methylene chloride

Extruded Sheet—food packaging, CFC-12 Pentane, butane,

polystyrene foams art boards HCFC-22

Extruded Board—roof, floor and CFC-12 HCFC-142b/

polystyrene foams wall insulation, HCFC-22

sandwich panels

FOAMS

35


36

ODS which were discussed in Chapter4, there are technical properties whichspecifically apply to the choice of a foamblowing agent. These are:

● Insulation capability: a goodblowing agent should produce a lowrelative heat transfer through thefoam so that it is a good insulator.

● Cell control and size: cell size affectsa number of foam visual andmechanical properties. Smaller foamcells will reduce heat transfer byradiation across the cells and improvethe insulating capability of the foam.

● Solubility/viscosity: a good blowingagent lowers the viscosity of the foammix at the beginning and it rapidlybecomes less soluble as the foamingreaction continues. This gives a goodcell structure combined with goodthermal performance.

● Diffusion rate: all blowing agentswill diffuse out of the foam eventually

but the time can vary from days(CO2) to hundreds of years (HCFCs,HFCs, HCs). High diffusion rates aswith CO2 can cause the foam toshrink and will lower its insulatingproperties.

● Exotherm control/antioxidants:water blowing of polyurethane foamsgenerates heat which can causediscolouration by scorching ordamage to the foam structure. CFCsand HCFCs remove heat byendothermic evaporation whichcontrols the overheating.

● Blowing efficiency: the molecularweight/boiling point relationship ofthe blowing agents is important tothe blowing efficiency. Blowingefficiency is the amount of agentneeded to produce a certain foam

density. This will affect the cost andthe environmental impact.

Alternative substances Many materials have been tested aspossible blowing agents and thealternative substances currently availableto replace CFCs for each of the foamsectors are listed in the table on page 35.A comparison of the properties of thesesubstances is provided in the tableopposite. Each of these options hascertain advantages and disadvantageswhich you must consider. The choice willdepend on the type of foam required andwill vary from country to country becauseof availability, climate, environmentalregulations, product specifications andenergy efficiency requirements. Importantissues not included in the table oppositeare discussed below.

HCFCsThese compounds are consideredtransitional rather than permanentalternatives to replace CFCs because theydo have a measurable ozone-depletingpotential, although it is much lower thanthe CFCs. Several countries regulate theiruse because of this. The three mostsuitable materials for blowing agents areHCFC-141b, HCFC-142b andHCFC-22. They are widely used and area proven technology. Some manufacturersare using them to ‘bridge the gap’ toliquid HFCs to avoid the major expenseof converting to hydrocarbons beforereturning to non-flammable materials.

HCFC-141b is commonly used forpolyurethane and phenolic insulationapplications because it provides the bestcombination of product characteristicsavailable.

FOAMS

37

HydrocarbonsHydrocarbons used in foam blowinginclude butane, isobutane, normalpentane, isopentane and cyclopentane, andmixtures of these compounds. Because oftheir high flammability they require greatcare during processing, and formulationsrequire increased fire retardant levels tocontrol flammability of the final product.

Methylene chlorideA widely-used option for flexiblepolyurethane slabstock which istechnically and commercially availabletoday. Its use requires caution because ofits toxicity and volatility. It may also becarcinogenic but this is unproven.

CO2 (water blown)This is a good option from a health,safety and environmental view. There aresome quality issues with the foamincluding a higher thermal conductivityand lower production rate. The increasein foam density (about 15 percent) makesthis option unsuitable where insulationefficiency is important. This is a goodoption for moulded polyurethane flexiblefoams and many integral skinapplications.

Long-term non-ODS blowing agentsOther materials are being evaluated indeveloped countries and will be availablein the longer term. Among these are a

Property HCFC-141b CO2 (water blown) Hydrocarbons Methylene chloride HCFC-22

Flammability moderate (as a gas) non-flammable high non-flammable non-flammable

(flammable limits in air) (7.3–16.0) (none) (1.5–2.1) (none) (none)

Toxicity low non-toxic low high low

(TLV-ppm) (500) (800–1000) (25–50) (1000)

Ozone-depleting low none none none low

Potential (ODP) (0.11) (0) (0) (0) (0.055)

Global Warming moderate very low low no high

Potential (GWP) (630) (1) (11) (1600)

Volatile Organic yes no yes yes no

Compound (VOC)

Boiling point (˚C) 32 -139 -0.4–49 40 –40.8

Gas conductivity 8.8 14.5 11.0–14.0 n/a 9.9

(mW/mK at 10˚C)

Properties of alternative blowing agents

From Foam Source Book (1996) p XXI


38

number of liquid HFCs. They have theadvantages of low toxicity and zeroODP, but will not be readily availableuntil the year 2000. However, they areexpensive and may be restricted becauseof their global warming potential.

Alternative productsThe third way of eliminating ODS isto replace foam with a completely

different product. This has not been amajor factor to date because few of thesubstitutes work as well as the foamthey try to replace. Some examples ofthese are:

● vacuum panels partially replacing rigidpolyurethane insulation in refrigerators

● expandable polystyrene bead board,cellular glass board, and fibreboard

Technologies using carbon dioxide (CO2) have gained wide attention. The application in

slabstock requires liquified CO2—an application called LCD technology. The basic

principle is the blending of CO2 with other foam components prior to the initiation of the

chemical reaction. This blend is then released and, triggered by the decompression, will

release the CO2, resulting in a froth. This froth will further expand due to the CO2

released from the water/isocyanate reaction. While the wet end of the process requires

considerable modifications to allow the storage and processing of liquified CO2, the dry

end remains essentially unchanged.

There are no known toxicity or flammability issues connected to the use of CO2. The

substance is also photochemically inactive, has no ODP and provides no net contribution to

global warming. Three proprietary technologies are offered by four manufacturers. LCD

technology has proven commercially viable for a variety of foam grades in the 15–35 kg/m3

density range and it is claimed it can used for densities as low an 10 kg/m3.

The use of LCD offers large potential savings because of its lower cost price and higher

blowing power. These advantages are somewhat offset by the higher cost of other

chemicals, energy and maintenance as well as licence fees. In addition, a significant

learning curve can be expected when introducing this technology.

The application of LCD in flexible moulded foams has not been as rapid as in slabstock.

This may be because the current major CFC replacement technology—the use of water-

based formulations—does not currently face regulatory restrictions and requires

significantly lower investment. In addition, the largest use of moulded foams is in

automotive seats, an application that requires intensive product scrutiny before product

changes are allowed.

Some 20–30 plants are currently using LCD in moulding operations.

Liquid carbon dioxide technology for foam blowing

From 1998 Report of the Flexible and Rigid Foams Technical Options Committee (UNEP)

FOAMS

39

replacing extruded polystyrene board● polyester fibre, steel springs and latex

foam replacing flexible polyurethanefoam for furniture and beddingproducts

Sources of technology, informationand assistanceIf you require additional informationbefore taking action there are a numberof organizations that may be able to helpyou. These include the foam industryassociation in your country, yourNational Ozone Unit, ministry ordepartment of the environment orsimilar authority in your country. Listsof these are available from the UNEP IEOzonAction Programme by mail or on

the internet athttp://www.unepie.org/ozonaction.html

Sourcebook of Technologies for Protectingthe Ozone Layer: Flexible and RigidFoams, September 1996 Update is animportant source of technicalinformation as it includes the followingitems for each foam sector:

● description of sector showingapplications;

● technical options overview—listsavailable alternatives;

● case studies which describe successfulconversions noting:● new technology used● end product quality

Umbrella Project for SMEs

The Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests and the UNDP have developed a project

which will eliminate the use of CFCs by 80 SMEs in the Rigid Foam sub-sector. The SMEs

will convert to the CFC-free system in cooperation with a locally owned system supplier

who will customize and validate the required formulations. In addition a low cost, locally

developed foam dispenser will be evaluated and introduced for implementing the new

technology. This project will cover all identified SMEs in the sub-sector and the choice of

technology will be common to all participating SMEs.

