The 32nd Thailand TESOL International Conference

Proceedings 2012

“Teacher Collaboration: Shaping the Classroom of

the Future”

January 27-28, 2012

Imperial Queen’s Park Hotel

Bangkok, Thailand

I

President’s note

ThaiTESOL would like to welcome you to the Proceedings of the 32nd ThailandTESOL

International Conference 2012 “Teacher Collaboration: Shaping the Classroom of the

Future”, held in Bangkok on 27-28 January 2012.

All the selected articles in the Proceedings this year have been peer-reviewed and edited by

our competent reviewers and editors. First of all, Rushita Ismail and Sarjit Kaur analyzed

the use of circumlocution strategies among ESL Malaysian learners at the intermediate high

and intermediate low levels of English oral proficiency in a university context. Secondly,

Mizuka Tsukamoto reported on the result of the questionnaire on how the students felt in her

target language-maximised classroom. Elizabeth Yoshikawa’s study will then suggest how

both the classroom pedagogy and in class activities could increase intrinsic motivation among

non-English major university students. Margaret M. Lieb described a language and culture

course, its design and implementation that sought to seek the issues of language and culture

in the globalized world. Hooshang Yazdani and Nahid Serajipour analyzed argument

structure in Iranian EFL student’s persuasive writing. Interestingly, Thomas Hamilton,

Richard Watson Todd, and Nuttanart Facundes examined two types of spelling errors

which had been largely overlooked in previous research and investigated how the potential

sources of interference might play a role in the errors. Thanin Kong-in investigated the

theory and the description of intonation in terms of its authentic phonetic and phonological

properties. Yasuo Nakatani critically discussed the evaluation methods of EFL learners’

strategy use. Last but not least, Yuka Ishikawa explored gender-discriminatory language and

gender-stereotyped images in Japanese junior high school English textbooks.

I would like to thank all the reviewers for their contributions to the review process. Many

thanks to the Proceedings Chair and the Editor for evaluating and editing these articles with

commitment and dedication. All these efforts from ThaiTESOL community make the

conference and proceedings a success.

Sincerely,

Nopporn Sarobol

President, ThaiTESOL

II

Editor’s note

Each year, the Annual International Thailand TESOL Conference brings together language

teaching practitioners and researchers from different countries. Not only does the conference

serve as a thriving forum for a wide range of thought-provoking and stimulating presentations

and workshops, but it also creates a convivial conference atmosphere.

We are delighted to inform our readership and contributors that the Proceedings of the 32nd

Annual International Thailand TESOL Conference 2012 are now available online. Under the

conference theme of Teacher Collaboration: Shaping the Classroom of the Future, the

Proceedings feature nine articles in which contributors share their rich teaching and research

experiences from a variety of socio-cultural contexts. This collection of articles, which

represents a comprehensive snapshot of the conference, offers our readership both theoretical

and pedagogical insights on current issues in TESOL in order to keep it abreast of

developments in the field. We therefore hope that our readership will find the articles

intellectually stimulating and pedagogically useful in their teaching and research activities.

On a final note, we would like to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation to all authors,

reviewers and IT specialists who worked tirelessly to bring the Proceedings to fruition. We

also look forward to exploring the theme of the 33rd Annual International Thailand TESOL

Conference which will be held in January 25-26, 2013 in Khon Kaen, in next year’s

Proceedings.

Pramarn Subphadoongchone

Editor

III

Proceedings Chair

Singhanart Nomnian, Mahidol University

Editor

Pramarn Subphadoongchone, Chulalongkorn University

Reviewers

Anchalee Chayanuvat Walailak University Apisak Pupipat Thammasat University Chutamas Sundrarajun Assumption University Jiraporn Intrasai King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang Kanjana Charttrakul Suan Dusit Rajabhat University Kasma Suwanarak National Institute of Development Administration Kenneth Murray Ho Ngai College Kornwipa Poonpon Khon Kaen University Kulaporn Hiranburana Chulalongkorn University Michael Alroe Chulalongkorn University Ngamthip Wimolkasem King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology North Bangkok Nguyen Buu Huan Can Tho University

Nisakorn Prakongchati Kamphaeng Phet Rajabhat University Paweena Phanthama Maejo University Peter Crosthwaite University of Cambridge Pragasit Sitthitikul Walailak University Prateep Kiratibodee Burapha University Sutida Ngonkum Khon Kaen University Sutthirak Sapsirin Chulalongkorn University Toshiyuki Takagaki Onomichi University Usa Intharaksa Prince of Songkla University Wiwat Puntai Mahidol University Yasmin Dar University of Leicester Yen-Chi Fan I-Shou University

IV

Contents

Page

The Use of Circumlocution Communication Strategy in ESL Dyadic Interaction Rushita Ismail Sarjit Kaur Making It Happen: Managing an EFL Classroom of Low Proficiency Students Mizuka Tsukamoto

EFL Learners: Actively Increasing Classroom Participation through Raising

Intrinsic Motivation Elizabeth Yoshikawa Language and Culture for a Globalized World Margaret M. Lieb

Argument Structure in Iranian EFL Student’s Persuasive Writing Hooshang Yazdani Nahid Serajipour Reassessing Traditional Spelling Theories from a Second Language Perspective Thomas Hamilton Richard Watson Todd Nuttanart Facundes An Exploration of Approach to Intonational Analysis and Speech Data Collection Thanin Kong-in How to evaluate EFL learners’ strategy use Yasuo Nakatani

Gender-discriminatory Language and Gender-stereotyped Images in Japanese Junior High School English Textbooks Yuka Ishikawa

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16

30

43

62

77

95

109

126

1

The Use of Circumlocution Communication Strategies in ESL Dyadic Interaction

Rushita Ismail

Sarjit Kaur

Abstract

Recent research indicates that communication strategies can help to

overcome breakdowns in second language oral interaction. Among these

strategies, the circumlocution communication strategy is acknowledged to

be the most effective strategy in situations of compensating for gaps in the

linguistic knowledge of ESL learners. This study analyzed the use of

circumlocution strategies among ESL Malaysian learners at the

intermediate high and intermediate low levels of English oral proficiency in

a university context. All of the instances of communication strategies used

by the ESL learners in the six dyads were analyzed to identify the types of

circumlocution strategies used by the learners of each level. The analysis of

the ESL learners’ communication discourse revealed that compared to low

intermediate level learners, high intermediate level learners used more

types of circumlocution, such as making descriptions and using references

and examples. The pedagogical implications and implementation of

teaching circumlocution strategies suggest that the communication

strategies that learners use may be the characteristic of the stage of

language acquisition that they have reached.

Introduction

It is common for second language learners to use communication strategies (CSs

hereafter) when they find that the lexical items or structures they want to use in order to

convey their messages are not accessible in their linguistic knowledge. These CSs are the

alternative means of expression to convey the content of their messages through the use of

synonyms, descriptions, native language transfers, circumlocution, a word coinage, or even

gestures to compensate the unavailable target form (Poulisse et al., 1990; Dörnyei & Kormos,

1998). Recent research shows that Malaysian ESL learners employ circumlocution in

situations requiring identification of objects in picture-story narration (Rushita & Muria,

2

2006), oral interaction in mock job interviews (Fariza, 2008) and in telephone conversations

(Ting & Lau, 2008).

Circumlocution strategy is the alternative means of expression that allows the learner

and the interlocutor to work to achieve an agreement on meaning through the use of a

description. This category of strategy is a consequence of the use of the achievement strategy.

There have been various identifications of circumlocution being regarded as a

communication strategy or lexical repair strategy (Liskin- Gasparro, 1996; Paribakt, 1985;

Tarone, 1983).

Being one of the components of strategic competence (Canale & Swain, 1983),

circumlocution was initially considered by Tarone (1977: 198) to be “a wordily extended

process in which the learner describes the characteristics or elements of the object or action

instead of using the appropriate target language structure.” She categorized circumlocution

under paraphrase strategy. Later, it was defined by Savignon (1983: 310) as “the effective use

of coping strategies to sustain or to enhance communication.” It is a strategy on the learners’

use of two or more words instead of one in the form of descriptive periphrasis to convey their

meanings when they lack the desired target language item (Færch & Kasper, 1983; Varadi,

1983). Dörnyei and Kormos (1998: 361), however, define it as “exemplifying, illustrating, or

describing the properties of the target object or action.”

Circumlocution as an effective communication strategy

Second language (L2 hereafter) based strategies, namely circumlocution and

approximation, are known to be effective communication strategies compared to the

following L1-based strategies: transfer, code switching, literal translation, restructuring, word

coinage communication strategies (Bialystok, 1983; Haastrup & Phillipson, 1983). The extant

literature on second language acquisition provides evidence that proficient language learners

are able to circumlocute more effectively than less proficient language learners (Liskin-

Gasparro, 1996).

Numerous studies have been conducted on the effectiveness of different types of CSs

used by ESL learners. Effective use of CSs has been identified as being of crucial importance

for L2 learners in overcoming communication breakdowns (Faucett, 2001). For this reason,

most CS researchers find it relevant to enhance learners’ communicative effectiveness

through the use of CS in classroom instruction.

3

Studies on the effectiveness of CSs were initiated by researchers such as Bialystok

and Frohlich (1980), Palmberg (1982) and Bialystok (1983). In their studies, they

demonstrated the use of a systematic way to obtain CS elicitations from L2 learners and they

used a group of independent judges to review the comprehensibility of these strategies. It was

not their intention to look into the effectiveness of the CSs. Later, Bialystok and Frohlich

(1980) and Bialystok (1983) compared the communicative value of L2 against L1-based

strategies. Their studies revealed that L2-based strategies which involve description of the

specific features of the intended object such as circumlocution strategies proved to be the

most effective ones. L1-based strategies such as code switching strategies seemed to be less

effective. The results of their analyses also suggest that the best strategy users are flexible in

their strategy selection and use CS in various combinations.

A subsequent psycholinguistic study was carried out by Poullisse et al. (1990) on this

same issue when they compared the comprehensibility of different types of CSs identified on

the basis of cognitive processing. The results of their study revealed that a combination of

holistic and analytic strategies is likely to be comprehensible as compared to the combination

of transfer and holistic strategies. It has been understood that these findings are complicated

and cannot be generalized as they suggest that the comprehensibility of a certain

compensatory strategy depends to a large extent on the context in which is it used.

Following these trends on the effectiveness of studies on CSs, Chen (1990), Marrie

and Netten (1991) and Jourdain (2000) studied the correlation of CS effectiveness to the

learners’ proficiency level. Chen’s (1990) study on Chinese English as a foreign language

(EFL) learners found that effective use of CSs varies according to the learners’ English

language proficiency. Marie and Netten’s (1991) study shows that the ability to make use of

more effective CSs develops together with the learners’ interlanguage system. On the other

hand, Jourdain (2000) reveals that higher proficiency level students are able to use CSs more

effectively than lower proficiency level students. The CS that high proficient learners use is

circumlocution.

Below is an example of the use of circumlocution CS among ESL learners whereby the

learner’s intention is to communicate the meaning of the word ‘puddle’:

4

Example 1:

1 L1: it doesn’t look like: : a hole, what do you call this? ... water... thing 2 and then..have you put the water thing 3 L2: no 4 L1: what should I say...here? 5 L2: a hole or..... 6 L1: i think it’s a... hole.. fill with.. water 7 L2: a puddle lah! 8 L1: haa..ya. 9 L2: okay...... a puddle of.. water.

Initially the learner uses a number of CSs, such as ‘water thing’, ‘what should I say

here?’, ‘I think a hole fill with water’, to convey the intended meaning of the word ‘puddle’.

However, the message is successfully communicated when the learner (L1) circumlocutes

effectively in line 6. The object of referent has been described due to the lack of the precise

term for ‘puddle’.

Language learners are inclined to circumlocute in several different ways. In this study,

the segment of interaction between the learner and interlocutor to establish mutual agreement

on the meaning ‘puddle’ is referred to as a CS segment. This segment is identified when a

lexical problem arises and a CS needs to be used to resolve conflicts between the learner and

interlocutor in the interaction.

The aim of this study was to analyse learner-learner interaction focusing on

circumlocution CS segments in order to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the different types of circumlocution communication strategies used to

overcome breakdowns in dyadic learner- learner oral interaction?

2. Do learners of different levels of oral English proficiency use circumlocution

communication strategies differently?

Methodology

There were 12 participants in this study and they were paired in two different groups

of three low intermediate - low intermediate dyads and three high intermediate - high

intermediate learner dyads based on their national Malaysian University English Test

(MUET) scores. The MUET is a test of English proficiency and it is widely used for

university admissions in Malaysia. The scores by students on the four language skills of

5

listening, reading, writing and speaking are graded in six bands, with Band 6 the highest and

Band 1 the lowest. In this study, learners who obtained a Band 4 in their MUET were

considered as ‘high intermediate’ learners while those who obtained a Band 3 were classified

as ‘low intermediate’ learners. At the time of the study, all the subjects were at least 23 years

old, had learned English for the past 15 years and were categorized as learners who spoke

English infrequently in their daily lives or only spoke English in selected contexts.

There were a total of 15 common objects and actions to be described by the learner to

the interlocutor in the picture story narration task. These objects were selected on the basis of

a previous pilot study, which ensured that such objects would pose frequent linguistic

difficulties to both high intermediate and low intermediate level learners. The following

lexical items were presented in the narration task: hat, handle bar moustache, puddle, bus-

stop sign, speeding, manhole cover, approaching, fire hydrant, streetlight, post-box, bent,

sling-bag, striped, suspenders, and shoe off. These objects were included in the learners’

picture story narration but were absent from the interlocutors’ version. In this study, the

researchers compared how the different dyads used the circumlocution communication

strategy as they communicated the same set of pre-selected referents to each other.

The dyads were seated across the table with a low barrier used as a separation. They

were not supposed to look at each other’s picture and the learner had to describe as accurately

as possible the objects that are missing from the interlocutor’s picture. The session was

recorded and the oral data was transcribed. Instances of types of circumlocution strategies

were identified and analysed. The dyads spent an average of 30 minutes to complete the

required task.

Data Analysis

Initially, the data were examined and studied in search of lexical difficulties on the 15

target objects and actions. When they were identified, three types of circumlocution CS

(description, making reference to an action, and resorting to examples) were found to be the

common ones used by the learners. They are the common procedures used by learners to

describe, illustrate and exemplify the target object or action (Dörnyei & Kormos, 1998).

Descriptions

In compensating for the lack of the desired target language item, learners usually use

two or more descriptive words to convey their meanings in oral interaction. In example 2, the

learner refers to the general physical properties of a fire hydrant by describing the most

6

relevant features of the intended referent such as the shape, colour, location and function of

the intended referent. However, in other instances, sizes too are mentioned as shown in

example 3.