Introduction of indigenous CFC-Free Technology

The technology to be used is a fully water-blown system selected as a permanent

technology. The use of a combination water and HCFC-141b based system may be

needed in the interim period required to achieve acceptable product standards. The water

based system will result in changed mixing ratios, leading to increased viscosities of the

chemical mixture. Many of the enterprises have low pressure fixed ratio dispensers,

manually operated stirrer-cum-dispensers or are engaged in hand mixing. These methods

will need to be replaced with variable ratio, high pressure foam dispensers which are

expected to result in more efficient handling of chemicals.

Conversion to water blown systems in the manufacture of rigid polyurethane foam in India

Source: UNDP and Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests Project, Elimination of CFCs in theManufacture of Rigid Polyurethane Foam in SMEs.


40

● operational implications● safety and environmental issues● implementation, operational and

maintenance costs;● data sheets which cover the same

items as above plus:● scale of operation● technical constraints● stage of technology● level of commercialization● investment costs.

UNEP 1998 Report of the Flexible andRigid Foams Technical OptionsCommittee: 1998 Assessment, OzoneSecretariat. To order, contact:SMI Distribution Services LimitedP.O. Box 119Stevenage HertfordshireSGI 4TPUnited Kingdom Tel: +44 1438 748111 Fax: +44 1438 748844 E-mail: [email protected]

Summaries of CFC-free technologies arealso available through the ImplementingAgencies of the Multilateral Fund ordirect from Bert Veenendaal at RappaInc.:Fax: +1 219 326 6047E-mail: [email protected]

These cover:

● foamed plastics

● non-insulation foams;● flexible polyurethane foams;● rigid polyurethane foams;● extruded thermoplastic foams;● shoe soles; and● properties of methylene chloride.


41

IntroductionIn 1976, aerosol products used 432 000metric tonnes of CFCs which accountedfor about 60 percent of the world’sconsumption. Since then, the reductionof CFC consumption in the aerosolsector has been very substantial indeveloped countries and some developingcountries. World-wide use has declinedfrom 180 000 tonnes in 1989 to anestimated 15 000 tonnes in 1995. Thelow costs of conversion for medium-sizedand large companies and the existence ofreadily available substitutes has spurredthe fast pace of phase out. While costsare generally higher for SMEs, theexperience gained and expertisedeveloped by larger firms provides a good

basis for developing appropriate and cost-effective conversion plans.

SMEs in this sector include both usersand manufacturers of aerosol products.In most countries they include a largenumbers of small-scale operations thatfunction both in the formal andinformal economies. They frequentlyserve as an important source ofemployment. Production facilities rangefrom modern plants to small, simplefilling facilities filling fewer than onemillion cans a year. At this level ofactivity, the amount of CFCs used peryear is less than 100 tonnes.

Sector Application Current ODS Alternatives

Aerosols Personal household products Propellants: CFC-12, CFC-114. Finger pump sprayer

Solvents: CFC-11, TCA

Aerosols Household cleaning products Propellants: CFC-12, CFC-114. Trigger pump sprayer

Solvents: CFC-11, TCA

Aerosols Most applications, except Propellants: CFC-12, CFC-114. Hydrocarbons (HC) such

where flammability is a problem. Solvents: CFC-11, CFC-113, TCA as propane and butane

Aerosols Water-based paints, hairs Propellants: CFC-12, CFC-114. Dimethyl ether (DME)

sprays, aerosol deodorants, Solvents: CFC-11, CFC-113

colognes, perfumes

Aerosols Non-flammable applications- Propellants: CFC-12, CFC-114 HCFC-22, HFC-134a,

solvent cleaning sprays, some Solvents: CFC-11, CFC-113, TCA HFC-227ea,

lubricants, mould release agents, perfluoroethers

pesticides, medical products.

Alternatives to ozone-depleting substances: aerosols sector

Aerosols7


42

Current practices Why we used CFCs for aerosolsCFCs have been used in aerosolproducts since 1942 in the United Statesand since 1951 in Europe. They areprimarily used in aerosols as propellants(CFC-12 and CFC-114) and solvents(CFC-11 and CFC-113) all of which aresubject to the 1999 freeze. CFCs wereused so extensively because they offeredthe following advantages:

● they are non-flammable andevaporate quickly;

● they give an even pressure from startto finish;

● they can produce a large range ofspray particle sizes;

● they are good solvents;● they are not harmful to worker health

and safety when used correctly.

Property Hydrocarbons Dimethylether HCFC-22

(HC) (DME)

Vapour pressure 2.2–8.5 5.4 9.5

3.0–6.5 bar

Internal pressure Good Good Good

Spray particle size Good—in solvent Good— in solvent ?

30–50 micron and water

Solubility Low Strong Moderate

Flammability High High Non-flammable

Ozone depleting Zero Zero Low

potential

Volatile organic Yes Yes No

compound

Global warming Very low Very low Very high

potential

Toxicity Low Low Low

Cost Low Medium High

Properties of aerosol propellant alternatives

AEROSOLS

43

Currently no single alternative has allthese advantages. Because there is noperfect non-ozone-depleting replacementyou will have to examine the optionsdiscussed below to see which is the bestfor your end use.

Options for changeConservation If you cannot convert right away or ifthere is not yet a suitable alternative foryour operations, you can at least takesteps to reduce ODS emissions as muchas possible. Make sure that yourequipment is in good order, eliminateleaks and wasteful processes and attemptto recover and recycle ODS wheneverpossible, for example by using acompressor/condensor unit to recovervapours from propellant cyclinders.

AlternativesThe most practical replacement substancefor your operations will be eitherhydrocarbons (HC), dimethyl ether(DME) and HCFC-22 or HFC-134a fornon-flammable applications. These allhave suitable properties for aerosolapplications and are generally available.While each has different properties thatyou must consider, these can be judgedaccording to your needs for particulareffectiveness in areas such as vapourpressure, solubility and safety. The tableopposite lists the properties of alternativesin several important performance areas.Equally important considerations for youwill be the cost and availability ofalternatives.

Hydrocarbon aerosol propellants (HAPs) Hydrocarbons are the most commonsubstitute for CFCs in aerosol

propellants. They account for 96 percentof worldwide conversions fromCFCs.The most frequently usedhydrocarbons are propane, n-butane,and isobutane. Hydrocarbons are derivedfrom liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs)which contain varying levels ofunsaturated hydrocarbons, sulphurcompounds, water and other impurities.This is purified by removal of thesecontaminants to various grades includingaerosol grade. Although hydrocarbonsare widely sold as liquefied petroleumgas for use as a fuel, many developingcountries do not have butane or propaneof suitable quality to be used asfeedstock for purification to aerosolpropellant grade.

The advantages of hydrocarbons include:

● their widespread availability;● low cost;● low toxicity;

● good dispersion characteristics.

They also have some importantdisadvantages.

● High flammability is a problemwhich requires safety precautions for all aspects of use includingtransportation, handling, storage andfilling. Safe facilities must beexplosion and fire proof and haveadequate ventilation. Employees willalso require additional training inhandling a flammable substance.

● There may be difficulty of obtaininglow-odour blends of the desiredpressure.

● Safety considerations may restrict orprohibit their use in some areas.


44

HAPs are used in most aerosolapplications where flammability is not aconcern or where the risk of flammabilitycan be controlled. There are benefits inapplications where the product itself isflammable as in engine starters,carburettor cleaners and charcoalstarters.Their low toxicity makes themsuitable for use in a variety of personalcare and household products.

Hydrocarbons are the least costly aerosolpropellants currently available and thepropellant filling equipment is basicallythe same as that used for CFCs.However, higher equipment costs couldresult from the need for explosion-prooffilling equipment and better ventilationfacilities. In warm climates, open airfilling using natural ventilation may bean inexpensive option.

Dimethyl ether (DME)DME is important in certain uses suchas water-based paints, hair sprays andperfumes, because of its high solvencyand easy reformulation to water-basedproducts. However its strong solvencymeans that filling equipment, containermaterial and gaskets must be resistant todissolution or deterioration. Like HCs,DME is flammable and requires thesame precautions for handling, storage,transportation and filling. It is moreexpensive than HCs.

HCFC-22 and HFC-134aThese are available non-flammable liquidpropellants which can be used in products such as solvent cleaning sprays,lubricants, medical products andpesticides, that require non-flammability. Because of its highpressure relative to CFCs, HCFC-22

may be blended with a pressure-depressing solvent or low-pressurepropellant or may require themodification of filling equipment.HCFCs should be used only forapplications where there are no otheralternatives since they are scheduled foreventual phase out under the MontrealProtocol. HCFCs are no longerpermitted in aerosols in Europe and theUnited States. HFC-134a is used as afreeze spray. It is in plentiful supply andthe cost is about the same as for CFCs.Worker health is not a problem becauseit is neither flammable nor toxic. Noequipment changes are required by theuser. HFC-134a is a greenhouse gas thatshould be used only where no otheralternatives are suitable; its pressure issimilar to that of CFC-12 but it is a verypoor solvent.

Special considerations for SMEsProduction facilities in developingcountries are often very basic withmanual filling machines and propellantfeeding pumps driven by non-explosionproof motors. In addition they may belocated in congested areas. In suchcircumstances, conversion to flammablepropellants would be very dangerous.Relocation may thus be essential. Forsmall producers the solution may be tojoin forces, creating a shared facilitywhich meets all the necessary safetyrequirements. Such a common approachwould also reduce the cost of employeetraining. Consultation with yournational ozone office or local businessassociation may help you in findingsuitable partners for such a project.Whether working alone or with othersthese organizations can assist you in

finding technical assistance and indetermining if financial assistance is

available to you.

If you can’t make any of these changes,the best choice may be to convert to theuse of HCFC-22, HCFC blends orHFC-134a.

Not-in-kind alternativesIf your business is in an area such aspersonal and household cleaningproducts or pesticides, you may be ableto convert to a non-propellant processwhich uses mechanical devices such asfinger-pumps, trigger-pumps or roll-onand stick deodorant dispensers. Pumpsprayers are the largest alternative toaerosol propellants for productdispensing devices. Finger and trigger-pump sprayer valves are generally

available from the same firms thatproduce aerosol valves. Both kinds of

pump sprayers require only single stagefilling operations. These are generallyused for water-based, water-alcohol oralcohol based blends because the pumpvalve can be affected by stronger solvents.

● Trigger-pump sprayers are morecostly than finger-pump sprayers andare usually larger in size (up to 5litres). They are used for householdproducts such as spot cleaners,carpet cleaners, laundry anddishwasher detergents. They usuallydeliver 2 to 4 ml per shot but can doup to 30 ml.

● Finger pump sprayers are smaller andare used for personal products such ascolognes and perfumes, hair sprays,bug and weed killers. They candeliver from 0.050 to 0.200 ml per

45

AEROSOLS

In Indonesia the production of aerosol products is about equally split between self-fillers

and contract fillers. Currently, CFC use in the country is largely limited to room

deodorants, personal care products, industrial, automotive and medical aerosols. Many of

the small fillers—typically in small shops in urban areas—use CFC propellants because the

costs of switching to a safe hydrocarbon operation are too high.

Because it is not economically feasible to convert all the SMEs, a larger company—PT

Candi—is receiving funds to provide a filling service centre that can be used by smaller

SMEs. In this way SMEs will not have to face the expense of the new installations needed

to handle flammable and explosive hydrocarbons.

This cash and carry ‘rent a filling line’ system is preferable to contract filling because it

eliminates the need for complicated paperwork. In addition costs can be kept low and the

confidentiality of formulations can be maintained.This project will assist SMEs to comply

with the Government of Indonesia’s ban on CFC use for all aerosols by December 1997.

Establishment of an aerosol filling centre for SMEs in Indonesia

Source: World Bank Project, PT Candi Conversion and Aerosol Filling Center


46

shot. Spray particles are coarse andwet so they are best for surfaceapplication.

Sources of technology, informationand assistanceBefore making any final decisions youshould get the newest informationavailable because technology,regulations, costs and availability ofreplacement substances are changingoften and information on them is alwaysbeing updated.

Specialized information on aerosolalternatives is available in the followingdocuments:

Protecting the Ozone Layer, Volume 5,Aerosols, sterilants, carbon tetrachlorideand miscellaneous uses, 2001 update,UNEP DTIE. This booklet summarizes the current useof ODS in the sector, the availability ofCFC substitutes and the technologicaland economic implications ofconversion. It is less technical anddetailed than the catalogue listed aboveand the information is older.

Report of the Aerosols, Sterilants,Miscellaneous Uses and CarbonTetrachloride Technical OptionsCommittee, 1998 UNEP

Sourcebook of Technologies for Protectingthe Ozone Layer, Aerosols, Sterilants,Miscellaneous Uses, and CarbonTetrachloride, September 1996 Update,UNEP IE. It contains a ‘Guidance forSelecting non-ODS Alternatives’ whichdiscusses organizational, regulatory,economic, environment, health andsafety, and technical considerationsconcerning replacement substances. Italso includes data sheets which provide adetailed description of the uses andavailability, environmental, health andsafety considerations, material andequipment changes required (if any),associated costs or savings likely resultingfrom the phase out of ODP substances.Finally it contains a list of suppliers ofalternative materials and/or equipmentand sources of more information.

Safe Sprays (video), 1999. This 15-minutevideo gives an overview on the safetyconsiderations needed to be taken inusing hydrocarbon as propellants.Available in English, French and Spanish.


47

IntroductionThe solvents sector accounts for about15 percent of the chemicals covered bythe Montreal Protocol, and most ofthese are used for industrial cleaning.However, their contribution to ozonedepletion is proportionally higherbecause of the largely emissive nature oftheir use. They are mainly used forcleaning printed circuit boardassemblies, for precision cleaning and formetal degreasing. Smaller amounts areused in the dry cleaning industry and inthe manufacture of coatings, inks andadhesives. The solvents sector includesusers involved in the manufacture ofjewellery, cardiac pacemakers, aerospacecomponents, belt buckles, printed circuitboards, surgical implants and materials,and artificial limbs.

SMEs consume a significant proportionof ozone-depleting (OD) solvents insome developing countries. It isestimated that fully two-thirds of solventconsumption is by enterprises with anannual consumption of less than 2.5tonnes of CFC-113 or 10 tonnes of1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA or methylchloroform). In China, 63 percent ofusers are considered small and theestimate for India is about 70 percent. InIndia and some other developing nations,a large quantity of carbon tetrachloride isused by very small enterprises for metaldegreasing and dry cleaning, often underuncontrolled conditions.