Example 2: H3-H3: fire hydrant REFERENT: fire hydrant INTERLANGUAGE DATA:

1 A: yes there’s a erm... a fi:re (..) what you call that? 2 B: can you describe? 3 A: when there’s a fire at certain shop or certain place, 4 B: hmm 5 A: the: fire guy or the firemen just just take the (..) pipe and {put it there} you 6 know 7 {A’s HH put together} 8 B: oh i know the thing but i don’t know how to describe it maybe it’s {the T shape} 9 {B’s RH draws 10 letter T} 11 A: yes yes usually {it’s yellow in colour} 12 {A nods xn} 13 B: is it red? 14 A: there’s no colour here but [in a real]= 15 B: [ is it yellow]? 16 A: yes in real life sometimes yellow 17 B: and usually firemen will (..) put a hose 18 A: yes a [hose]= 19 B: [at the side] and water will flow 20 A: yes and behind of the: : this guy is looking at one car behind of him, 21 B: (….) can you can you help me about the thing? 22 A: t- hose 23 B: heh! 24 A: (…) i’m not so sure about that pili bomba (fire hydrant), fi:re

Example 3: H2-H2: street light REFERENT: Street light/lamp post INTERLANGUAGE DATA:

1 A: in the sixth picture, there’s a lamp (..) a road lamp (.) a big one a tall one still 2 there’s a pathway 3 B: wait wait in the sixth picture 4 A: yap 5 B: again? there’s a tall lamp right? 6 A: ya a tall lamp 7 B: lamp *post*

7

Making reference to an action

In employing circumlocution, learners also at times make reference to an action by

describing its result. In example 4, the result ‘shoe on the right side of the lane’ of the

intended action ‘shoe off’ is mentioned instead. This happens when learners are not able to

describe the actual action.

Example 4: H1-H1: shoe off REFERENT: Shoe off INTERLANGUAGE DATA:

1 A: on the right side of his leg, there is no shoes (.) on, on both of the leg but 2 suddenly there is a shoe on the right side of the lane , near near 3 B: the shoe is not worn 4 A: yes 5 B: it’s just [{B put HH together and point to the left]} 6 A: yes it’s [just beside]

Resorting to examples

Learners have also been found to resort to examples of people, occasions or events related

to the object or quality they desire to communicate. In the following example, the learner

makes a reference to a well known actor who uses this item in the movie that both

interlocutors are familiar with.

Example 5: L1-L1: braces REFERENT: suspenders/braces INTERLANGUAGE DATA:

1 A: then he is wearing (..) a: : what they call that like a: : (…) you see the 2 movie “Spreadlight”? 3 B: yes 4 A: what Ashton Kutcher like to wear? 5 B: {braces} 6 {B touches his chest} 7 A: hah! 8 B: braces 9 A: is he wearing that? 10 B: no he’s not wearing 11 A: ya Ashton Kutcher and others like wearing this, 12 B: okay

8

The instances on the use of circumlocution are very frequent among the second language

learners in this study. They are formulated in a single turn as shown in example 4 or in

several turns as in example 2. The analysis of data in the current study also reveals that the

interlocutor plays a major role in the communicative success of the strategy with the various

number of turns made. Agreement on meaning is successfully achieved when the learner and

the interlocutor co-construct the circumlocutive description.

Findings and Discussion

From the data analysis, it has been found that the type of information and the form of

a circumlocution strategy constituted in second language generally depends on the nature of

the intended target referent, the context of the interaction and the interlocutors’ resources in

the target language. Table 1 below shows the types of circumlocution CSs used by the high

intermediate ESL learners:

Table 1: Use of Types of Circumlocution CS by High Intermediate Level of English Proficiency Learners Types of circumlocution Using

Descriptions Making Reference

Resorting Examples

High Intermediate Level Learners

H1 5 4 4

H2 6 2 1

H3 4 1

Total 15 7 5

There is a striking difference between the high intermediate level learners and low

intermediate level learners in the use circumlocution strategies as a whole. Generally, high

intermediate level learners used more circumlocution strategies than the low intermediate

level learners (27 segment instances compared to 13 segments) as seen in Table 1 and Table

2. This result coincides with studies carried out by Corrales and Calls (1989), Liskin-

Gasparro (1996) and Salamone and Marsal (1997) which clearly demonstrated that

9

circumlocution is used more frequently among high level proficiency learners than low level

proficiency learners.

Table 2: Use of Types of Circumlocution CS by Low Intermediate Level of English Proficiency Learners

Types of circumlocution Using Descriptions

Making Reference

Resorting Examples

Low Intermediate Level Learners

L1 2 1 1

L2 3 1

L3 4 1

Total 9 3 1

The amount of description used by both groups of learners is the highest; 16 segments

were used by the high intermediate level learners and 9 segments were used by the low

intermediate level learners. Learners prefer to use the strategy of providing descriptions

rather than using the strategies of making references and resorting to examples. High

intermediate level learners displayed 7 segments in making reference and 4 segments in

resorting to examples. On the other hand, low intermediate level learners displayed less

number of segments; 3 in making reference and 1 in resorting to examples.

From this data, it is apparent that the use of description circumlocution is prevalent

among these groups of ESL learners. As the use of descriptive strategies encompasses the

various features of the items such as the shape, size, colour, location and function of the

intended referent, the learners are able to successfully describe the target items by using

relevant features of the object.

The use of making reference is not as preferable as using descriptive strategies. In

making reference, learners were found to have used this strategy in compensating for lexis

which involves actions. As seen in Table 3, target referents such as ‘approaching’, ‘bent’,

‘speeding’ and ‘shoe off’ were commonly communicated through the strategy of making

reference. Here, as the learners were unable to describe the actual actions, they made

10

reference to the actions by describing the result of the actions or movements instead. The

message, however, was communicated successfully.

The least preferable circumlocution type of strategy is resorting through examples.

This strategy requires both interlocutors to have common ideas or knowledge on the target of

referents as learners tend to opt to people, occasions or events that they both are familiar

with. In resorting to examples, the segments used by high intermediate level learners were

made to the people; ‘British guy wears’ for ‘hat’, ‘a bag like Helmi’s’ for ‘sling bag’. In

resorting to occasions or events, these learners made statements on ‘kids always wear’ for

‘suspenders’ and ‘Enchanted movie’ for ‘manhole cover.’ There was only one segment

displayed by the low intermediate level proficiency learners and they resorted to people when

they mentioned ‘Ashton Kutcher like to wear’ when the learner meant ‘suspenders’.

Conclusions and Considerations for Future Research

The results of the present study show that regardless of the different levels of English

proficiency, these learners share similar types of circumlocution strategy. This study

demonstrates that the use of the types of circumlocution strategy to compensate for the

linguistic knowledge among these two groups of learners (high intermediate and low

intermediate level of English proficiency) is highly comparable.

When there is a lexical difficulty and learners need to use a circumlocution CS,

learners resort to three common types of circumlocution strategies for successful

communication of the message. Moreover, learners, depending on their proficiency levels,

may take quite an active role in making descriptions, references and citing examples in their

oral communication. The finding of this study coincides with the earlier studies which

revealed that the use of these strategies is the effective types and were used by the proficient

level learners (Jourdain 2000; Liskin-Garparro 1996).

High intermediate and low intermediate speaking interlocutors resort to the same types

of circumlocution strategies but with different frequency. This seems to suggest that the

proficiency level of the learner plays an important role on the learner’s strategy choice. In the

context established for the purposes of the present study, high intermediate level learners’

interaction offer more opportunities for second language learning lexical input than low

intermediate level learners’ interaction.

11

There are a number of interesting questions that could possibly be raised based on

these conclusions. First, do learners of different language background or gender use different

types of circumlocution strategies? Secondly, if making descriptions, reference and making

examples are necessary for effective circumlocution, could direct teaching facilitate the

acquisition of these strategies?

The results of this study are based on the analyses of a limited amount of data collected

in an experimental setting which cannot be generalized to other types of contexts. However, it

sheds light on how ESL learners utilize different types of circumlocution strategies in oral

communication of meaning. This facilitates our understanding on the opportunities that

circumlocution may offer for second language learning.

It has been found that circumlocution plays an important role in the process of second

language learning despite its popularity in language teaching materials (Faucett 2001). Many

researchers have suggested the benefits of incorporating circumlocution in ESL classrooms

through certain task-based activities (Chen, 2006; Salomone & Marsal, 1997; Brooks, 1992)

and instructional activities such as crossword puzzles and describing strange objects

(Willems, 1987). Not only are the learners able to receive more language input and improve

their language ability, but they may also develop their conversational ability and the channel

of conversation may remain open as learners will not give up when they encounter

deficiencies in their linguistic knowledge. When circumlocution strategies are effectively

adapted and implemented, these activities may offer students many language practice

opportunities which may enhance the process of their language acquisition.

The Authors

Rushita Ismail obtained her M.Sc. TESOL from Central Connecticut State University and

her B.A. Linguistics from the University of Iowa, USA. She is currently a Ph.D candidate at

the School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia. She is attached as a senior lecturer to

the Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA Penang. Her research

interests are in the areas of SLA and communication.

Sarjit Kaur is Associate Professor and Programme Chairperson of the English Language

Studies Section at the School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Her research areas

include Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), workplace literacies,

multiliteracies approach, postgraduate education, and policy research in higher education.

12

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Malaysian ESL learners. Malaysian Journal of ELT Research, 4, 18-34.

Varadi, T. (1980). Strategies of target language learner communication: Message adjustment.

International Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 59-72.

Willems, G. (1987). Communication strategies and their significance in foreign language

teaching. System, 15(3), 351-364

Appendix

Data collected for the study

Table 3: Examples drawn from High Intermediate Level- High Intermediate Level Dyads Target Referents H1- H1 H2-H2 H3-H3 hat British guy wears handle bar moustache a big black

moustache

puddle when it’s raining small drain water a place where there is water

bus- stop sign octagon shape speeding fast, a long smoke manhole cover circle with two dots round shape,

Enchanted movie there’s a drain, two dots on the cover

approaching, coming closer

too close closing enough

fire-hydrant yellow T- look pipe, firemen hose look like a T

15

thing streetlight a tall one post box a normal post-box the one that you put

mail in there a letter, big red box

bent not really fell down traffic light looks like falling down

want to fall

sling-bag a bag like Helmi’s

striped with the line zebra suspenders kids always wear shoe off shoe is not worn

Table 4: Examples drawn from Low Intermediate Level- Low Intermediate Level Dyads

Target referents L1-L1 L2-L2 L3-L3 hat handle bar moustache puddle a bit of water a hole fill with water a small pool of water bus- stop sign speeding moving like so fast fast movement,

something moves fastly

manhole cover A subway like people go down

metal on the road

approaching, coming closer

fire-hydrant yellow one for the fire fighter streetlight high rise lamp post box bent move a little bit sling-bag striped horizontal lines suspenders Ashton Kutcher like

to wear

16

Making It Happen: Managing an EFL Classroom of Low Proficiency Students

Mizuka Tsukamoto

Abstract

Language use in an EFL classroom is an ongoing debate among teachers.

Some have supported the idea of maintaining the Target Language (TL)

only approach in order to enhance learner development, while others have

stated that use of the learners’ L1 has a crucial and facilitating role in the

language classroom. This paper will introduce a study that was conducted

in a Japanese university. Despite the low proficiency level of the students, I,

the teacher researcher, managed a classroom where the students were

allowed limited amount of L1 use. Following the introduction of past

research on language use in language classrooms, I report on the result of

the questionnaire on how the students felt in my TL-maximised classroom.

The findings have implications that action research or further qualitative

research would play an important part in considering the students’

perspectives towards an efficient and effective EFL learning environment.

Introduction

What language to use when teaching language is an ongoing debate. The decision

may sometimes be set by the institution, while in other contexts, the instructor has the

freedom to choose which language to speak: the students’ L1, the target language (TL), or a

mixture of both. Institutions may have different expectations depending on what the

instructors’ first language is (the term native speaker will not be used in this paper, as the

writer has difficulty in defining what constitutes a native speaker of a language). How much

TL is used can range from allowing a certain amount of L1 use to a strict TL-only. Whether

the language policy is set by the institutions or by individual instructors, teachers tend to have

mixed attitudes, as was found in a study by McMillan, Rivers and Cripps (2009).

In Japan, this debate may be boosted by the curriculum recently announced by the

Ministry of Education, Culture, Technology and Science (MEXT), in which they strongly

encourage English classes in high schools to be taught in English (MEXT, 2008). The

17

Ministry noted that the instruction should be given in English to maximise the students’

exposure to the target language (2008). Seeing that this is happening in high schools, it seems

quite reasonable that English classes at the university level be conducted in English; however,

whether or not this English-only approach enhances effective language learning remains

questionable. According to the Central Council for Education (2008), in Japan more than

60% of university teachers are concerned about the apparent decline of the students’

academic abilities. Ford (2009) notes that some students enter universities without

fundamental English skills. In addition, due to the diverse methods that are now available for

entering universities, some students are admitted to university without taking English exams.

The study described in this paper took place in English as Foreign Language (EFL)

classrooms at a Japanese private university, where all the instructors are expected to use

English in classrooms; however, this rule is not made explicit by the institution. Therefore,

instructors seem to use whatever language they find “suitable” for the proficiency level of the

students.

I have always tried to maintain “TL-maximised” classes. However, the term

maximised seems rather vague, since the possible amount of TL is rather subjective. For my

own approach, I have considered a “TL-maximised classroom” as one in which all teacher-

student interactions are conducted in English. In the class examined in this study, students

were given the freedom to occasionally use Japanese when they had to interact with other

students during activities. However, they were expected and required to communicate with

the instructor in English only. This preference for maintaining teacher-student interactions in

TL comes from my own experience of studying in classes taught only in English and

recalling the sense of achievement I felt in that learning situation.

As mentioned above, the issue of the first-year university students’ generally low

proficiency in English has forced me to think how to manage my EFL classes, especially

given the fact that the institution does not specify explicitly what language to use. This

question has, for the last few years, made me wonder whether “English-only interaction” with

the students works or not. Do the students prefer to have an English-only classroom? What do

students think about the teacher’s use of language in the EFL classroom? What do students

like or dislike about the instructor’s use of English in class?

18

The present study was conducted to inquire into student perceptions of the teacher’s

use of language in EFL class. Specifically, I was interested in whether or not the students

with low proficiency in English were comfortable in class, and what they found was useful or

not useful in their instructor’s choice of language. This paper will first briefly review

historical views towards this issue: the monolingual approach and the bilingual approach.

After presenting results from a questionnaire given to the students, I will discuss my findings,

some limitations to the study, and implications for further research into the issue of TL

language and L1 use in EFL classes.

Benefits of a Monolingual Approach

The monolingual approach has long been prescribed by official policies in the field of

English Language Teaching (Macaro, 2001; Phillipson, 1992). The main reason offered by

supporters of a monolingual approach is exposure to the target language (Krashen, 1987;

Turnbull, 2001). Krashen (1985) insists that the students’ L1 should not be used in the

classroom in order to maximise the exposure of the target language. He states that the entire

lesson, or as much as possible, should be in the TL, and that there is a measurable

relationship between comprehensible input in TL and proficiency. In a more recent study,

Ellis (2005) asserts that the more TL exposure students receive, the faster they learn.