The supply of quality grades of CFC-113has become uncertain because of its phaseout in developed countries in 1996 andthe freeze on its use at 1995–97 levels in1999 in developing countries. Use of1,1,1-trichloroethane will be frozen in

January 2003 at 1998–2000 levels andphased out by the year 2015. Carbontetrachloride will be reduced by 85percent from 1998–2000 average levelsby 1 January 2005 and phased out totallyby 2010, along with CFC-113. It istherefore prudent for enterprises indeveloping countries to move quickly toreduce or eliminate dependence on thesesubstances where cost-effectivealternatives are readily available. There isno single alternative to replace thesesolvents but there are usually severalalternatives for each solvent application.

Current practices The main OD solvents are carbontetrachloride, CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Carbon tetrachloride hasa very high ODP (greater than unity) andis much used because of its low cost andexcellent degreasing properties. However,it is very toxic and will cause cancer with

repeated exposure: for this reason, it hasbeen banned in most developed countriesfor nearly 40 years. CFC-113 has arelatively high ODP and has been usedbecause of its non-corrosive properties,chemical inertness, non-flammability, lowviscosity and low surface tension. 1,1,1-trichloroethane has a lower ODP but iswidely used because of its low cost andeasy availability.

Solvent applications, current OD solventuse and their alternatives are indicated inthe table on page 49.

Options for changeConservationMuch solvent use in SMEs is in coldcleaning. This consists of dipping the

Solvents, coatings and adhesives8


48

parts to be cleaned into one or moresuccessive baths of the solvent at ambienttemperature, possibly with agitation orbrushing. The containers are oftenshallow trays or even ordinary buckets.Because the losses by evaporation are highwith this method, it is usually restrictedfor use with low-cost solvents, such ascarbon tetrachloride or, possibly, 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, CFC-113 isalso occasionally used in this manner fordefluxing, particularly for field repairs,and for precision cleaning, in glassbeakers. This method is inevitablyemissive. The only possible conservationmeasures are to keep the solvent as cold aspossible, make sure it is used where thereare no draughts, in containers that aredeep enough to be usable when less thanone-third full and to keep the containersclosed with tight-fitting lids when partsare not actually being cleaned. A changeto non-OD solvents as rapidly aspossibly is the ideal method for thiscategory of use. However, this alsopresents some problems for some verysmall users (see below).

Because some of the main sources ofemissions in the slightly larger user-industries are losses of solvent vapourfrom equipment and leaks fromequipment and piping, conservation isan important method of reducing theemissions of OD solvents. This isparticularly true of older equipment thatis generally less efficient and likely tohave higher losses. As CFCs becomemore expensive and less easily available,large cost savings can result from carefulhandling of solvents. The savings willcontinue after change to non-ODsolvents, some of which are expensiveand/or toxic. Good conservation

practices will also lower the exposure ofemployees to these substances.

Conservation and recovery are especiallyimportant in the electronics, general metalcleaning, precision cleaning and drycleaning sub-sectors. In the electronicssub-sector, solvent losses can account for90 percent of total consumption.

In many operations, the following fivesteps can be taken to reduceconsumption:

● eliminate unnecessary cleaning;● isolate open sources of vapour loss

(this can save 50 to 80 percent);● fit open-top vapour degreasers with

sliding covers;● turn off vents; and● automate vapour degreasing and other

processes.

Drag-out losses can be as high as 40

percent of the total but can be reducedby better basket and rack design and,above all, by adequate dwell periods inthe vapour phase (so that the parts reachthe full vapour temperature throughouttheir mass) and then in the refrigeratedfreeboard zone for the vapours to fall outof any crevices back into the machine.Solvent recycling can be useful in thedry cleaning industry where mostexisting machines have built-in recoveryequipment which, when combined withcareful operation, can reduce solventemissions by up to 25 percent. It isimportant never to allow a dry cleaningmachine to be opened until all thesolvent has been dried out of the clothes.

Details on solvent conservation andrecovery are given in Appendix C of the

SOLVENTS, COATINGS AND ADHESIVES

49


Electronics industry Dry film development TCA Aqueous development

Electronics industry Defluxing PCB assemblies CFC-113, TCA No-clean, water soluble processes

Precision cleaning Aerospace, automotive, medical, CFC-113, TCA Conservation/recovery, aqueous cleaning, fine mechanics, navigational semi-aqueous cleaning, non-chlorinated instruments solvents, halogenated solvents, HFCs, HFEs

Metal cleaning Primary production, maintenance, TCA, CTC, CFC-113 Conservation/recovery, aqueous cleaning, repair, service non-chlorinated solvents, halogenated solvents,

no-clean, delayed cleaning

Dry cleaning Cleaning fabrics, clothing and TCA, CTC CFC-113 Conservation/recovery, HCFC blends, leather goods non-chlorinated solvents

Adhesives Foams, particle board, plywood, TCA Water-based adhesives, high solids adhesivesmelamine lamination, furnituremaking

Coatings Paint, inks, conformal coatings, TCA, CTC Water-based coatings reactive resins, highresists varnishes.building -solids coatings, non-chlorinated solventsprotection, correction fluids

Aerosols Automotive, agricultural, TCA, CFC-113, (CTC), Water-based or soluble products, horticultural, industrial and CFC-11 non-chlorinated solvents, HCFC blends, HFCs,household products,contact perfluoroetherscleaners, pesticides

Special solvents Mould release agents, archive CFC-113, CFC-11, Water-based mould releases, film mould and antiquities conservation, CFC-12, TCA releases, non-chlorinated solvents, HFCs, HFEs, forensic applications, PFCsspecial hi-tech applications

Alternatives to ozone-depleting solvents

1998 Report of the Technical OptionsCommittee listed at the end of thischapter. Depending on what steps havealready been taken, application of theguidelines described can reduce totalemissions considerably.

The guidelines are concerned with thebest available technology for:

● cold cleaning;● vapour-phase cleaning (including

equipment with spray/ultrasound);and

● continuous ‘in-line’ cleaning.

Alternative substancesA number of alternative substances arecurrently in use or under development


50

to help phase out carbon tetrachloride,CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane.The most viable alternatives fordeveloping countries are:● aqueous cleaning;● semi-aqueous or

hydrocarbon/surfactant cleaning; ● non-chlorinated organic solvent

cleaning ● non-ozone depleting halogenated

solvents

Aqueous cleaning From a global environmental aspect,aqueous and semi-aqueous cleaning aregood alternatives. Aqueous cleaningtechnologies, with proper controls andmonitoring, are generally considered tohave low environmental impact due to thelow toxicity of the constituents.Hydrocarbon/surfactant or semi-aqueouscleaning is more likely to createwastewater treatment problems. However,poor housekeeping practices such asunnecessary dumping of the cleaningtanks, can cause problems, especially if the

effluent is untreated. In an area with watermanagement or water supply problems,aqueous cleaners may be a poor choiceunless efficient water recycling is possible.Aqueous additives and semi-aqueousformulations should be carefully screenedto avoid components that are harmful tohuman health or the environment.

In aqueous cleaning, water is the mainsolvent. Surfactants, synthetic detergents,soaps and other additives such as watersofteners and corrosion inhibitorsimprove the cleaning process.

Advantages:

● safety;● effectiveness;● low costs; and● containment of pollution.

Disadvantages: ● difficulties in rinsing and drying;● need for clean water supply;

● possibly high energy consumption; and● wastewater disposal, in some cases.

The solvents sector in China is growing by an estimated 14 percent a year. With as many

as 3200 widely dispersed SMEs using cleaning processes based on ODS, the Government

of China faces a major challenge in reducing OD solvent consumption in this sector.

The strategy adopted in China’s Country Programme is to study the needs of various

cleaning processes, develop alternatives, and then develop and deploy the appropriate

redesigned equipment and know-how in demonstration projects throughout the country.

Once a new equipment manufacturing line is established, SMEs will receive new high

quality, low cost, OD-solvent-free cleaning equipment, as well as training in its start-up

and operation.

Solution for a widely-dispersed and growing solvents sector in China

Source: UNDP Project, ODS-Free Cleaning Equipment Manufacturing Center for Phasing out ODSConsuming Solvents Across China


51

OD solvents (reference) Substitute solvents and processes

Property CTC CFC-113 1,1,1-TCA Aqueous HCS/semi- Non-halogenated Non-ODScleaning aqueous organic halogenated

cleaning

Ozone depletion very high high medium high none none none nonepotential

Global warming ? very high low none none none nonepotential

Volatile organic yes yes yes no yes yes yescompound

Solvency high medium high high high high higheffectiveness (with additives)

Toxicity very high medium low medium high very low medium medium high to(carcinogenic) very high

Flammability none none almost none none medium medium to nonevery high

Possibility of none none very slight none high very high usually noneexplosion

Viscosity low low low low to medium low to medium low low

Surface tension very low very low very low low to medium low to medium low to medium low

Compatibility good excellent good poor to poor to good to usuallywith metals excellent excellent excellent good

Compatibility poor medium poor excellent medium medium to poor usually poorwith plastics

Recycling possible easy easy possible possible difficult easy(large plants) (large plants)

Operating cost low to medium high medium medium high medium to high medium

Capital cost low low low medium high high low tomedium

Air pollution very high very high very high very low medium medium to high highrisk

Water pollution low low low high high low lowrisk

Soil pollution high medium high low medium medium highrisk (accident)

Properties of alternative solvents


52

Semi-aqueous cleaning This option involves using hydrocarbonsolvents and surfactants which are eitheremulsified with the water or, morecommonly, are used by themselves andfollowed by water cleaning.

Advantages: ● effective;● may lower solvent costs; and● compatible with most metals and

some plastics.

Disadvantages:

● can increase process costs because ofwastewater disposal;

● recycling of the solvent and watermay be costly;

● capital equipment usually more costly;● may introduce flammability and

odour concerns; and● the solvents are volatile organic

compounds.

Non-chlorinated organic solvents This group includes solvents which areoften less toxic than non-ODhalogenated solvents such as alcohols,ketones, aliphatic hydrocarbons andalkanes. Although toxicity is a concernwith some substances, the main risk isfrom the high flammability of the morevolatile compounds. Such solvents arenot recommended unless precautions aretaken such as installing explosion-proofelectrical equipment and using properventilation and worker protectiveequipment. The danger from fire shouldbe considered even more seriously indensely populated regions, particularly ifother flammable or combustiblematerials are likely to be present in theneighbourhood or in places with a highseismic activity. The possibility of soil or

groundwater contamination could alsobe a problem if proper material handlingpractices are not followed.

Non-OD halogenated solvents This group includes trichloroethylene,perchloroethylene and methylene chloride.These non-flammable solvents are toxicand require special measures to protectworkers from exposure. Perchloroethyleneand methylene chloride are particularlytoxic and, in high doses, have been knownto cause cancer in rodents. Low emissioncleaning equipment minimizes workerexposure levels and emissions to theenvironment and, along with goodmanagement practices, makes thesesolvents a practicable alternative. Whenused with this technology they giveequivalent or better cleaning than ODsolvents using older equipment. Thecompatibility of these substances withplastics and elastomers should be tested.The possibility of soil or groundwatercontamination could also be a problemif proper material handling practices arenot followed.

Other alternative substances There are other alternatives such as themore toxic organic solvents, HCFCs,perfluorocarbons, and a growing numberof non-solvent cleaning processes whichwill not be discussed in more detailbecause of their environmental effects,high cost, hazards, lack of availability orother difficulties.

Current and alternative processesfor solvent sub-sectorsElectronicsThe electronics industry is the largestuser of CFC-113, consuming about 45


53

percent of the total world usage. It isused mostly to remove flux residuesfrom electronics assemblies. Theindustry is successfully converting to anumber of non-OD solvent processes.‘No-clean’ technologies are the bestalternative and have been used in moreand more electronics manufacturingapplications in recent years ‘No-clean’processes, using low solids contentfluxes, can lower costs and, if the processis operated under a controlledatmosphere, reduce solder dross. It is thepreferred choice for consumer and someother electronic products. In moresophisticated products, especially whereenhanced reliability is important,cleanliness standards may require thatsome form of cleaning take place. Tochange to ‘no-clean’, you will have towork with manufacturers and suppliersof flux to choose the formulation thatmeets your process and qualityspecifications. To ensure success,however, ‘no-clean’ processes requireskilled operators, increased qualitycontrol of incoming components,including printed circuit boards, and, insome cases, superior machinery.

‘No-Clean’ processes ● low-solids ‘No-Clean’ processes;● high-solids ‘No-Clean’ processes;● controlled atmosphere soldering.

The use of water-soluble fluxes and pastesis the most economical method ofsoldering and cleaning and has been inuse since the 1960s. Used correctly,water-soluble fluxes can producesuperlative soldering and cleaningqualities. However, this can be achievedonly if a rigorous process control systemis set up. As a general rule, new cleaning

machinery will be required and some ofthe available equipment scaled for SMEsmay have relatively high energy demands.For smaller companies, water recycling isnot practical and an adequate supply ofdrinking-quality water becomes a must.The need for wastewater treatment can beavoided, in many cases. For mediumenterprises, especially where adequatewater is expensive, partial water recyclingcan be considered to avoid excessive costs.If situated near the coast, low-cost sea-water purification units may be anoption, especially multiple-stage solarflash stills in countries with much sun.

Water soluble defluxing processes ● traditional water-soluble process;● ‘glycol-free’ water-soluble process.

Another important application in theelectronics industry is the developmentof dry film photoresists and solder resistsduring PCB manufacturing. This uses a

special grade of stabilized 1,1,1-trichloroethane, followed by a waterrinse. Aqueous-developed substituteshave been available for more than 20years and, whereas early types were notalways suitable for some applications,today’s products are considerably better.Notwithstanding, wet photo-imagingprocesses, either with curtain or silk-screened coating, offer anotherpossibility, particularly for high densityinterconnect structures.

Precision cleaningPrecision cleaning is the second largestapplication of CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane solvents. CFC-113 isused in the electronics and otherindustries to clean delicate instrumentsand surfaces, which may be made of

A number of OD solvent blends

containing bromine have recently

appeared on the market. These look

tempting as they are not too expensive

and the makers claim they are ‘drop-in`

substitutes for other OD solvents.

Currently being studied under the

Montreal Protocol, they are often based

on chlorobromomethane or n-propyl

bromide (which have synonyms) and are

marketed under trade names

The Solvents, Coatings and Adhesives

Technical Options Committee does not

recommend their use because of their

ODP, which is within the same range as

that of regulated HCFC solvents. These

solvents may become scheduled for

rapid phase out because they have no

outstanding characteristics which cannot

be found in other, more benign solvents

Any investment in these solvents would

therefore be wasted. It is not likely that

aid from the Multilateral Fund would be

made available for them.

The position of these solvents with

regard to Health and Safety is

equivocal. It is known that n-propyl

bromide has a very low flash point

(lower than 0˚C). Both of the types

mentioned are believed to be quite

toxic, although long-term testing has not

been done. Concern has been

expressed about mutagenicity, neural

toxicity and reduced sperm counts.

Brominated solvents


54

metal, plastic, or glass and opticalcomponents. Precision cleaning is alsoneeded in some specialized forms ofmanufacture, maintenance, testing andassembly. 1,1,1-trichloroethane has beenused in cleaning some types of medicalequipment and was appropriate forprecision cleaning of heavy grease.