Indeed, students in an EFL environment do not have much exposure to either input or

output in the TL, because it is not a necessary component in their daily lives. Therefore, it is

quite natural that teachers want to provide as much exposure as possible in the classroom.

Turnbull (2001) similarly argues that the use of the students’ L1 in the classroom takes away

the opportunity for the students to have contact with the TL. Littlewood (1992) insists that if

the teacher does not use the TL in the classroom, learners will not be convinced that the

language they are learning is an effective means of communication in the real world. It is

only through actual modelled usage that the students acknowledge the worth of the L2.

Ellis (1985) also highlights the importance of using the TL for both language-related

and classroom management functions. He argues that:

In the EFL classroom, however, teachers sometimes prefer to use the

pupils’ L1 to explain and organize a task and to manage behaviour in

19

the belief that this will facilitate the medium-centred [language-

related] goals of the lesson. In so doing, however, they deprive the

learners of valuable input in the L2. (p.133)

Burden (2000) believes that a considerable amount of language learning is lost

when the students’ mother tongue is used, as students’ only regular exposure to English is in

the classroom. Seen from the teacher’s side, in research done by Macaro (1997), teachers did

not state any pedagogical value in using the learner’s L1 and further stated that students’ L1

is “clearly something that gets in the way of L2 learning” (p.29).

Benefits of a Bilingual Approach

Though some may feel L1 use slows the acquisition of a TL and is a waste of time,

others see judicious use of it as a necessary element for learner support. The reasons for the

bilingual approach could be categorised into the following: to maintain a comfortable

classroom atmosphere, to promote the students’ comprehension, and to use class time

efficiently. Polio and Duff (1994) point out that the use of L1 can be useful for creating a

relaxed atmosphere in the classroom. Burden uses an ‘English-only approach’ for his classes;

however, he also notes that he began to feel ‘remote’ from the students because there was

little natural conversational interaction in either English or Japanese (2000). He also found

that starting his class with the L1 provides students with a sense of security and validates the

learners’ lived experiences, allowing them to express themselves. Learners were thus more

willing to experiment and take risks with English (Burden, 2000). According to Nation

(1990), exclusion of students’ L1 is a criticism of the language and this apparent deprecation

has harmful psychological effects on learners. Auerbach (1993, 1994) notes that the manner

in which the L1 is managed in the classroom may create tension and that monolingual

policies tend to reflect political reasons more than pedagogical reasons.

The second reason for using the L1 in class is to increase students’ comprehension.

Atkinson (1993) states, for example, that for many learners, occasional use of the L1 gives

them the opportunity to show that they are intelligent and sophisticated people (p.13).

Learners who are less confident tend to keep their opinion to themselves out of fear of

making mistakes and being embarrassed; however, this does not mean that they are not smart.

Auerbach (1993) similarly argues that a bilingual policy is not only effective but also

20

necessary for adult ESL students: she reviews recent studies of L1 use in ESL classes that

demonstrated positive results. She finds that the use of L1 has a successful effect in lowering

the students’ anxiety levels and other affective barriers for students (Auerbach, 1993).

Krashen (1982) points out that exposure to comprehensible input is crucial for successful

language acquisition. If the students cannot understand what the instructor says, they will not

be comfortable in proceeding with a task or retaining it in their mind. He also states that

quality bilingual education provides students with knowledge and literacy in their first

language, which indirectly but powerfully aids them as they strive for English proficiency

(Krashen, 1987). Cook (2001) argues that teaching should take advantage of the many L1- L2

connections that learners naturally make in their minds. Harbord (1992) similarly states that

students will also naturally equate what they are learning in the TL with their L1, so trying to

eliminate this process will only have negative consequences.

Turnbull (2001) suggests that maximizing the TL does not and should not mean that

there is harm in the teachers using the students’ L1. As he puts it, “a principle that promotes

maximal teacher use of the TL acknowledges that the L1 and TL can assist each other

simultaneously.”

Atkinson (1987) promotes time-saving as one of his principal arguments for using the

L1 in class. Explaining a certain activity in the L1 may take only a few minutes, whilst trying

to explain the activity in the TL could take two or three times the amount of time. On a

practical level, the most frequent justification given by teachers for L1 use is that time saved

by communicating in the “mother tongue” can be used more efficiently, such as for the

activity itself, rather than instructions and explanations.

Teacher and Student Use of the L1 in Classes

Researchers have noted that the use of L1 has several different functions in class,

depending upon who is speaking it. Auerbach (1993) suggests thirteen possible occasions for

using the mother tongue as a teaching resource, which include classroom management,

language analysis, and discussion of cross-cultural issues.

Among teachers of foreign language, Duff and Polio (1990) found a range of L1 use.

One teacher almost never used the L1 (English) in the classroom, primarily because of

21

institutional policy. At the other end of the spectrum, one teacher used the L1 ninety percent

of the time for grammar explanations and during lectures on content, such as history and

culture. Atkinson (1987, p. 244) offers three reasons for allowing limited L1 use in the

classroom:

1. A learner-preferred strategy: given the opportunity, learners will choose to

translate

without encouragement from the teacher;

2. A humanistic approach: it allows them to say what they want; and

3. An efficient use of time: L1 strategies are efficient in terms of time spent

explaining.

In sum, L1 is used by teachers in these instances: giving directions, explaining

concepts, and explaining L2 grammar (Duff & Polio, 1994; Macaro, 2001; Rolin-Ianzizi &

Brownlie, 2002); carrying out classroom management duties (Duff & Polio, 1994; Macaro,

2001; Rolin-Ianzizi & Brownlie, 2002); explaining concepts which do not exist in L2 (Duff

& Polio, 1994); and for efficiency and the saving of class time (Cook, 2001; Duff & Polio,

1990).

Students, on the other hand, use L1 when they interact with other students, either in

pairs or small groups (Swain & Lapkin, 2000), and during long instructional sequences given

by the teacher (Macaro, 2001).

Research method

Participants

The participants of the study were female first-year intermediate-level students at a

Japanese university. The students were streamed into different classes according to the result

of the proficiency test they had taken in prior to the semester. The 16 students in this

examined class were in the lowest proficiency class. The stated goal of the class was the

development of the four language skills (reading, listening, speaking and writing).

22

Tool

A paper-based questionnaire was administered to the students on the last day of class.

I felt that anonymity would encourage students to answer honestly and to express their

personal experiences and thoughts. I also felt that open-ended questions would produce the

most personally relevant, self-driven answers. All 16 students in the examined class

completed a questionnaire.

The questions were written in both English and Japanese, but students were allowed

to write their comments in Japanese. I assumed that this would enable students to write their

honest feelings about the class. The comments quoted below are edited for spelling and

grammar, unless otherwise specified. One student answered in Japanese; I translated her

answers for this paper.

The following four questions from the questionnaire directly relate to language use in

the classroom, so the discussion will focus on these questions. However, only a few students

wrote comments for Q4, which overlapped Q2, so those Q4 responses are included in the

discussion of Q2.

Q1. Did you feel the instructor needed to use Japanese in class?

Q2. If yes, when did you feel the need?

Q3. What was good about the instructor using English in class?

Q4. What was not good about the instructor using English in class?

Results and Discussion

Students’ views towards language use in classrooms

Q1 asked “Did you feel the instructor needed to use Japanese in class?” As seen in

Table 1, 14 students (87%) answered “No.” Next, they were asked, “If yes, when did you feel

the need?” 2 students wrote comments. Among the reasons were, “activity instructions”,

“when the teacher explained about final exams”, and “to explain what I thought was

difficult.” However, they also noted that they were able to understand what they were

supposed to do as they actually got into the activity or by asking the instructor for further

explanation. They also had the opportunity to check their comprehension with their

23

classmates in Japanese. Had the students been banned from using Japanese to check

comprehension, it might have led them to confusion or demotivation. As Harbord (1992, p.

352) writes, “if students are unfamiliar with a new approach, the teacher who cannot or will

not give an explanation in the L1 may cause considerable student demotivation.” Swain and

Lapkin (2000) also found in their research that students used L1 when they interacted with

another in pairs or small groups. Allowing room for the use of Japanese amongst themselves

may have contributed to the students not feeling the need for the instructor to use Japanese.

Thus, we could conclude that student motivation and willingness to study may be affected by

the balance of language use in the EFL classroom.

It is probably worth noting the one student wrote that she did not feel the need for

Japanese; writing in Japanese, she explicitly noted that if the instructor had used Japanese in

class, she would have overused Japanese herself and not tried to use English.

Burden (2000, 2001) in both of his studies found that students at Japanese universities

preferred their teachers to use English, not only when giving instructions and explaining

grammar and class rules, but also when providing a rationale for class activities and checking

for understanding.

Table 1: Q1. Did you feel the instructor needed to use Japanese in class?

Intermediate (n=16)

Yes No

Q1 2 (13%) 14 (87%)

Positive aspects of the instructor’s use of English in classroom

Q2 asked, “What was good about the instructor using English in class?” The

responses to this question can be classified into the following five categories:

1. development of listening skills,

2. development or motivation to develop speaking skills,

3. learning the usage of words,

4. creation of a collaborative learning environment, and

5. providing a “role model”.

24

Development of listening skills

The most common response from the students on Q2 was that they felt they were

able to develop better listening skills. One student mentioned, “I was able to hear the correct

pronunciation of the word and learn how to use the word.” As noted earlier, Littlewood

(1992) insists that if teachers do not use the target language, students will not be convinced to

accept the foreign language as an effective means of communication. Through the use of the

TL in class, students are able to acknowledge the language as a tool for communication.

Development of speaking skills

Other responses to Q2 included, “We can make habit to speak in English only. It was

hard for me to speak English but now I use English as more as possible. Then now I can

speak English little by little” (unedited original comment) and “It made me speak in English

when talking to the teacher” (unedited original comment). One remarkable comment from a

student was that when she was put in a situation where she had to speak in English to

communicate with the teacher, she realised that she could actually “use” English. Along with

the previous student’s comment, this example suggests a positive result from the teacher

using English-only.

Establishment of a collaborative learning atmosphere

Interestingly, a few students wrote “collaborative atmosphere” as one of the good

points of an English-only classroom. Indeed, “collaborative learning” seemed to be a

consequence of teacher-student interactions in English. A student who understood the

teacher’s instructions would repeat them in Japanese and another student would make a

comment, often to check for clarification or to voice a different interpretation. As I was able

to understand what the students were saying and what was going on in the classroom, I could

still control the learning atmosphere. I was comfortable in letting the students work together

to help each other. If the students were off-track, I could provide better-scaffolded

instructions. This kind of repetition produced a collaborative learning atmosphere in the

classroom. Students seemed comfortable in asking one another for help. It certainly

consumed time in class and was on the opposite end of the continuum of “efficient” usage of

class time that Atkinson (1987) argued for in his discussion of using the L1 in order to

promote time efficiency.

25

Instructor as a role model

Providing a role model, in consequence, was another good point that the students

brought up. In spite of the fact that my first language is not English, all my interactions with

the students were restricted to English; this seems to have inspired and motivated the

students. Comments from students included, “My teacher is Japanese, but she did not speak

Japanese. I want to be like her.” and “I thought I have to improve English to communicate

with my teacher.”

To enable students’ comprehension, the language used in the classroom was graded.

However, one of the students wrote, “The teacher sometimes used easy words.” No further

comment or reference was made, but perhaps, this student expected the classroom language

to be kept at the “standard” level and let the students ask more questions to the teacher for

clarification.

Conclusion

This small study was prompted by my concern about putting too much pressure on my

students by insisting that teacher-student interactions be in English only. In addition, I was

interested in the students’ perception of my use of English-only in my classes. In contrast to

this worry, the questionnaire results revealed that most students did not feel the need for the

writer/me to use Japanese in class. They seemed to be pleased to be able to practice English

speaking and to develop their listening skills. It seemed that the students were satisfied with

the writer’s/my use of English in class, and I was able to fulfil my intention to increase their

exposure to the TL.

There were some limitations to the study. First, students’ positive comments towards

our English-only interaction reflected only a subjective awareness that their listening and

speaking skills had developed. However, there is no clear evidence that the students actually

became more proficient in English, though one intermediate student commented, “I could not

understand what the teacher was saying but now I can. My listening skill has improved.” Had

the student’s listening skill really developed? If yes, to what extent had it developed?

Another limitation was concerned with the nature of the participants and class. The

students were in a required class, so they had no choice about attending this particular class.

The students’ responses may have been different if the class had been an elective class. In

26

addition, responses might have been different if the class had been a content-based class,

which tends to require more explanation about the content from the teacher.

There were some methodological weaknesses as well. Data collected through

questionnaires are important and useful; however, additional interviews with some of the

students may have provided more in-depth data. This was a dilemma that I faced when

designing the study. As my interactions with the students were in English even outside the

classroom, I found it difficult to decide whether to conduct the interviews in English or

Japanese. Had the interviews been conducted in English, would the students have been able

to respond in the way that they wished? The paper-based questionnaire did not specify in

which language the students were to write their comments. As seen in the discussion above,

only one student chose to write her comment in Japanese. The majority wrote the comments

in English, though in simple sentences or phrases. Maybe, they did not feel to write in

Japanese, as they wanted to write simple comments, or they might have thought that simple

comments were enough to express themselves. On the other hand, they might have ended up

writing in simple words due to their lack of vocabulary but wanted to write in English. Once

again, a follow-up interview may have enabled clarify these questions.

One finding of this study was that classes taught with a TL-only approach by a

teacher whose first language is not English provides a positive role model for the students.

For further study, it would be worthwhile to look into whether a teacher’s first language has a

different effect on what elements the students regard as positive in their language classes.

It may also be worthwhile to conduct an action research project in an English-only

classroom, in which the students are required to interact in English only with each other, to

investigate student - student interaction, as well as student - teacher interaction. Would the

students in this case have the same positive attitudes towards English-only interaction with

the teacher? Would there be differences in attitude depending on the focus of the class? This

kind of action research project would enable teachers to see when and what kind of assistance

in L1 students feel is necessary, and could also lead to establishing more effective learning

environments for Japanese college students of English.

27

The author

Mizuka Tsukamoto teaches at various universities in Kansai region, Japan. Her research

interests include teacher education, use of language in an EFL classroom, and learner

development. She can be contacted at: <mizukawk@gmail.com>.

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30

EFL Learners: Actively Increasing Classroom Participation through Raising Intrinsic

Motivation

Elizabeth Yoshikawa

Abstract

This paper examines the use of gender-discriminatory language and gender stereotypes seen in twelve English textbooks for Japanese junior high school students. The textbooks were all screened by the Japanese government (MEXT), which declares that one of the goals of English education in Japan is to foster the ability to make impartial judgments and cultivate a rich sensibility. The study investigates five interrelated research questions, focusing on courtesy titles for women, and descriptions and illustrations of males and females at work, at home, and at school. The results of the study have revealed several discriminatory expressions and illustrations, which may reconstruct and maintain gender stereotypes. Although gender-fair titles Mr. and Ms. are used in all the textbooks surveyed in this study and Ms. accounts for almost 70% of the total number of titles used for women, Ms. is used only for female teachers, who are always under a male principal, and other women who are not teachers are addressed with Mrs. or Miss. Both descriptions and illustrations associate men and boys with paid work, study, and sports, and women and girls with unpaid housework, childrearing, and cooking.

Introduction

Japanese businesses are becoming more concerned with their place in the global

market. In this light, a working knowledge of English is going to become more important,

and already it is becoming more common for companies to require that their employees have

a working knowledge of English. In line with this, the Japanese Ministry of Education,

Culture, Science and Technology (hereafter, MEXT) has over the last few years implemented

various policies which stress the communicative value of English education at the

compulsory education level (MEXT 2003, 2011). At the university level, this shift towards

Japanese with English communicative abilities is an additional extrinsic force on students.

However, while the demands on extrinsic motivation are increasing, it is equally important

that the needs of students’ intrinsic motivations are met. This paper focuses on how through

individual and collaborative learning tasks, students’ intrinsic motivation can be raised.

31

Through focusing on both individual and group learning, students take the English

knowledge that they already possess and build upon. This would then create a positive

situation which enables students to develop a deeper understanding of English as a foreign

language (EFL) and allows them to share their development of their language skills. In the

current Japanese situation, the extrinsic forces must not be the sole factor for learning EFL;

students’ intrinsic motivations must also be satisfied otherwise the MEXT’s goal of achieving

Japanese with English communicative abilities will fall short.

A typology of motivation and pedagogy

In any L2 classroom, at any time within the class or throughout the duration of the

course, there are a number of motivational forces at play. These forces do have direct

consequences not only for individual classes, but also for students’ overall achievement in the

course. In Japan, a major force on learning EFL is extrinsic motivation. To create a better

learning environment, it is up to instructors of EFL in Japan to foster students’ intrinsic

motivations, and this can be achieved through a pedagogy which employs collaborative

learning.

There are several external forces at play in EFL learning in the Japanese situation.

Once they reach university, Japanese students have had six years of accuracy based,

instrumental learning. In this situation, Donnery (2009) explains that in Japan, language is

equated to a mathematical code, one which students must create a formula to break the code

and subsequently understand it. In this type of classroom, the focus is placed on grammar

acquisition of the second language (L2), and conversation in the L2 is almost non-existent

(Baker & MacIntyre, 2003). This situation would not foster students’ engagement with the

topic; furthermore, many students would also lack inherent interest in the subject. Here, the

primary source of motivation would be extrinsic. As Dörnyei (2001) states, extrinsic

motivation “involves performing a behaviour as a means to an end; that is, to receive some

extrinsic reward (e.g. good grades) or to avoid punishment” (p.27). This definition of

extrinsic motivation would definitely fit the current Japanese education model. At the

university level, regardless of their major, all students must successfully complete first and

second year English classes to fulfill graduation requirements. In these classes, there is an

additional external regulator; students must attend a certain percentage of classes to pass the

32

course. A situation like this is bound to create negative feelings towards the learning of

English. Many students only come to class because they have to. Without this extrinsic force,

there is no reason for students to learn EFL, and as Noels, Pelletier, Clement and Vallerand

(2003) suggest, the incentive for these students to study English would cease. Sadly, it is still

common to find EFL classes which do not attempt to foster a learning situation beyond these

external forces. In any L2 learning situation, but perhaps most particularly in situations where

the L2 is being learnt as a foreign language, it is necessary to appeal to other motivational

forces so that the students may accomplish the goal of acquiring the L2.

In language learning, students need time to develop what they are learning in a way

that is relevant to them. Therefore, students should have challenging tasks that enable them to

both personalize the new knowledge and internalize it. If instructors foster this type of

learning situation, students will maximize their pleasure and enjoyment in the task which in

turn will foster language acquisition. Dörnyei (2001) defines intrinsic motivation as the

“behaviour performed for its own sake in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction, such

as the joy of doing a particular activity or satisfying one’s curiosity” (p.27). In any L2

classroom, the pedagogy fostering students’ intrinsic motivation must be done so in terms of

stimulating students to complete tasks and gain new knowledge through the exploration of

new ideas and concepts in the L2. This would allow students’ L2 knowledge to increase and

give students a greater sense of accomplishment. Therefore, the instructor must carefully

consider the tasks that will stimulate their students and in turn maximize the students’

intrinsic motivation to learn. This would imply that activities should be challenging, at a level

similar to Krashen’s (1982) classic i+1 where the difficulty of the input is increased in

incremental stages; but students also have freedom of choice or of direction, in which they

will perform the task at hand. Accordingly, it is the instructor’s obligation to create an

intrinsic motivational situation which encompasses a low-stress, conscious learning

atmosphere. This would enable students to increase their own EFL confidence and, therefore,

their EFL competence.

It is these forces of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations together that can lead to

successful language learning. Deciand Ryan (1985) argue that it is necessary for the

instructor to foster in students language competence, where the students are able to relate to

each other in the L2, and have a degree of autonomy. To put it bluntly, motivation strategies

are an integral part of classroom pedagogy. A saying attributed to Confucius states “Tell me

33

and I will forget. Show me and I may remember. Involve me and I will understand.” This

would suggest that while the extrinsic and intrinsic motivations are factors in language

learning, a pedagogy which encourages students to take the knowledge that they already

have, working together with their instructor and classmates will in turn foster a situation

where students are not only using the new language, but are also internalizing it. This in

effect would be created, using a collaborative learning situation.

There are two key points to the collaborative learning classroom. First, the focus is on

learning together through the process of completing a common task. Students in groups work

together, and through the very act of doing this, they create the process where they are the co-

creators of their new knowledge (Lantolf & Thorne, 2009; Oxford, 1997). Secondly, through

the process of negotiation for understanding, and through peer teaching, and the very act of

using their EFL to discuss a topic in their groups, students are able to come to a deeper

understanding of the topic than if they are working individually (Donato, 2004; Lantolf &

Thorne, 2009; Oxford, 1997). In the EFL classroom, a deeper understanding of both English

and the culture of the native speaking teacher for the students comes from the opportunity to

discuss, negotiate, and reflect on the topic at hand. Thus, it is both the instructor and the

students working in their groups together who are the co-constructors of knowledge, and

together they enter into a learning community, where the culture of the native English

speaking instructor, and that of L1 host culture are combined and reshaped in the confines of

their classroom. This overall process not only enhances the EFL learning experience, but

allows for the development of communication skills, a wider vocabulary base, and leads to

overall retention of both the class material and students’ co-created knowledge.

Reflections on the classroom situation

In any EFL class, communicative learning tasks can stimulate student’s motivation to

learn. I teach compulsory English classes to first and second year Economics students,

studying at a major university in the Kansai region of Japan. Classes are large, with on

average 35 students of various EFL abilities in one class. Male students, in these classes

typically outnumber female students with an average ratio of 4:1. Although these students are

studying Economics, a traditionally English based subject, students typically have low

interest in English. Additionally, in this teaching circumstance, it is not uncommon for some

34

EFL instructors to assume their non-English majors automatically have a lower motivation to

study EFL. This, however, is not necessarily true. While it can be true that many non-English

majors do have lower EFL abilities than students who are majoring in English, many students

have often not had the opportunity to build up their confidence to use English. Without this

confidence, students are unable to freely converse in English, and accordingly many students,

as well as instructors, use the text book as a crutch. Students, however, need to be encouraged

to become pro-active learners (Brown, 2002; Sansone & Smith, 2001). This could be

achieved in part if learning strategies are in place, such as structured conversation within a

collaborative learning framework, which would allow students to develop their language

skills with the English they have already retained, and encourages them to become proactive

learners.

It is particularly important for students in the Economics Department to develop their

English skills. English is widely used as a common language for information technology in

the economic market, especially for sharing knowledge and information. What many

Japanese students are unaware of is that when they enter this market, it is highly likely that

they will be using English as a common language of interaction (McKenzie, 2008).

Furthermore, in this business situation, it is more likely that these students will be conferring

in English with other non-native speakers of English. Therefore, it is necessary that the

instructor fosters communication skills in compulsory English classes at university, as called

upon by the changes in Japanese education policies mentioned above. This would include

increasing students’ knowledge of vocabulary. The more ability students have to

communicate outside of the classroom, the more successful they will become in the business

market. My previous research (Yoshikawa, 2010) suggests that students are highly aware of

the extrinsic forces upon them to study EFL at university. Their intrinsic interest in English,

however, is primarily for entertainment reasons, including understanding English movies,

videos or music, travelling abroad, or reading discipline related materials. This leads to two

challenges for me as the instructor in creating a class which appeals to students’ intrinsic

motivations. First, it was very difficult to appeal to my non-English major students’ leisure

activity goals for using EFL. Second, as my students majored in Economics, it was also

important that students had a strong foundation for building their English skills for their

future career use, as Aoki (2011) and Torikai (2011) state, English is necessary in the global

economic market.

35

In the creation of any pedagogy for the EFL classroom, there are six main points to

consider. These are: creating a positive learning situation, variety, student autonomy,

expectation, time, and personalization. While the first three are self explanatory, the latter

three need further clarification.

First, in regards to expectations, the most basic interpretation is obvious. Students will

need to be orientated to the task so that they are fully aware of what they have to do.

Depending on the students’ EFL level, this may require that instructions are given out in

stages. However, there is a side of expectations that is often ignored by both instructors and

students. Many instructors do not take the time to specifically go over with the students, their

own goals for the course. If this is done, students can easily make connections to how what is

being done in class is in part achieving the instructor’s goals. Furthermore, students

themselves must set goals. However, it is not enough for students to only express their goals.

Students must also create a plan of action that includes steps that they can take daily or

weekly to achieve their goals.

Next, time is a multifaceted concept. Firstly, it is important for Japanese students to

be given adequate time to complete projects. Most Japanese students have a minimum of ten

other classes to attend each week. On top of their course load, extra-curricular club activities

can be very draining. Therefore, they do not have much time to complete much homework,

and incomplete homework assignments could hamper the progress of the following class.

This would dictate that students should be given some in class time to start homework

assignments which would also allow for students to question the instructor about parts of the

assignment they do not understand. What students are unable to accomplish in class must be

done as homework.

Secondly, there is another aspect of time which is equally important. That is, time for

discussions. Discussions between students allow them to make use of their specific technical

knowledge or discipline related linguistic items with each other, using the instructor as a

facilitator. During this time, students together are taking the new language presented to them

and are making it their own and subsequently internalizing it. In this way students in groups

are the co-coordinators of their new EFL abilities.

Finally, textbooks can be a point of de-motivation. Students are often not motivated to

talk in EFL classes, simply because they lack involvement in the topic. Many topics in their

36

texts seemingly do not apply to the students’ lives. It is the responsibility of the instructor to

create a bridge from the topics in the text to the students’ lives, so that the language that they

are learning becomes alive for them, and is seen as potentially useful. Hence, it is essential

that links between the topic as presented the textbook and students’ cultural knowledge or

personal situations are created. To increase students’ intrinsic motivation, it is essential that

the textbook be personalized.

The cycle of classes

In the EFL classroom, several teaching typologies are usually employed throughout

individual lessons and the course as a whole. The following is a brief outline of how my

classes are broken down into cycles. These cycles start with teacher-centered lessons and lead

towards collaborative learning activities.

The first lesson in a cycle is a textbook lesson. As students need to be orientated to the

topic, a typical class may start with schema building activities. These activities orientate

students to the topic by getting them to think about what they already know about the topic in

their native language, and what they can say about it in English. Schema building activities

for a more complicated topic may include a pre-reading task; however, the most common

approach is in the form of interview questions. Pre-tasks such as schema building activities

not only prepare students for a particular topic but also orientate students to the topic

culturally (Nunan, 1999). Once students have been orientated to the topic, it would lead to the

teacher centered portion of the class, which is an approach typically employing teaching by

transmission (Peters & Armstrong, 1998). At this stage, the primary sources for information

come from the teacher and the textbook while the students focus on individual learning. Here,

the instructor may discusse related issues to the topic and get the class involved in exercises

in the target language through listening and speaking tasks. This would include introducing

new vocabulary as well as a review of the grammar points. At this point, the lesson is at the

i+1 level, the information is new and slightly challenging.

The second lesson in a cycle requires the personalization of the textbook either to the

students’ personal interests as a class, or their common cultural knowledge. In this stage,

students are taking their newly acquired knowledge from the previous lesson, and are making

it their own knowledge. In essence, the knowledge is at the i+1 level. While the activities in

37

this level may be mentally demanding, students are taking the information they already

possess and working with it in new ways. Therefore, technically, the information is not new,

but reworked. This does not mean that students are not learning or processing information.

What they are doing is making the test material their own. Personalization as Lantolf and

Thorne (2009) and Lee (2002) suggest allows students to easily make connections to what

they are learning. Furthermore, students are making connections with how this information,

as both Wang and Nowlan (2011) and Yoshikawa (2010) describe, can be currently used by

them now or how they could potentially use it in the future.

The use of visual aids, such as showing short YouTube clips is an excellent way to

arouse students’ interests. Showing YouTube clips chosen so as to make a link between the

topic and the students’ country, in this case Japan, gives the topic relevance to the students.

Through the first lesson in the cycle, the instructor comes to an understanding in what ways

the topic is of interest to the students. Showing clips that reinforce students’ interests

expressed in the previous class, in tandem with clips which depict issues which students

might not be conscious of allows students to gain greater insight and understanding of the

topic. In addition this would also allow students to comprehend the possible implications the

topic has for them. After viewing the clips, students are asked to discuss them with their

small groups, particularly what they found interesting and surprising about the clips. After

their discussion, where students collaborate to gain greater EFL insight to the topic, students

then do small group assignments.

The next phase encourages autonomy. Students are given a written assignment. The

assignment is set within the parameters of the grammar points and vocabulary of the unit. The

students are always given two or three choices for their assignments; however, they also have

the freedom to choose their own option, as long as it falls under the umbrella of the topic of

the unit. Given that assignment would necessitate students do some research, they are

required to hand in their assignments at the beginning of the following class. In this way,

students are developing their EFL knowledge with their groups, in a way that is relevant to

them. At this time, the instructor can correct common mistakes and handle pragmatic issues

with the class. By following this method, students gain the confidence to use English in a safe

and structured setting, allowing opportunities for intrinsic motivation to increase.

Two factors are at play at this time. Students’ collaborative efforts increase as they

develop a deeper understanding of the topic and a better ability to discuss the topic in

38

English. This in turn fuels their intrinsic motivation, as English classes are seen as more

enjoyable and while challenging not as difficult. Overall, students’ confidence to use English

is increasing. This ultimately cumulates in the third part of the lesson, where students are

given the opportunity to demonstrate both their English skills and knowledge to the class.