Much solvent loss can be avoided byreducing the number of cleaningoperations. For example, all thecomponents of a precision device maynot need to be cleaned individually if,after assembly, the device must becleaned again, anyway.

Available options to replace OD solventsinclude aqueous cleaning, semi-aqueouscleaning, non-chlorinated solvents andhalogenated solvents.

Aqueous cleaningThere are three common types of processequipment:

● immersion with ultrasonic agitation(best cleaning in parts with minuteinterstices, most expensive);

● immersion with mechanical agitation(simple to operate, harder toautomate);

● spray washer (least expensive, may beless effective in cleaning some types ofcomplex parts).

The water must be thoroughly degassed,filtered and temperature-controlled ifultrasonic agitation is to be used,otherwise cavitation will not occur closeto the parts being cleaned. This involvescomplex pre-treatment facilities. Somematerials may be totally or partiallyincompatible with pure water.

Hydrocarbon/surfactant (semi-aqueous)cleaningSemi-aqueous cleaning process steps andequipment are similar to aqueouscleaning, with an additional stage for theorganic solvent. The five major steps inthe cleaning process are solvent-cleaning(with a hydrocarbon/surfactant), grosswater-cleaning, water-rinsing, drying andwastewater disposal. Both the solventand water may be partially recycled inlarge installations but this requires verycareful process control where it ispossible. Combustibility of the organicsolvent dictates that it must never besprayed through air.

Non-chlorinated solvents (alcohols andketones) Isopropanol (IPA, isopropyl alcohol) hasbeen successfully used in a number ofapplications as it is compatible withmost metallic and non-metallicmaterials. However, precautions must betaken because of its flammability andlow flash point. Aliphatic hydrocarbonssuch as mineral spirits or naphtha areused extensively in maintenance cleaningas they are compatible with mostmaterials, have good cleaning propertiesand, like isopropanol, can be recycled.They are also highly flammable.

Non-OD halogenated solventsHalogenated solvents are effective cleanersbut must be used carefully because of theirhealth risks. If modern, low-emission,vapour-phase equipment was used for ODsolvents, it may usually be easily modifiedfor non-OD solvents, at little cost. Thesesolvents are not necessarily compatiblewith all non-metallic parts and carefultesting is advised.


55

General metal cleaningMetal cleaning applications include allthose in which metal parts are cleanedduring manufacturing or maintenanceexcept for those metal parts that areincluded in precision cleaning. 1,1,1-trichloroethane and CFC-113 are usedextensively in general metal part cleaningin a wide range of manufacturing andmaintenance processes in industry.Processes involve dipping parts manuallyor hydraulically into a solvent solution.Soaking, mechanical agitation, ultrasoniccleaning and vapour degreasing are used,and there is often high solventconsumption because much equipmentcurrently contains no vapour level controlsor containment facilities and up to 80percent of purchased solvent can be lost.

It has been estimated that aqueouscleaning could replace at least 60 percentof the OD solvents used in degreasingmetals. The main stages in aqueouscleaning are washing, rinsing and drying.Aqueous cleaning processes includeimmersion cleaning, ultrasonic cleaningand spray cleaning.

There are specific metal-cleaningoperations in which halogenated solventssuch as methylene chloride are consideredto be the only alternative to CFC-113and 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Great caremust be taken to avoid operators beingexposed to the vapours from thesesolvents, in view of their toxicity.

Dry cleaningThe fabric and clothing dry cleaningindustry is a relatively minor user ofcarbon tetrachloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and CFC-113,consuming less than 5 percent of all

CFC-113. Organic solvents are ideal fordry cleaning because, unlike water, theydo not distort fabrics.

Conservation is important becausesolvent losses from dry cleaningmachines result from poor recovery(drying), leakage, distillation losses andincorrect handling during refilling andservicing. Efficient operation of therefrigeration unit can reduce solventlosses by up to 25 percent.A number of HCFCs and HCFC blendsare commercially available as dry cleaningsolvents and may be used in modernmachines designed for CFC-113 withlittle modification. They should not beused in machines designed for chlorinatedsolvents. They are stable, non-flammableand have excellent solvency. It should benoted that they are transitionalalternatives subject to phase out under theMontreal Protocol by the year 2030.

Before carbon tetrachloride wasintroduced for dry cleaning, an aliphatichydrocarbon solvent (Stoddart’s solvent)was used extensively. Some new solventsof this type, with special characteristicsto suit many different applications,including suede and leather cleaning,have been introduced in recent years.However, these are flammable or, atleast, combustible and their use requiresspecial new machinery which has alsobecome readily available. This techniquemay lower overall costs compared toCFC-113 cleaning and can be used formost garments bearing an ‘F’ label.

Adhesives, coatings and aerosolsThe quantities of carbon tetrachloride,CFC-113 and 1,1,1- trichloroethaneemployed for these miscellaneous uses


56

are less than 5 percent of the total.1,1,1- trichloroethane is used to improveadhesive performance, to dissolve themain binding substance in coatings andinks, and as a spray-coating thinner.

Adhesives applicationsWater-based adhesives come in threeforms; solution, latex or emulsion, andthey can replace OD solvent-basedadhesives in many applications. Ingeneral, water-based adhesives showgood durability, water resistance andadhesion to a wide variety of materials.Another alternative is high solidsadhesives where the amount of solventused is reduced by replacing it with ahigher amount of solids. High-solidsadhesives have good performance andcan mostly be used on existingequipment at normal line speeds withminor modifications. Reactive adhesivescontain no solvents.

Instantaneous contact adhesives are alsoavailable with toluene or xylene solventsystems. These have the disadvantage ofhigh flammability but are excellent inperformance.

Coating applicationsThe drying time, durability, stability,adhesion and ease of applicationproperties of water-based inks, paintsand coatings have been improvedrecently allowing them to replacesolvent-based products in many printingand coating applications. Even toughapplications, such as on road vehicles,are successfully using water-based paints.Much conformal coating in theelectronics industry uses reactiveproducts, containing no solvents, andreactive paints based on epoxy, polyester

and polyurethane resins are also availablefor some applications.

Aerosol applicationsThe simplest replacements for carbontetrachloride, CFC-113 and 1,1,1-trichloroethane in aerosol applications assolvent sprays are HCFC blends.However, this is only a temporarysolution because of their restrictionsunder the Montreal Protocol. (Thisapplies only to the sprayed solvents andnot to the propellants.)

Specialized solvent usesThere are a number of otherapplications such as mould releaseagents, film and skin cleaning andvapour-phase soldering and reflow wherevery small amounts of CFC-113 and1,1,1- trichloroethane are used.

Water-based mould release agents areavailable worldwide and are being usedin a variety of manufacturing operations,especially in rubber mouldingapplications. They are the safest optioncurrently available from a workerviewpoint (non-toxic, non-flammable)and they have reduced VOC emissionscompared to solvent-based processes.There is no water-treatment or disposalrequired and they are cheaper than thecurrent CFC processes.

CFC-113 is used as a secondary blanketwith some types of vapour-phasesoldering and reflow equipment, to lowerthe cost of primary vapour losses. PFCdrop-in substitutes have become available.They are not ODS but are more costlythan CFC-113 and have extremely highGlobal Warming Potentials (several timesthat of CFC-113).


57

The problems of very small enterprises Very small enterprises are those withusually less than five employees andoften only one, and an OD solventconsumption of less than 1 tonne peryear. They present a particular problemthat has yet to be resolved. Initially, asthere are often many such enterprises indeveloping nations, many of them inlow-tech sub-sectors, such as bicyclerepair shops, it is almost impossible toidentify them. They can therefore beapproached only through their solventsuppliers, depending on the goodwill ofthe latter, which cannot always beguaranteed.