After completing two or three cycles of first textbook and second YouTube lessons, students

choose the assignment from one of these lessons that they feel most confident with and give a

presentation to the class.

Presentations are an integral part of EFL classes. Presentations can be done

individually or in groups. Students should have the option to do their presentation in the way

that they are most comfortable in using their English skills; including to prepare a short video

of themselves using English to show to the class, to perform a skit or role-play, to prepare a

PowerPoint presentation, or to simply make a speech. Presentations encourage students to use

their linguistic and communicative abilities, as well as their creative abilities. While doing a

presentation in English is no doubt challenging for students, they allow students to express

their “intrinsic interest in learning activities and positive attitudes towards learning” (Dörnyei,

2001, p. 27). Through presentations, students have the opportunity to learn how to describe

their culture using their EFL skills. As students’ comments on my class suggest, from the end

of term class assessment survey, they appreciate the opportunity to do presentations: “Doing

presentations makes my English up” and “I can tell everyone one about my culture.” The

collaborative effort comes into play here, as students working with their groups, must not

only decide together which topic to present on, but also negotiate how they will do so.

Students must ensure that when they do their presentations, they use the English that they

know, and that their classmates in the audience will understand. Finally, presentations are a

lifelong skill. Students in their future careers will at some point have to do presentations. The

more practice they have had before this time, the better equipped they will be for the future.

This process allows students view English not only as something that they must complete to

fulfill graduation requirements. Through the breaking down of the class structure into cycles,

students become aware of the relevance of English to their own personal situations. This then

stimulates a circular continuum where students’ motivation increases as classes become more

relevant, which in turn increases their English proficiency; as students gain more fluency in

English, their confidence increases.

39

Conclusion and implications

Due to pressures from the business market, Japan is in the process of changing its

English language curricula. Businesses in Japan are demanding that their perceptive

employees have better communication skills in English. Universities are adjusting to this

demand with a shift focusing on communication classes. While the requirements of

businesses are changing, many students as of yet do not understand the implications that

these demands will have for them. Therefore, many instructors are not only in the position of

teaching communicative English to their students but also having to enlighten students about

the demands of the market. Typically, students are often reluctant to take part in discussions

if they feel they have no educational value for them either in the present or in the future. A

clear explanation of the rationale of the tasks, and the personalization topics are important

ways of counteracting this.

Language classes by nature require a variety of teaching methods. In my classes

specifically, the process of breaking the class into cycles was important for these Japanese

Economics major students. First, presenting new information is initially an instructor-

centered activity where the instructor imparts relevant based content and the focus is on

individual learning. Then students have a base to work from where they can develop this new

knowledge through collaborative learning activities working together with their instructor and

then with other students. Once students have had the opportunity to develop their EFL skills

on the topic, students would be in a position to work autonomously with the topic at hand,

cumulating in student presentations. This process would allow greater opportunities for

students to connect with the linguistic data either with their own cultural knowledge or to

their specific majors. Given the current ELF focus in Japan, it is essential that Japanese

students are allowed opportunities to take the knowledge that they have already gained and

build upon it. This would then create a positive situation where the instructor is able to raise

students’ confidence in their EFL skills which will in turn influence Japanese students’

general EFL performance and enhance their future goals. Thereby the MEXT’s goal would be

met and Japanese students would become more proficient EFL speakers with English abilities

to use in the marketplace.

40

The Author

Elizabeth Yoshikawa has been living and working in Japan for over 12 years. She

worked at Kwansei Gaukin University in the Economics Department for four years, teaching

4-skills and essay writing. Her current research interests lie in student/ instructor motivation

and creating pro-active learning situations.

References

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Retrieved from http//www.japantimes.com

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(Eds.), Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning. (pp. 65-96).

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Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition. (pp. 361-398).

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NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Lantolf, J. P., & Thorne, S. L. (2009). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second

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English language in Japan: A summary of English language contact and use. Japan

Forum, 20(2), 267-286.

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http://www.mext.go.jp/english/elsec/1303500.htm

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English Abilities.” Retrieved from www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/03072801.htm

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Peters, J. M., & Armstrong, J. L. (1998). Collaborative learning: People laboring together to

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43

Language and Culture for a Globalized World

Margaret M. Lieb

Abstract

Globalization brings with it unprecedented opportunities for people from

distant cultures to connect with each other. This has been largely facilitated

by the emergence of English as an international language which, in turn,

has raised a variety of evolving issues with implications for ELT pedagogy.

These include the need for intercultural communication skills, appreciation

of cultural diversity, preservation of indigenous languages, and fostering

cross-cultural understanding. In short, a globalized world requires not only

linguistic fluency, but also cultural fluency. This paper describes a

language and culture course, designed and implemented for the first time in

spring, 2011, which seeks to address these issues. In addition to providing

information on the teaching context, this paper describes the rationale for

the selection of goals and topics, outlines the pedagogical approach and

assessment techniques, and offers examples of student feedback.

Introduction

The age of globalization is unique in world history. Never before has the global

community been so interconnected, nor has communication across cultures, borders, and

continents been so effortless. This presents great opportunities and great challenges.

Globalization offers the perfect opportunity to foster cross-cultural understanding, goodwill

and global solidarity, while also eliminating prejudice, ethnocentrism, and suspicion. Cross-

cultural exchange of ideas opens minds, enriches experience, and enables people everywhere

to experience an enhanced vision of reality. Cultural diversity offers values that might serve

to construct happier, more humane societies through the exploration of each culture's values,

its universe of symbols, its desires and creativity (Marti, 1996) . Globalization, however, also

brings with it inherent challenges, including the danger of cultural imperialism and the

potential for marginalization of indigenous languages and cultural values (Lieb, 2010;

Mufwene, 2008). Furthermore, while globalization has largely been facilitated by the

44

emergence of English as an international language, many would agree that linguistic fluency

alone is insufficient for a globalized world. Cultural fluency is key, including intercultural

communication skills, appreciation of cultural diversity, preservation of indigenous languages

and cultures, and cross-cultural understanding.

Against this backdrop, the number of university intercultural communication and

culture studies courses has dramatically increased over the last four decades (Rogers, Hart,

Miike, 2002). This paper describes one such course, Language and Culture, that was

implemented for the first time in spring, 2011 at a university in Tokyo, Japan. In addition to

providing information on the teaching context, this paper describes the rationale for the

selection of goals and topics, outlines the pedagogical approach and assessment techniques,

and offers examples of student feedback.

Teaching context

Language and Culture is being offered in the School of Global Japanese Studies, a

new department established in April, 2008, which enables students to study Japanese culture

from a global perspective. To enhance students' ability to "contribute to the global

community", the department offers "intensive English language education and international

studies" (Meiji University, 2011). The department envisions that graduates will understand

other cultures and societies, become aware of Japan’s place in the world, and actively share

their knowledge about Japan with others (Meiji University, 2011). In April 2011, the School

of Global Japanese Studies established an English-based B.A. for international students in

which students take all their course credits through English. Language and Culture is part of

the international studies component of this program.

Considerations

Several issues were considered in the planning and implementation of this course.

These include the need for intercultural communication skills, the distinction between

cultural literacy and cultural fluency, and ongoing intercultural issues in Japan.

Intercultural communication skills

The American anthropologist, Edward T. Hall, is widely regarded as the founder of

intercultural communication research. According to Rogers, Hart, and Miike (2002), when

the United States emerged as a world power after World War II, its military dominance was

45

countered by the relative ineffectiveness of its diplomatic corps. American diplomats seldom

learned the language or the culture of the country to which they were assigned. In contrast, 90

percent of all Russian diplomatic staff spoke the language of their country of assignment

(Lederer & Burdick, 1958, in Rogers et al., 2002). To address this shortcoming, the U.S.

Foreign Service Institute charged Edward T. Hall with providing cross-cultural

communication training for diplomatic staff, and the concept of intercultural communication

was born.

Hall's approach was based on intercultural communication rather than on macro-level

mono-cultural study (Rogers et al, 2002). This became a major influence on the course

described in this paper. Second, Hall emphasized non-verbal communication, particularly

‘out of awareness’ types of communication, which are heavily influenced by culture. These

include ‘proxemics’(how space affects communication), and 'chronemics' (how time affects

communication) (Rogers et al., 2002) and they formed the basis for Hall's book, The Silent

Language (1959), widely regarded as the founding document of intercultural communication.

Hall stressed non-judgemental acceptance of cultural differences, which in a globalized

world, would appear indispensible for harmonious cross-cultural communication. "What is

most difficult to accept is the fact that our own cultural patterns are literally unique, and

therefore they are not universal . . . It is essential that we understand how other people read

our behaviour" (Hall, 1959, p.xii, xiv, translated by Japanese scholars). Hall's The Silent

Language (1959) introduced intercultural communication to Japan.

Cultural literacy versus cultural fluency

An important distinction made in the planning and implementation of this course was

the emphasis on cultural fluency rather than cultural literacy. The latter is, of course,

important in the study of foreign languages, as understanding someone in any meaningful

sense requires understanding the cultural context (Ziesing, 2001). Cultural literacy suggests

macro-level monocultural study, which often accompanies foreign language study, but since

the course described in this paper is a Language and culture course rather than a language

course, the focus is cultural fluency, implying two-way cultural exchange.

Inoue (2007) defines cultural fluency as awareness of the ways cultures operate in

communication and conflict, and the ability to respond effectively to these differences. This

awareness raising is a key component of the course. Inoue (2007) postulates that cross-

46

cultural communication has often focused on understanding communication within one

culture from the insiders' point of view. Instead, the field of intercultural communication is

better served by establishing and understanding how people from different cultures

communicate with each other. Students therefore are exposed to variations in cultural

dimensions as outlined by Ziegahn (2001).

• Individualism and collectivism: the extent to which a society values self-reliance,

equality, and autonomy of the individual

• Mono-chronic and poly-chronic time: differing views of time, as something tangible

that can be saved or wasted, versus emphasizing the completion of events or activities

without overdue concern for preset schedules

• Egalitarianism and hierarchy: fairness and equal opportunity versus acknowledgement

of innate differences through a stratified social structure

• Action orientation and being orientation: goal-oriented efficiency versus a more

holistic view

• Change and tradition: the extent to which cultures value progress and change as

opposed to history and tradition

• Communication styles: high-context versus low-context

• Power imbalances: the extent to which cultures are stratified by political and

economic inequities.

Zieghan (2001) states that communication styles and behaviour differ considerably

along these dimensions, often resulting in misunderstandings, tension and even

communication breakdown. The Language and Culture course seeks to increase student

familiarity with these differences, thereby raising their cultural fluency. Inoue (2007) outlines

the following skills necessary to achieve cultural fluency:

• Tolerance of ambiguity: the ability to reserve judgment and become comfortable in

ambiguous situations

• Behaviour flexibility: the ability to adapt to varying cultural contexts

47

• Knowledge discovery: receptiveness to new ideas and world views through

communication

• Communicative awareness: the ability to adapt one's communication style when

necessary (from high-context to low and vice versa)

• Respect for otherness: curiosity and openness as well as a readiness to suspend

disbelief about other cultures and belief about own cultures

• Empathy: the ability to put oneself in another's shoes

Ongoing intercultural issues in Japan

Globalization has doubled the number of foreign companies operating in Japan over

the last two decades (Yoshida, 2002, in Inoue, 2007). While this necessitates intercultural

communication training, many feel that this should be two-way. Rogers et al., (2002) point

out that Edward T. Hall's work had a significant impact on intercultural communication

research in Japan, as it encouraged the investigation of nonverbal aspects of Japanese

interpersonal and intercultural communication, including silence, facial expressions, hand

gestures, bowing and hierarchical relationships, as well as Japanese cultural concepts such as

high-context communication. Prior to this, intercultural communication in Japan was limited

to achieving linguistic fluency in English.

Rogers et al., (2002) also draw attention to three ongoing intercultural issues in Japan.

First, domestic intercultural communication research is often limited to communication with

Western, English-speakers, and does not always consider Korean and Chinese residents, the

two largest minority groups in Japan. Second, the ‘difference-focused approach’ outlined by

Hirai (1988, in Rogers et al., 2002), overemphasizes differences to the neglect of similarities,

resulting in an indigenous barrier to Japanese communication across cultures. This is

significant in Japan which has a “largely self-induced island mentality" known as the "Uchi-

Soto" (inside-outside) wall that suggests “an inherent difference between the Japanese and

the rest of the world” (Yoneoka, 1999, as cited in Yoneoka, 2000, p.11). In this context, care

must be taken not to exacerbate pre-existing notions of separateness (Lieb, 2010).

Furthermore, communication similarities, particularly with other Asian countries should be

emphasized (Lieb, 2010; Rogers et al.,2002). Finally, Rogers et al., (2002) have observed a

vertical sense of intercultural relations in Japan, suggesting an inferiority complex towards

48

whites from high-income countries, and superiority complex toward people from low income

countries in general. Language and Culture seeks to address some of these issues.

The Language and Culture Course

Background and goals

Language and Culture is an elective course, and students may take it either through

English or Japanese (although the Japanese version of the course is independently designed

and covers different topics). The course is open to students of any age, year in college,

English proficiency, and department, resulting in a highly diverse group of 136 students

including native English speakers, in Spring, 2011. The student body is multicultural. While

the majority are from Japan, there are four students from Korea, six from China, one from

Taiwan, one from Vietnam, one from Hong Kong, one from the U.K., and two from the

U.S.A. The average age is 20 years old. Forty-eight percent of the students are classified as

having advanced English proficiency, 26% as intermediate, and 19% as beginner. The

remaining 7% are either native speakers, or deemed sufficiently fluent in English to not be

required to enroll in language classes.

Students' reasons for taking the course include preparing to study abroad and wanting

to familiarize themselves with English-medium study. Other students have returned from

studying abroad and want to continue their English-medium experience. Some are studying to

become English teachers, and for them, this is a required course. Finally, students from the

Schools of Commerce, Political Science and Economics, Law, and Business Administration,

seek an understanding of intercultural issues for future careers in international business and

diplomacy. Therefore, the following goals were developed for the course:

1. To raise students' awareness of language and cultural identity

2. To help students understand the influence of culture on communication

3. To raise students' awareness of the need for intercultural communication skills

4. To increase students' cultural fluency

5. To foster appreciation of students' own language and culture and its value in a

globalized world.

49

Topics

To achieve these goals, the following topics were selected for the course:

• The Language-Culture Connection

• Linguistic Signs & Meanings Across Cultures

• Pragmatics – Language in its Cultural Context

• Spoken Language

• Written Language

• Language & Culture in Ireland

• Cultural Themes in Popular Music

• English in a Globalized World

• History of English and Borrowed Words in English

• English and Other Foreign Languages in Japanese Society

• Comparing Irish and American Englishes

• Word Origins, Etymology, & Folklore

Pedagogical approach

Once weekly, 90 minute lectures are held in a large lecture hall to accommodate the

large number of students. Because of the diverse student body, efforts are made to provide

both extra-linguistic support as well as a challenging and academically stimulating

experience. PowerPoint lectures incorporating pictures, images, and video clips highlighting

key concepts, are delivered and outlines with information gaps (to be completed in class) are

distributed to accommodate non-native speaking students. Integrated into each class are

group discussions and in-class tasks, which challenge students to discuss and think deeply

about each topic and write their responses on a task sheet to be submitted at the end of each

class. These task sheets are also used to track attendance. Classes alternate between lecture

50

and task time to allow students time to absorb, discuss, and reflect on the material. A typical

class consists of 3 cycles of 20 minutes lecture time followed by 10 minutes of task time.

Sample topics

The language-culture connection

Culture is defined as "A system of beliefs, values, and assumptions about life that

guides behaviour and is shared by a group of people," (Peace Corps 2002, p. 14). Students are

introduced to cultural dimensions as outlined by Ziegahn (2001), the Hofstede Model of

Cultural Dimensions (2009), and how these cultural dimensions are reflected in language.

Examples illustrating the egalitarian nature of many English-speaking countries compared to

the hierarchical, stratified nature of Japanese society are used, including the use of different

words for older and younger siblings in Japanese, a distinction not commonplace in English.

Students are also introduced to language as an expression of culture. Examples are from the

American Dialectic Society, such as the 2011 "word of the year" , "Occupy", (a reference to

the "Occupy" movement in reaction to the global economic crisis). This topic also introduces

students to high and low-context communication as well as speech communities (Kramsch,

1998). Finally, students are asked to consider the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and the extent to

which language influences how people think (Chandler, 1994).

In-class tasks

1. What country are you from? Is your culture high context or low context?

2. In what ways are we similar to / different from people all over the world?

3. Who inspires people in your country / speech community?

4. Do you think the language you speak influences how you think about the world?

Linguistic signs and meanings across cultures

Students are introduced to the arbitrary nature of words, denotative, connotative and

iconic meanings, as defined by Kramsch (1998), and are given examples of how these vary

by culture. This aims to raise awareness of the influence of culture on communication. One

example is comparing the connotative meanings for "rainy season" in English-speaking

51

countries and Japan - a period of prolonged rainfall versus a prolonged humid season. This

highlights the difficulties of direct translation. Also, the existence of a word or concept in one

language and not in another, opens fascinating insights into the culture of that language, and

is presented to students in this context. Iconic meanings, particularly onomatopoeia, are also

discussed, and examples are given of how onomatopoeic sounds for the same phenomena

also vary across cultures. Cultural encodings, including different associations and

categorizations are also discussed, such as the nomenclature for parts of the body. American

sports metaphors are used to illustrate the importance of sports in American culture.

In-class tasks

1. What onomatopoeic words do you know in English? In your language?

2. Write metaphors from your own language and from English. What do they mean?

Pragmatics: Language in its cultural context

This topic also seeks to raise students' awareness of the influence of culture on

communication and the need for intercultural communication skills. Defined as appropriate

language use, heavily dependent on context, in a variety of social situations, students are

introduced to pragmatics, including social language, professional language, and business

language, and how these vary by culture. Students discuss conversational dynamics,

particularly variations in turn-taking mechanisms across cultures. Of particular interest to

many students are expectations for conversations and behaviour (including greetings,

speaking to elders, closing conversations, conversation space, non-verbal communication,

and classroom discussions). This topic draws heavily on Hall's (1959) "out of awareness"

types of communication. Pragmatic coherence and pragmatic breakdown are introduced to

explain why cross-cultural communicative encounters either succeed or fail (Kramsch, 1998).

Students are also introduced to Paul Grice's Cooperative Principle (in Kramsch, 1998)

wherein people expect conversations to be brief, relevant, clear, and true, although these

mean different things in different cultures. Finally, students consider variations in cultural

thought patterns as exemplified in Kaplan's (1966) Cultural Thought Patterns in writing.

In-class tasks

1. What is the difference between how you talk to your friends and how you talk to

professors or your boss?

52

2. Have you noticed any differences between conversations you have with your

compatriots and conversations you have with foreigners?

3. Discuss the sample conversations from Ireland and California. Which one is most

likely to occur in your country and why?

4. Discuss the sample conversation between the American and Japanese teachers. Why

is this an example of pragmatic breakdown?

Language and culture in Ireland

The goal of this topic is to foster appreciation of indigenous languages in a globalized

world. Ireland, formerly an Irish (Gaelic) speaking country, lost a large part of its cultural

identity when Irish was replaced by English as a result of colonialism. Examples of Irish

folklore, dating back millenia, are presented (including Fiannaiocht and Rúraiocht stories),

many of which reflect cultural values and have lent words and expressions to modern day

language in Ireland. Parallels are drawn with Japanese legends, and students reflect on the

folklore of their home countries. This topic takes students through Christian times, the

subsequent monastic age in Ireland, and the role played by Irish monks in the copying and

preservation of religious and classical texts (Cahill, 1996). The impact of Vikings, Normans,

and English colonization on Irish language and culture is explored. Examples of the loss of

culture are highlighted through the Anglicization of family names and placenames. Thomas

Davis, a famous figure in Irish history, said, "A people without a language of its own is only

half a nation. A nation should guard its language more than its territories" (1847, p.160).

Students reflect on and respond to this in their in-class task. The role of the potato famine

(1845-1851) in the destruction of the Irish language is discussed. Finally, the current status of

Irish in Ireland is summarized, its position as the first official language, and its association

with Gaelic cultural events, and Irish language medium schools. But it is acknowledged that

because of the dominance of English in a globalized world, Ireland will probably never again

be an Irish-speaking nation.

In-class tasks

1. What is your favourite story from your culture and why?

2. Write your name and your hometown. Write their literal meanings if you know them.

Write the meanings of any other family or placenames you know in your culture.

53

3. Name a traditional song or poem from your country. What is it about?

4. Do you agree with Thomas Davis' statement? Why or why not?

5. What aspect of your culture are you most proud of? Why?

English in a globalized world

This topic introduces an international language as a language that is used globally and

therefore not necessarily connected to English-speaking countries (McKay, 2002). Dialects

and varieties of English are showcased, as are Kachru's (1997) concentric circles and model

of world Englishes. Other dominant world languages are also discussed including Mandarin,

Hindi, English, and Spanish. Reasons for the spread of English are discussed, including

colonialism, the Industrial Revolution, and macroacquisition driven by globalization.

Students' attention is drawn to the pervasiveness of English in entertainment, international

business, travel, education, and the internet. Graddol's (1999) contention that the number of

native English speakers is declining worldwide, while the number of non-native speakers is

increasing is examined, as well as the prediction that, before long, English will be used

mainly in multilingual contexts, facilitating communication between non-native speakers.

Students speculate on factors that may limit the spread of English and reflect on the effects of

English on indigenous languages and cultural identities. The concept of an emerging rich,

English-speaking elite (McKay, 2002) is presented as the dangers of cultural imperialism, the

idea that dominant wealthy nations impose their cultural values on 'weaker' nations" (Ziesing,

2001, "Cultural Imperialism", para. 2). However, it is also emphasized that cultural exchange

should be two-way, and many cultural phenomena such as Japan's manga and anime, Chinese

New Year, and Mexico's Cinco de Maya celebrations (among others) have become part of

mainstream American culture.

In-class tasks

1. What are the 5 most widely spoken languages in the world?

2. How many “English-speaking” countries can you name?

3. What makes English an “international language”?

4. Do you think English will continue to spread around the world? How do you feel

about the spread of English?

54

English and other foreign languages in Japanese society

This topic introduces the influence of foreign languages on the Japanese language,

especially Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, German, and English. Loanwords in

Japanese are discussed at length, particularly those from English, and the role of English in

Japanese society. Students also consider multilingualism, and minority languages in Japan,

including Ainu, Okinawan, Korean, and Chinese. The goal is to address some of the ongoing

intercultural issues mentioned earlier. Students reflect on Japan's language policy, which like

most countries, is based on "linguistic assimilation in the interests of national unity"

(Gottlieb, 2009, "Language Policy in Action," para. 2). The issue of how to achieve a balance

between accommodating diversity "while still maintaining the importance of the national

language" (Gottlieb, 2009, "Language Policy for Japan's Future," para. 2) formed the basis

for group discussions and in-class tasks.

In-class tasks

1. What is Japan's official language(s)? What other languages are spoken in Japan?

2. Make a list of all the foreign loan words you know of in Japanese, and what languages

they come from.

3. Do you think that local and national governments should:

a) Provide multilingual services for foreigners?

b) Help foreigners to learn Japanese?

Assessment and student feedback

Assessment is based on in-class tasks (50%) and a final report (50%). Reports are at

least 1,000 words about a topic related to the course. Students research, reflect, and expand

upon what was covered in lectures. Grades are based on quality of ideas, evidence of

independent research, language, and mechanics. Students also complete a "Course Response"

section as part of this report by answering the following questions:

1. What did you like best about this class?

2. What was most difficult for you during this class?

55

3. What was your favourite topic and why?

Some student responses from spring, 2011 are included below.

What did you like best about this class?

What I liked best about this class is that it never got boring. There was a lot

of variety, for example you showed us videos, talked about your own

experience and presented Irish stories to us, thus creating a nice and

relaxed atmosphere in class. Also, giving us tasks and making us think

about it was a nice change for the students, instead of having to listen to the

teacher.

I also like the in- class assignment because there were many opportunity to

write about the characteristics in my culture. In that way, I had a chance to

think again about Japanese culture, and I found many things that I have

never thought about in Japanese culture.

I like this class because I can learn language in many aspects. In next fall, I

am going to go Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis and

major in linguistics; therefore, I pleased with studying it. I can get basic

knowledge about it such as context and pragmatics.

The first two comments suggest that providing outlines was useful, while the second

comment seems to indicate a student who has gained a new appreciation for his/her own

culture (Goal 5). The third comment suggests a student with increased awareness of the

influence of culture on communication (Goal 2), appreciation of intercultural communication

skills (Goal 3), and increased cultural fluency (Goal 4).

What was most difficult for you during this class?

Resisting the temptation to revert to xenophobia in my thoughts. When one

first hears a completely different cultural difference, it is tough to not think

56

about comparisons concerning which culture's methods are best. It’s

important to appreciate all cultural practices.

Although there were many difficult vocabularies in the sheet because this

class is specialized to culture, I could manage with them using the

dictionary in the class.

The most difficult things during this class was taking notes quickly and

concentrating on the teacher’s speaking throughout the class. That’s why it

was not easy for me to understand lecture spoken in English even though

the teacher use clear and easy English. However, it was nice experience

and training for me to prepare for studying abroad in the next semester.

What most difficult for me was to listen to TV program and speech. In TV

program and speech, speakers speak English very fast, so often I couldn’t

understand what they said. I think that I need to improve listening skill so

as to speak English fluently.

I have poor vocabulary, so sometimes I could not understand the meaning.

Also, I could not understand the content of videos you showed sometimes

because the speed is very quick for me.

There were many vocabularies I didn't know and that made me struggle a

little bit with in the course.

Many of these comments speak to the challenges faced by non-native speaking

students in taking a course completely in English and the need for extra-linguistic support.

57

The first comment seems to suggest increased cultural fluency, especially in relation to

‘respect for otherness’ (Inoue, 2007).

What was your favourite topic and why?

The Language-Culture Connection was the most interesting topic for me.

This knowledge is necessary when people communicate with someone who

is in different culture to prevent misunderstanding. Because of increasing

globalization, people have more chance to communicate with foreigner

once. Therefore, people need to know these things.

I like the topic about context cultures. After I learned this topic, I talked

with my friends who came from foreign countries. I paid attention so

carefully about the way I spoke, because I didn’t want to make them

worried because of my no reaction. Because I learned that silence was seen

as lack of understanding, I thought I tried to talk a lot with using English.

My favorite topic is ‘Pragmatics – Language in its Cultural Context’,

because I thought that there are some expectations in our speech

communities, and the expectations were different between Japanese culture

and other culture before the lesson, but I didn’t know what it is clearly and

specifically. In the lesson, I could learn pragmatic coherence and

incoherence, and it was amazing for me that there are cultural thought

patterns.

All these comments suggest increased awareness of the connection between language

and cultural identity and the influence of culture on communication (Goal 1). They also seem

to indicate appreciation of intercultural communication skills, especially the second comment

wherein the student is already implementing pragmatic language usage with 'foreign' friends.

In short, these comments seem to indicate increased cultural fluency (Goal 4).

58

Practical Implications

In an ideal teaching situation, this Language and Culture course would be taught to a

small group, with plenty of opportunities for group discussions, presentations, and role-plays

that would allow students to further explore intercultural communication. However, since this

is not currently possible, future implementations of this course will draw more heavily on

concrete examples to illustrate cultural dimensions and how they affect cross-cultural

communication. Furthermore, since some students commented that the videos were difficult

for them to understand because of the speed of the speakers, all videos will be shown more

than once, and key information will be summarized between viewings. In addition, since

many Japanese students are not accustomed to taking notes in lectures, they will be given

more time to do so, before each slide is explained. Finally, each lecture will include a list of

keywords to help students overcome difficulties with linguistic terminology.

Conclusion

Today's globalized world offers monumental opportunities for cross-cultural

communication. It also presents great opportunities and great challenges. Opportunities

include the potential for fostering cross-cultural understanding, goodwill and global

solidarity, while at the same time eliminating prejudice, ethnocentrism, and suspicion. That

said, challenges such as cultural imperialism and marginalization of indigenous languages

and cultures must be overcome. This paper described a Language and Culture course,

implemented for the first time in spring, 2011 at a university in Tokyo, Japan, that seeks to

address these issues. The course aims to raise awareness of language and cultural identity, the

influence of culture on communication, the importance of intercultural communication skills,

cultural fluency, and appreciation of indigenous languages and cultures.

Lieb (2010) defines ethical education as a professional enterprise that goes beyond the

perfunctory and contributes positively to society. In the teaching of Language and Culture

and English language teaching in general, teachers are entrusted with enhancing mutual

understanding, respect, peaceful co-existence, and cooperation among nations (Marti, 1996).

Phillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas also draw attention to the "ethical dimensions and

accountability . . . central to work in this area" (1999, p. 21). They also add, "It would seem

to us that language professionals have a special responsibility to address the linguistic and

cultural dimensions of diversity" (p. 20). It is in this spirit that this Language and Culture

59

was designed and implemented, and strives to ethically prepare students for a globalized

world.

The Author

Margaret M. Lieb holds a B. Ed. from the National University of Ireland, and an M.A. from

California State University. She has taught in Ireland, the U.S.A., and Japan, and is currently

an associate professor at Meiji University, Tokyo. Her research interests include intercultural

communication and educational ethics.