A second problem is the administrativecost of offering technical or financialaid to such enterprises, which may havealmost no capital investment incleaning equipment and may purchasesolvents worth a few hundred dollars orless a year. None of the regularchannels for funding from national orinternational sources would undertakethe expense of developing projects tothousands of such enterprises, eitherindividually or collectively, eventhough the aggregate evaporation fromall such sources represents animportant proportion of the solventssector emissions.

One approach that has not yet beentried is to request the solventsmanufacturers or importers to substitute,for example, trichloroethylene when avery small customer orders carbontetrachloride for simple degreasingapplications. The difference in price isnot prohibitive, the two solvents havereasonably similar characteristics and the

trichloroethylene, while being quitetoxic, is far less so than carbontetrachloride, so that the changeover willpass almost unnoticed.Trichloroethylene could also be suppliedin place of 1,1,1-trichloroethane formetal-cleaning applications but, in thiscase, the higher toxicity could present asevere problem and warnings would benecessary. CFC-113 does not have suchan almost-acceptable substitute within areasonable price range.

The same applies to slightly largerenterprises which may be equipped witha small two-tank vapour degreaser,whose new value may be as low as a fewthousand dollars. To replace thismachine with the smallest aqueousmachine and to supply the cleaningknow-how may cost a total of only someUS$10 000. On top of that, as such amachine is, almost by definition, notvery efficient when not used to fullcapacity, the running costs may risefrom, say, US$1000 to US$2000 a year,assuming there is an adequate watersupply available. The total aid packagethus amounts to some US$15 000. Inthis case, there may be a chance offinancial and technical aid, but not asan individual project. The only hopewould be to group, say geographically,all the companies requiring exactly thisaid with the same problem, to beresolved in the same way. Under theseconditions, an implementing agencycould consider it worthwhile to proposean ‘umbrella’ project with a dozen or sosuch identical installations. This is notideal, because each company loses itsflexibility of choice and training wouldbe centralized.


58

Sources of technology, informationand assistanceThe UNEP 1998 Report of the Solvents,Coatings and Adhesives Technical OptionsCommittee 1998 Assessment. providesdetailed technical descriptions of theleading alternatives including theadvantages and disadvantages of each. Italso includes a discussion of cost ofalternatives and environmental andenergy considerations. A 1998 Reportwill soon be released. The text of the1994 report can be downloaded from theInternet and it is planned that the 1998report will also become available on-lineat http://www.protonique.com/unepstoc.

The STOC Ready Reference of ODSolvents lists all trade names ofcommercial products known to containOD solvents, as an aid to theiridentification. It may be downloadedfrom the Internet athttp://www.protonique.com/unepstoc

The Sourcebook for Specialized SolventUses (UNIDO, September 1996 Update)has alternative data sheets which includea description, use and availability,environmental, health and safetyconsiderations, material and equipmentchanges required (if any), associatedcosts or savings, and the suppliers ofalternative materials and/or equipmentin the special solvents sub-sector as wellas sources of more information.

UNEP DTIE has also produced a guidefor the hotel and tourism industry: Howthe Hotel and tourism Industry can Protectthe Ozone Layer (UNEP IE, 1998).

Solvents: Sector Specific Issues, UnitedNations Industrial DevelopmentOrganisation (UNIDO), Solvents Unit,June 1995

ICOLP-US EPA publications ● Alternatives for CFC-113 and Methyl

Chloroform in Metal Cleaning● Aqueous and Semi-Aqueous

Alternatives for CFC-113 and MethylChloroform Cleaning of PrintedCircuit Boards

● Eliminating CFC-113 and MethylChloroform in Precision CleaningOperations

● No-Clean Soldering to Eliminate CFC-113 and Methyl Chloroform Cleaningof Printed Circuit Board Assemblies

● Conservation and Recycling Practicesfor CFC-113 and Methyl Chloroform

● Manual of Practices to Reduce andEliminate CFC-113 Use in theElectronics Industry

For the ICOLP-ICEL-US EPApublications, contact:

ICEL (International Cooperative forEnvironmental Leadership) 11430 Balls Ford Road, Suite 102 Manassas, VA 20109 Tel: +1 703 335 6300 Fax: +1 703 335 2585 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.icel.org


59

PART III

SOURCES OFASSISTANCE


60

IntroductionThe origin and purpose of the

Multilateral Fund was discussed in

Chapter 2. As an institution created to

assist developing countries meet their

commitment to phase-out the use of

ODS or ‘controlled substances’, the

Fund supports a variety of activities.

These include projects to assist

companies to phase-out ODS, to access

new technologies and to receive training

or attend demonstration workshops in

their particular sectors.

In this chapter you will find some

guidelines for accessing Fund support

and a sampling of projects that assisted

SMEs in each of the four sectors to

convert to new technologies or

substances or to adopt conservation

techniques that considerably reduced the

consumption of ODS.

Guidelines for financing projects

for SMEs

To be eligible for assistance you must:

● Operate your enterprise in an article 5

country. That is a developing country

which has an ODS consumption rate

of less than 0.3 kg per capita.

● Be a citizen of a country that has

ratified the Montreal Protocol. See

Appendix 1 for the list of

developing countries that have

ratified the Protocol.

● Have a project that has the approval

of your government. Remember that

applications for a project can only be

submitted by national governments,

national ozone units or the

implementing agencies of the Fund.

Once submitted, they must also be

approved by the Executive

Committee of the Fund.

● Ensure that your project fits in with

the industrial strategy and Country

Programme of your government.

● Develop a project that is based on

environmentally sound alternative

technologies or substitutes to ODS.

● Propose the most cost-effective and

efficient option, taking into account

your national industrial strategy.

Because umbrella or group projects are

often the most cost-effective for SMEs,

it is likely that most SME projects will

include several enterprises.

● Understand that the Fund only

provides financial assistance for the

incremental costs of your project.

That is, it will cover only the cost of

conversion from ODS to non-ODS

operations. If this change requires the

purchase of safety equipment, it

could also be considered as an

incremental cost.

How to proceed

● Start with your industry association.

It will frequently have programs to

assist members to convert to non-

ODS. In many instances, it will be

faster and more effective to proceed

to make the needed changes without

financial assistance from the Fund.

● Use your national ozone office. This

is where you will get the information

and assistance you need. The ozone

officer(s) will be able to direct you to

appropriate sources, inform you of

The Multilateral Fund for theimplementation of theMontreal Protocol

9

THE MULTILATERAL FUND FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE MONTREAL PROTOCOL

61

training or information workshops, if

they exist, and provide advice on the

possibility of receiving assistance from

the Fund.