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62

Argument Structure in Iranian EFL Students’ Persuasive Writing

Hooshang Yazdani

Nahid Serajipour

Abstract

Arguments are verbal or social practices aimed at increasing or

decreasing the acceptability of a standpoint before some intended

recipients. Toulmin Model (1958) specifies the factors essential and

significant for persuasive arguments. The model envisages that an

argument to have an advantageous persuasive power needs to be

structurally well formed in which the claims are well made, well defined,

well supported, and well reasoned for. Inspired by this model, we

conducted this study to explore 45 Iranian female and male EFL

students’ persuasive writings in terms of the structures of the arguments

employed. The findings of the study revealed that the participants’

persuasive writings demonstrate distinctive structures far apart from

what was provided by Toulmin Model. The results demonstrated a

moderately low persuasive power on the recipient. Based on the

statistical results, we derived a model reflecting the Iranian student style

of writing.

Introduction

Mastering a foreign language might not merely mean an individual’s ability in

speaking, writing or operating other language skills. Further, it could also mean the ability to

effectively debate one’s standpoints using it. In line, the structure of an argument would be

influential in determining the arguer’s achievement or failure through the process of

argumentation. Argumentation theory has long ago started its journey in the field of second

language studies and research; nevertheless, our literature review did not confirm any related

study of Iranian EFL learners’ arguments. Therefore, this study is conducted to inspect a

group of Iranian EFL learners’ tendencies in their argumentation practices based on

Toulmin’s model for argumentation. The main focus is laid on illuminating the argumentative

structure through which these arguers present their views in the form of claims and the way

they proceed to support them. Obviously, different proceedings with regard to the claims

63

made and the reasoning provided as well as the way the argumentative elements are linked,

would demonstrate the arguers’ argumentation practices, with differing persuasive power.

Furthermore, the study aims to explore the presence or absence of each of the constructing

elements in an argument which could influence its persuasive power.

Basic characterization of argumentation theory

The history of argumentation theory goes back to the time of Aristotle’s logical

theory when argumentation was mostly based on logic and rhetoric. With time, different

aspects of the argumentation theory became the concern of various studies, most of which are

theoretical and computational ones: (e.g. Naess & Crawshay-Williams,1957 in van Eemeren,

2003b; Perelman & Olbrecths-Tyteca, 1958 in van Eemeren et al, 1996 and Verheij, 2001;

Toulmin,1958; Anscombre & Docrot, 1983 in van Eemeren,2003a; Wangerine, 1993; van

Eemeren & Grootendorst, 2005; Walton, 2005b; Reed & Rowe, 2004, 2005; Walton &

Gordon, 2006; Wells & Reed,2007). Regardless of these theoretical and computational

studies, some experimental works, on the other hand, focused on studying everyday

arguments to “illustrate the general form of a reasoning interaction” (Rozycki, 2004: 1).

Therefore, Toulmin’s model (1958) became the interest of many pieces of research as a

prescriptive, conceptual model for argumentation. Of these works, we may refer to Simosi

(2003), Cheikes et al. (2004), and Bricker and Bell (2007). Although Toulmin’s model has

usually been “used in cognitive science and education as an analysis tool for characterizing

differences in expert-novice reasoning and for use in evaluating students’ argumentative

writing” ( Voss, 1983 and Hillochs, 1987, quoted in Newman & Marshall, 2006: 9), it seems

that recent works have highlighted the model’s potentials in representing “an intuitively

plausible set of categories and relations for representing the logical structure of arguments

organized in a distinctive graphical layout” (Newman & Marshall, 2006:9). This model can

be used to analyze the argument, present visualization of the structure of the argument

(Walton, 2005a: 9), and provide “a significant aid in enhancing the comprehension” of the

arguments content (Marshall, 2007: 122).

As mentioned earlier, a survey for finding the features of academic works on

argumentative writings in Iran is going to begin hopefully with this study although there is an

ample size of studies carried out on Iranian EFL learners’ academic writings such as: Mir

(1999), Zarsanj (2002) and Keshavarz Mehr (2006).

64

Method

The participants of the study are 45 male and female Iranian students of English,

majoring in either English literature or English translation at Arak State University. The

participants are purposively selected from the senior students of English. As students at this

educational level are supposed to have covered the introductory writing courses in their

earlier terms of study, they are supposed to be more proficient in writing and have fewer

problems in arguing in a second language, compared to the lower level students. The ages of

the participants ranged from 21 to 26 years old, with the average of 23.

The written arguments are the main data for which the participants were requested to

elaborate on one argumentative topic in between 100 to 200 words. As “argumentation theory

involves the analysis of naturally occurring argument” (Reed & Rowe, 2004:1), to avoid any

interference with the participants’ natural process of writing, the participants were not

provided with any technical instruction in argumentation.

The descriptive tendency of the study necessitates an ex-post-facto approach that

allows the inclusion of all participants’ writings regardless of the writers’ different

proficiency levels. However, alongside our primary work, we were tempted to investigate any

probable relationship between the proficiency level of the participants and their

argumentative writings. Consequently, we ran the Michigan Test of English Language

Proficiency (1982). Participation in the study was left to the participants’ personal interest

and sense of cooperation, so not all the existing population took part in the two activities:

performing argument writing and taking the Michigan test. Likewise, we excluded a number

of the written samples which came much shorter than the quantificational exceptions-100 to

200 words.

To start the data analysis, data diagramming is the first stage. During the data

diagramming, each topic is segmented to its argumentative constructing elements based on

Toulmin’s model (1958). The logical microstructures of arguments in Toulmin’s model are

put into two groups. In the first group, we have the ground (support), the claim and the

warrant. The claim is a standpoint the arguer tries to persuade the audience of. Any data,

including observation, opinions, and factual evidence which sound relevant to this standpoint

would make the ground or the datum or the support which actually is the basis for making a

claim. Warrants which link the grounds and the claims represent “the psychology of an

65

argument in that they reveal the unspoken beliefs and values of the author and invite the

reader to examine his/her own beliefs and make comparisons” (Woods, 2006: 2).

In the second group, we have backing, qualifiers and rebuttals. Backing is that part of

knowledge structure from which we may derive the warrant and it serves to justify the

backing. It represents the evidence that we present to authoritate the warrant. Qualifiers in

arguments signal the arguers’ epistemological stance toward the claim. In other words, an

argument is not supposed to show certainties; it usually makes probabilities. Qualifiers show

the arguer’s degree of certainty in making the claims. With regard to the effect of the

qualifiers on the structure of the persuasive arguments, Wangerin (1993) mentions that

Reinard (1988) provides us with some researchers’ results which show in case the audience is

given the choice of accepting or refuting an argument that would sound more persuasive to

them. He asserts that “arguments are persuasive only if the changes in audience belief called

for by the arguments fall within the audience’s latitude for change or acceptance” (Reinard

quoted by Wangerin, 1993:5). Qualifiers would not impose a large change of belief on the

audience. Wangerin (1993) adds that tentative positions seem to be more willingly acceptable

rather than absolute ones. Rebuttals are “Toulmin’s category for explicitly registering the

conditions under which the claim can be taken as true by oneself or an interlocutor”

(Newman & Marshal, 2006:8). Toulmin’s model is depicted in figures 1 and 2:

D So, Q, C.

Since Unless

W. R.

On account of

B.

Figure 1: Schematic of Toulmin’s argument theory

(Source: http://www.unl.edu/speech/comm109/Toulmin /layout.htm)

66

Figure 2: The Description of Toulmin’s Layout of Argumentation

(Source: http://www.unl.edu/speech/comm109/Toulmin /layout.htm)

Data analysis

The next example demonstrates how this model has been used in the diagramming

procedures of the data. The sample below is the first paragraph of argument 8 from the

participant ‘F. Rm.’ with the proficiency level 78. M.T. (the participant’s score on the

Michigan Test), and P.n. reports the number of the paragraphs in the argument.

Example:

A.:8, F. Rm. , M.T.: 78, P.n.: 4

A8/P1

“As far as I am concerned, children don’t live only within a limited area that in their mere homes and among their families such as isolated creatures. They do have mutual relationship with other members of society in which that are both affected and affective. So children behavior and character is a mixture of what they have received from their parents through their genetic system and what they have received from other members of society through their experiences and relationship with different people.”

Warrant

Backing

Data Claim

Qualifier

Reservation

67

In this excerpt, “As far as I am concerned, children don’t live only within a limited area

that in their mere homes and among their families such as isolated creatures”, is the first

sentence in which the first claim in addition to its support is put. “Children don’t live only

within a limited area that in their mere homes and among their families such as isolated

creatures” is the claim, while “As far as I am concerned” makes the support. The arguer has

tempted to support the idea by referring it to be his/her personal view. We may notice that the

sentence has some grammatical problems, yet they have not interfered with the arguer’s

message transmission.

The claim conveys the idea that usually “It is believed that children are isolated

creatures” and the arguer wants to show the opposite. In fact, this makes the presupposition

or the warrant of the argument.

In this first claim, we may not see any qualifiers. The verb used “don’t live” is

absolutely stated giving the sense that all children have the same situation in life. To further

confirm that children are not isolated, the next sentence as well comes in support of the point

that “They do have mutual relationship with other members of society in which they are both

affected and affective”.

The second claim is “So children behavior and character is a mixture of what they have

received from their parents through their genetic system and what they have received from

other members of society through their experiences and relationship with different people”.

Once again, we cannot see any qualifiers. The claim is absolutely stated that “children

behavior and character is a mixture…” In this claim, the arguer considers two factors being

affective on children’s behavior, and he/she provides no support for this standpoint. The

second claim comes in content consistency with the first one. To show the point in the

diagram, we have linked the two claims with the sign ( ). We do not see any rebuttals

and backings here.

68

A.: don’t live

Children don’t live only within Personal view +

…creatures (Children) have mutual

relationship…affective .

It is believed that children are isolated creatures

A.: is

Children behavior and character No support

is a… different people.

Family and environment are the most primary affective factors

Data evaluation

The quantitative evaluations are conducted based on the diagrams which are supposed

to represent the deep functional structure of the argumentative samples of the study. The

overall quantifications of the argumentative elements in the diagrams help us to derive the

most favored argumentative structure produced by the samples. The role of the different

argumentative elements in the samples of the study with regard to their frequency of

application would mirror the persuasive power of an argument.

To calculate the reliability of the once diagrammed arguments, the researcher re-

diagrammed the whole samples three months later and the intra-rater reliability between the

two sets of the diagrams turned to be 0.90. Yet, the inter-rater reliability for the statistical

data assessment is calculated to be 0.88.

C.1

C.2

W..

W,

S.

69

Results and discussion

The statistical analysis of the structured data provided us with the following

information summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: The role of the argumentative elements

As Table 1 shows, the total claims made throughout the whole arguments are 448.

According to the numerical estimations, the ratio of the claims with qualifiers to absolute

claims (AC) - claims in which no qualifier has been applied- makes up 61/448. In other

words, 86% of the total claims made are absolute ones in which no qualifier has been used,

while 13% of the claims have qualifiers and the remainder 1% refers to 5 cases of the claims

in which both qualifiers and absolute phrases have been used.

Argumentative elements Total number Argumentative element

Claims 448 Absolute claims Claims with Qualifiers

Claims with Qualifiers and Intensifiers

86%

13%

1%

Supports 228 Supported claims

Un- supported claims

51%

49%

Warrants 448 Explicit Warrants

Implicit Warrant

Vague Warrants

68%

29%

3%

Rebuttals 7 1%

Backings 10 2%

70

In a more careful look at the absolute claims, we could divide them into two

categories. In the first category, we have the claims in which verbs are used bare of qualifiers.

The second category entails claims in which absolute terms are used. These terms are named

intensifiers here. Statistically, 94% of the claims fall within the first category while 6% are in

the latter one.

With regard to the supported claims, Table 1 acknowledges that only 228 of the overall

claims made in the arguments are supported, which makes up 51%. Thus, nearly half of the

claims are stated without any support. The two incidents that 86% of the claims are absolute

and 49% of them are unsupported do not seem to be unrelated to each other. In a possible

explanation, we may assume that the participants’ probable unfamiliarity of knowledge with

persuasive argument principles might have caused them to think that stating a claim

absolutely would make it strong enough to be sufficiently persuasive. The same point could

seem to be the reason for the high frequency of the absolute claims. In other words,

absolutely asserting a claim might make the arguers consider it so reasonable that they would

not bother with further reasoning for it.

With regard to the supported claims, it is noticeable that 27.5% of the claims are

supported through being attributed as personal view points. In these claims, we may

repeatedly see the application of phrases as “I believe”, “In my view point”, and “As far as

I’m concerned” to mention a few. While other reasoning patterns detected are supporting a

claim with another claim, supporting through exemplifying for the claim, supporting a claim

through expansion of the idea, supporting through appealing to personal experiences,

supporting through appealing to proverbs and sayings and supporting through appealing to an

expert opinion (authority).

68% of the warrants are reported to be explicitly stated in the claims (EW). In these

instances the warrants are axiomatically seen in the claim without any need for inference

while in 29% of the warrants, they have to be inferred. In very few cases, the warrants are

shadowed due to the ambiguity of the claims themselves.

What proved to be of the least application in the arguments of the present study is

rebuttals and backings. As each of rebuttals and backings is studied against the claims and the

warrants respectively, the portion of each in the whole samples is as follows: rebuttals appear

with 1% of the claims, and backings come with 2% of the warrants.

71

Argument structure and persuasive power

As it comes in the previous section, qualifiers appear in only 13% of the whole claims.

Referring to Toulmin’s (1958) perspective, absolute claims, whether appearing bare of

qualifiers or coming with intensifies, would negatively affect the persuasive power of an

argument. On the other side, just 51% of the claims are supported. Thus, we have nearly half

of the claims without any support which sound noticeable. As support is of the obligatory

elements in the structure of a persuasive argument, it is obvious that its absence in a process

of argumentation would surly decrease the persuasive power of the argument.

Besides, the very infrequent application of rebuttals and backings, 3% on the whole

would not help weakening the arguments persuasive drive. The existence of rebuttals beside

qualifiers would provide “two- sided messages” which “tend to be more persuasive than one-

sided messages, at least when the audience for an argument has a substantial amount of

education” (Wangerin, 1993:6). On the other hand, since backings come to support the

warrants through providing further evidence, we would not question their argumentative

facilitating role in case they were more attentively comprised by the arguers.

Proficiency level and argument structure

The limitations concerning the number of the participants and the amount of the

relevant writings we came across did not impede us from running relative statistical

computations through which the relationship between the learners’ proficiency level and their

arguments structures could be considered.

The results on the Michigan proficiency test ranged from 41 to 89. Based on the

participants’ equated scores to the Michigan proficiency scale cited in Wayne (2006:5), the

participants are grouped to three levels as low (46-65); mid (66-79); and high (80-92). To get

to a probable relationship between the participants proficiency level and the structure of the

arguments, we calculated the correlation between the two. As the samples’ length of

arguments varied from 100 to 200 words, a direct comparison of the variables between the

individuals seemed inappropriate.