For information on the Multilateral Fund

contact:

Dr Omar El-Arini

Chief Officer

Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for

the Montreal Protocol

27th Floor, Montreal Trust Building

1800 McGill College Avenue

Montreal, Quebec, H3A 6J6

Canada

Tel: (1) 514 282 1122

Fax: (1) 514 282 0068

E-mail: [email protected]

www.unmfs.org

United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP)Dr Suely Carvalho, Deputy Chief andOfficer in ChargeMontreal Protocol UnitUnited Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP)1 United Nations Plaza, United NationsNew York, N.Y. 10017, United StatesTel: (1) 212 906 5042Fax: (1) 212 906 6947E-mail: [email protected]/seed/eap/montreal

United Nations EnvironmentProgramme (UNEP DTIE)Mrs Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel,Assistant Executive Director, DirectorDivision of Technology, Industry andEconomics (DTIE)United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP)OzonAction Programme39–43, quai Andre Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15, FranceTel: (33 1) 44 37 14 50Fax: (33 1) 44 37 14 74E-mail: [email protected]/ozonaction.html

United Nations IndustrialDevelopment Organization (UNIDO)Mrs H. Seniz Yalcindag, Managing DirectorIndustrial Sectors and EnvironmentDivisionUnited Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization (UNIDO)Vienna International CentreP.O. Box 300, A-1400 Vienna, AustriaTel: (43) 1 26026 3782Fax: (43) 1 26026 6804 E-mail: [email protected]

The World BankMr Steve Gorman, Unit ChiefMontreal Protocol Operations UnitThe World Bank1818 H Street N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433United StatesTel: (1) 202 473 5865Fax: (1) 202 522 3258E-mail: [email protected]/mp/home.cfm

Multilateral Fund SecretariatDr Omar El Arini, Chief OfficerSecretariat of the Multilateral Fund forthe Montreal Protocol27th Floor, Montreal Trust Building1800 McGill College AvenueMontreal, Quebec H3A 6J6CanadaTel: (1) 514 282 1122Fax: (1) 514 282 0068E-mail: [email protected]

UNEP Ozone SecretariatMr Michael GraberDeputy Executive SecretaryUNEP Ozone SecretariatPO Box 30552NairobiKenya Tel: (254 2) 623 855Fax: (254 2) 623 913E-mail: [email protected] www.unep.org/ozone/home.htm

62


Implementing Agencies,Multilateral Fund Secretariatand UNEP Ozone Secretariat

10

Nations around the world are takingconcrete actions to reduce and eliminateproduction and consumption of CFCs,halons, carbon tetrachloride, methylchloroform, methyl bromide andHCFCs. When released into theatmosphere these substances damage thestratospheric ozone layer—a shield thatprotects life on Earth from thedangerous effects of solar ultravioletradiation. Nearly every country in theworld—currently 172 countries—hascommitted itself under the MontrealProtocol to phase out the use andproduction of ODS. Recognizing thatdeveloping countries require specialtechnical and financial assistance inorder to meet their commitments underthe Montreal Protocol, the Partiesestablished the Multilateral Fund andrequested UNEP, along with UNDP,UNIDO and the World Bank, toprovide the necessary support. Inaddition, UNEP supports ozoneprotection activities in Countries withEconomies in Transition (CEITs) as animplementing agency of the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF).

Since 1991, the UNEP DTIEOzonAction Programme hasstrengthened the capacity ofgovernments (particularly NationalOzone Units or ‘NOUs’) and industry indeveloping countries to make informeddecisions about technology choices andto develop the policies required toimplement the Montreal Protocol. Bydelivering the following services todeveloping countries, tailored to theirindividual needs, the OzonActionProgramme has helped promote cost-effective phase-out activities at thenational and regional levels:

Information exchange Provides information tools and servicesto encourage and enable decision makersto make informed decisions on policiesand investments required to phase outODS. Since 1991, the Programme hasdeveloped and disseminated to NOUsover 100 individual publications, videos,and databases that include publicawareness materials, a quarterlynewsletter, a web site, sector-specifictechnical publications for identifyingand selecting alternative technologiesand guidelines to help governmentsestablish policies and regulations.

TrainingBuilds the capacity of policy makers,customs officials and local industry toimplement national ODS phase-outactivities. The Programme promotes theinvolvement of local experts fromindustry and academia in trainingworkshops and brings together local

stakeholders with experts from the globalozone protection community. UNEPconducts training at the regional leveland also supports national trainingactivities (including providing trainingmanuals and other materials).

NetworkingProvides a regular forum for officers inNOUs to meet to exchange experiences,develop skills, and share knowledge andideas with counterparts from bothdeveloping and developed countries.Networking helps ensure that NOUshave the information, skills and contactsrequired for managing national ODSphase-out activities successfully. UNEPcurrently operates 8 regional/sub-regional Networks involving 109developing and 8 developed countries,

63


About the UNEP DTIEOzonAction Programme

UNEP

which have resulted in member countriestaking early steps to implement theMontreal Protocol.

Refrigerant Management Plans(RMPs)Provide countries with an integrated,cost-effective strategy for ODS phase-outin the refrigeration and air conditioningsectors. RMPs have to assist developingcountries (especially those that consumelow volumes of ODS) to overcome thenumerous obstacles to phase out ODS inthe critical refrigeration sector. UNEPDTIE is currently providing specificexpertise, information and guidance tosupport the development of RMPs in 60countries.

Country Programmes andInstitutional Strengthening Support the development andimplementation of national ODS phase-out strategies especially for low-volume

ODS-consuming countries. TheProgramme is currently assisting 90countries to develop their CountryProgrammes and 76 countries toimplement their Institutional-Strengthening projects.

For more information about theseservices please contact:

Mr Rajendra Shende, Chief, Energy and OzonAction UnitUNEP Division of Technology, Industryand Economics39–43, quai André Citroën 75739 Paris Cedex 15 FranceE-mail: [email protected]: (33 1) 44 37 14 50Fax: (33 1) 44 37 14 74www.uneptie.org/ozonaction

64


The mission of the UNEP Division ofTechnology, Industry and Economics isto help decision-makers in government,local authorities, and industry developand adopt policies and practices that:

● are cleaner and safer; ● make efficient use of natural resources; ● ensure adequate management of

chemicals; ● incorporate environmental costs;

● reduce pollution and risks for humansand the environment.

The UNEP Division of Technology,Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE),with its head office in Paris, is composedof one centre and four units:

● The International EnvironmentalTechnology Centre (Osaka), whichpromotes the adoption and use ofenvironmentally sound technologieswith a focus on the environmental

management of cities and freshwaterbasins, in developing countries andcountries in transition.

● Production and Consumption(Paris), which fosters thedevelopment of cleaner and saferproduction and consumption patternsthat lead to increased efficiency in theuse of natural resources andreductions in pollution.

● Chemicals (Geneva), whichpromotes sustainable development bycatalysing global actions and buildingnational capacities for the soundmanagement of chemicals and theimprovement of chemical safetyworld-wide, with a priority onPersistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

and Prior Informed Consent (PIC,jointly with FAO)

● Energy and OzonAction (Paris),which supports the phase-out ofozone depleting substances indeveloping countries and countrieswith economies in transition, andpromotes good management practicesand use of energy, with a focus onatmospheric impacts. TheUNEP/RISØ Collaborating Centreon Energy and Environment supportsthe work of the Unit.

● Economics and Trade (Geneva),which promotes the use andapplication of assessment andincentive tools for environmentalpolicy and helps improve theunderstanding of linkages betweentrade and environment and the roleof financial institutions in promotingsustainable development.

UNEP DTIE activities focus on raisingawareness, improving the transfer ofinformation, building capacity, fosteringtechnology cooperation, partnershipsand transfer, improving understandingof environmental impacts of trade issues,promoting integration of environmentalconsiderations into economic policies,and catalysing global chemical safety.

For more information contact:UNEP, Division of Technology,Industry and Economics39-43, Quai André Citroën75739 Paris Cedex 15, FranceTel: (33 1) 44 37 14 50; Fax: (33 1) 44 37 14 74E-mail: [email protected]; www.uneptie.org

65


About the UNEP Division ofTechnology, Industry and Economics

UNEP

www.unep.orgUnited Nations Environment Programme

P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, KenyaTel: (254 2) 621234Fax: (254 2) 623927

E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

Tour Mirabeau

39–43 quai André Citroën

75739 Paris Cedex 15

France

Tel: +33 1 44 37 14 50

Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74

E-mail: [email protected]

Website: www.uneptie.org

UNEP

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