72

Table 2 shows the correlation between the three proficiency levels and the

argumentative elements in the same level. Rebuttals and backings are omitted due to their

very low frequencies in all the three proficiency level groups.

Table 2: The correlation between proficiency and argumentative elements

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Based on Table 2, the sig. values do not imply a high correlation between the high

proficiency level and each of the argumentative elements. In the mid- proficiency group, the

supported claims show a meaningful correlation with the learners proficiency level, yet the

correlation is negative. In other words, the mid proficient learners had more often supported

their claims. At the time being, there seems not to be any persuasive reason behind this and

further research is needed to provide us with the possible justifications. In the low proficient

group, the sig. values do not show a meaningful correlation, either.

Based on the cited computations, we may conclude that the learners’ proficiency level

has no effect on their argumentative structures here. However, more comprehensive

experimental studies are needed to judge the issue right.

Proficiency Argumentative elements

Pearson correlation

Sig. ( 2 tailed)

High

Supported claims .142 .660

Qualifiers -.163 .612

Im. warrants .158 .624

Mid

Supported claims -.581** .006

Qualifiers -.064 .782

Im. Warrants -.063 .786

Low

Supported claims -.280 .378

Qualifiers .228 .476

Im. Warrants -.125 .699

73

Functional deep structure in Iranian EFL learners’ arguments

Although the sample arguments have been mapped against a specific prescribed model

of argumentation, the findings did not come much disappointing. The statistics reveal the

existence of an argumentative structure in the samples of the study, which partly coincides

with Toulmin’s model.

Based on the numerical findings concerning the frequency of the argumentative

elements in the samples performance, a leading argumentative model for the deep functional

structure is derived. Talking of a leading argumentative structure tends to be inevitable, the

most frequently observed argumentative elements in the data, form a better representative for

the model compared to those with the lower frequency and eventually compared against

Toulmin's Mode, as it is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Toulmin’s Model vs. a derived Model for the Sample Arguments

D (support) Q, C

W. R.

B.

The derived model actually shares the existence of some of the argumentative elements

with Toulmin’s model. Besides, it shows critical differences as well. The fact that some of

Toulmin’s argumentative elements such as claims, warrants, supports etc. can be found and

argumentatively linked to each other in the sample arguments of the study is the basic

similarity. This indicates that in spite of the noticeable differences, these sample arguments

are ruled by a structure which represents part of Toulmin’s principles for persuasive

arguments— a fact that is mostly true with the obligatory elements of an argument. This

similarity enabled us to derive a model generally parallel to Toulmin’s model.

Absolute, claim

Ex. Warrant No rebuttal

No Backing

Support

74

The differences can be clearly seen in the realizations of the argumentative elements in

the derived model compared to Toulmin’s model, which indicate how weak the arguments

here might structurally have served the purpose of persuasion. Opposed to Toulmin’s model,

in the derived model the claims are mostly strong and half-supported. To reflect the weak role

of the supports in the sample arguments in the derived model, broken lines have been used.

Explicit warrants opposed to the implicit ones are the other points of difference in these

samples. Due to the infrequent application of rebuttals and backings in the structure of the

arguments, they have been overlooked.

Conclusions

Studying the diagramed arguments of 45 Iranian students of English revealed that

these writings have a structure in which some of the argumentative principles of Toulmin

Model (1958) are included and some others are unique for these Iranian EFL learners. We are

tempted that this would offer the researchers, as well as the instructors of the field of

foreign/second language learning and teaching some hints on the strong and weak

argumentative points existing in EFL students’ argumentation practices. In line, they could

work for a structured model of writing and oral debate to enhance the second language

learners’ ability in providing more effective pieces of arguments in terms of the persuasive

power on the part of the audience. Thus, this study contributes to the formation of a new

evaluative model through which different aspects of an argument might be weighed up and it

could also reflects argument specific structure of a speech community. A point that following

studies might add is to investigate the universal features of argument structure or highlight

language specific nature of this structure.

The Authors

Hooshang Yazdani (BA Shiraz Univ., MA Shiraz Univ., Ph.D. Essex Univ.) studied TEFL as

an undergraduate at Shiraz and went on to do an MA in the same field. He continued the

same field of study for his Ph.D. His research interests lie mainly in reading comprehension,

evaluating reading comprehension, reading strategy, evaluation, discourse analysis, critical

discourse analysis, and to some extent in language teaching methodology, and

psycholinguistics.

75

Nahid Serajipour received her B.A in English Teaching from Shiraz University and her M.A

in TEFL from Arak University. She has participated in some conferences across the country

(Iran). She is now a teacher at both high schools and university. Her areas of interest mostly

include discourse analysis, applied linguistics and psycholinguistics.

References

Bricker, A. L., & Bell, P. (2007). Using everyday argumentation in science instruction.

Washington DC: University of Washington.

Cheikes, B. A., Lehner, P. E., Taylor, M. F., & Adelman, L. (2004). An empirical evaluation

of structured argumentation using the Toulmin argument formalism. Massachusetts:

George Mason University.

Keshavarz Mehr, N. (2006). On the development of L2 academic writing ability among

Shiraz University M.A. students of TEFL. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Shiraz University.

Marshal, C. C. (2007). Representing the structure of a legal argument. California: Xerox Palo

Alto Research center.

Mir, F. (1999). Sentence combining plus technique as an aid to expedite 12 writing quality

and ability and the learning strategies behind it. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Shiraz

University.

Newman, E. S., & Marshall, C. C. (2006). Pushing Toulmin too far: Learning from an

argument representation scheme. California: Xerox Palo Alto Research center.

Rozycki, E.G. (Ed.) (2004). An introduction to models of reasoning. Derived from

file://C:\Documents .

Simosi, M. (2003).Using Toulmin’s framework for the analysis of everyday argumentation:

Some methodological consideration. Argumentation, 17(2). 185-202.

Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. Cambridge University press: Derived from

http://WWW.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN : The uses of argument

76

van Eemeren, F.H. (2003a). Crucial concepts in argumentation theory. Amsterdam:

Amsterdam University Press.

van Eemeren, F.H. (2003b). A Glance behind the Scenes: The State of the Art in the Study of

Argumentation. Studies in Communication Sciences, 3/1, 1-23.

van Eemeren, F.H., Grootendorst, R. and Snoeck Henkemans, F.(1996). Fundamentals of

Argumentation Theory. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

van Eemeren, F.H. and Grootendort, R.(2005). A systematic theory of argumentation: the

pragma-dialectical approach. Journal of Pragmatics, 37, 577-83.

Walton, D. (2005a). How to evaluate argumentation using schemes, diagrams, critical

questions and dialogues. sComS: Argumentation in dialogic interaction.

Walton, D. (2005b). Justification of argumentation scheme. Winnipeg: Winnipeg University.

Walton, D., & Gordon, T. (2006). Critical questions in computational models of legal

argument. Berlin: Fraunhofer FOKUS University.

Wangerin, T. P. (1993). A multidisciplinary analysis of the structure of persuasive arguments.

Harvard Journal of Law and Public policy, 16, 1-22.

Wells, S., & Reed, C. (2007). Testing formal dialectic. Scotland: Dundee University.

Zarsanj, A. (2002). The effect of culture background knowledge on the writing performance

of Iranian EFL learners. Unpublished M.A. thesis. Shiraz: Shiraz University.

77

Reassessing Traditional Spelling Theories from a Second Language Perspective

Thomas Hamilton

Richard Watson Todd

Nuttanart Facundes

Abstract

Spelling is an often overlooked and under-researched area in language

teaching. Most previous work on spelling has focused on native English

speaking children's spelling of their L1. The resulting spelling models have

perhaps erroneously placed too much weight on a correlation between

vocabulary range and spelling ability. These theories ignore individual

differences and various L1 writing system backgrounds that may affect

spelling proficiency. Thus, some students may be unfairly assessed and not

given proper support in the classroom. In this paper, we examine two types of

spelling errors which have been largely overlooked in previous research and

investigate how the potential sources of interference may play a role in the

errors. These two spelling error types are word combination/segmentation

(where two words may be joined as one or where one word may be written as

two separate words) and letter doubling (where a word requiring a single

letter may contain a double letter or vice versa). Awareness of these spelling

tendencies may help to reduce the stigma associated with poor spelling ability

in the educational system and gives directions for teachers to improve their

students’ spelling.

Theories of spelling

Several theories have been proposed to explain the features of L2 spelling, and the

various theories emphasise the three potential sources of interference in different ways.

For L1 interference, automaticity theories argue that the L1 may interfere with the L2

through an unconscious automatic mechanism (Pascual-Leone & Irwin, 1994; Salomon &

78

Perkins, 1989). These theories argue that a process well-practised in one learning situation

(i.e. L1 spelling) may be automatically transferred to a process that is less practiced (i.e. L2

spelling). L1-based theories such as this have led to comparative studies of the English

spelling produced by various L1 groups which have concluded that factors specific to the L1

can transfer to the L2 (e.g. Holm & Dodd, 1996; Oller & Ziahosseiny, 1970; Rickard et al.,

1998). Such transfer, however, may not be as simplistic as suggested by direct contrastive

analyses. For instance, Oller and Ziahosseiny (1970) compared the English spelling of

learners whose L1 uses a Roman alphabet with that of learners from a non-Roman alphabet

L1 background and found that the non-Roman alphabet learners made fewer spelling errors,

suggesting that similar alphabetic systems could cause confusion.

In our study of the causes of word combination/segmentation and letter doubling

errors of Thai learners of English, if we take the view that the main cause of spelling errors is

L1 interference, we can generate several expectations of the nature of spelling errors we

should encounter. For word combination/segmentation errors, the Thai writing system uses

spaces syntactically rather than lexically, and thus words are not segmented as in English. If

we assume direct L1 transfer, we would then expect Thai learners to make word combination

errors frequently (e.g. writing somefood instead of some food), and we would also expect

very few or no errors of over-segmentation of words (e.g. bed room instead of bedroom). For

letter doubling errors, with a single irregular exception, Thai does not use letter doubling

whereas it is frequent in English. Thus, assuming direct L1 transfer, we would expect Thai

learners to commit a greater number of errors where target double letters are written as single

letters (e.g. litle) than errors where target single letters are written as double letters (e.g.

untill).

Other theories emphasise the role of the interlanguage in L2 spelling. For instance, the

developmental interdependence hypothesis (Cummings, 1979, 1981), while acknowledging

the role of the L1 especially in terms of the distance of difference between the L1 and the L2,

argues that all writers go through a series of relatively predictable stages in their spelling.

Thus, a comparison of spelling errors made by native English speaking children learning to

spell in their L1 and the spelling errors made by L2 learners at a similar level of proficiency

would show similar problems as both go through similar stages of development. For our

research, interlanguage-based theories suggest that the Thai learners should make errors

similar to those of native speaking children.

79

A third set of theories proposes that L1, interlanguage and L2 can all influence

spelling. For the spelling of English, some research has favoured a dual-route model of

spelling in which spellers need to rely on two processes, lexical and phonological mappings

of words, to accommodate regular and irregular spellings (e.g. Frith, 1980). More recent

connectionist work on spelling has proposed that these two processes could be the outcome of

a single mechanism (Bullinaria, 1993; Norris, 1993; Phillips & Hay, 1992; Seidenberg &

McClelland, 1989). Irrespective of whether the two processes are separate or combined, such

models require all three potential sources of interference to be taken into account. L1 lexis

and L1 phonological mappings may affect L2 spellings, stages in the learning process shown

through the interlanguage can also have an impact, and spellings of other L2 words can

influence spelling of target words. For our research, the L1 and interlanguage influences can

be examined as suggested above; L2 influences can be investigated by examining other L2

words that mirror the erroneous spelling pattern produced (e.g. the word combination error

somefood could be influenced by other words such as someone).

From this discussion of theories of spelling, it can be seen that a variety of factors

could possibly influence L2 spelling and that the relative roles of these factors might be

examined by collecting large numbers of errors and examining the potential roles of the three

main sources of interference. In this study, three corpora of learner writing were collected

under different conditions of control over writing, word combination/segmentation and letter

doubling errors were extracted from these corpora, and evidence for three sources of

interference were considered as explanations for the errors. The purpose of this study,

therefore, is to examine the roles of the three potential sources of interference in word

combination/segmentation and letter doubling English spelling errors of Thai learners.

Method

Two corpora were analyzed with the intent of identifying spelling patterns of Thai

spellers of English. This paper will focus on two categories of spelling errors identified in

those corpora, letter doubling errors (e.g., tommorrow or tomorow) and word combination

errors (e.g., everynight or to night). Because the spelling patterns of spacing between words,

and doubling letters to create a single phoneme, differ between Thai and English we may be

80

able to observe these characteristics of L1 interfering with the L2 spellings of Thai spellers of

English.

Corpus 1

Data Selection

Corpus 1 was constructed from the English journals of 57 Thai university English

major students. In total the corpus consists of more than 125,000 words, in which 733

alternative spellings of words were identified. This first corpus was intended to represent

spelling problems that would be observable in the subjects’ normal written academic and

work life. The percentage of recoverable alternative spellings was relatively (0.6%) low

because the students were expected to highly filter their spellings as the journals were

submitted for academic work to be graded. The students had the opportunity to check their

spelling and choose words they felt confident spelling.

Data Inclusion

As handwritten graphemes are often difficult to individually identify, it became

necessary to create a system for accurately determining legibility and excluding data with a

reasonable level of uncertainty. Letters in corpus 1 were deemed recoverable based on

comparative samples of easily identifiable letters found throughout the subject’s writing.

Unrecoverable letters resulted in unrecoverable words which were excluded from the corpus.

More than a 1,000 words were excluded from corpus because letters were unrecoverable.

Even with clearly recoverable letters many words were determined to be unrecoverable

because the intended word could not be identified through context, grammatical position, or

similar word usage found in the subjects writing. These words were also excluded from the

corpus. Therefore, this corpus of spelling does not contain a complete list of alternative

spellings. Thus, it is possible that extreme variants of standard spellings would be more

difficult to recover and therefore bias this data.

81

Data Categorization

Eighty-two categories of errors were hypothesized as possible influences for

alternative spellings. The first 300 words were placed in these categories. Many errors were

placed in multiple categories as it was possible one, or all, of the influences could be

affecting the spelling. Therefore, the categories only suggested the possibility of influence,

which was reinforced by quantitative measures. The most predominate categories were

isolated into 17 categories, and most of the remaining 433 alternative spellings fell into those

categories.

Corpus 2

Data Selection

The second corpus is a compilation of notes 50 Thai English major university students

took in class. It consists of more than 5,000 words containing 322 alternative spellings.

Although less likely to reflect students’ polished writing, this type of sound to spelling

writing may impact students in situations like dictation test, or cloze tasks in university

English listening and speaking classes. The percentage of nonstandard spellings is higher

than corpus one as students did not have the same freedom to choose all words spelled while

taking notes based on a lecture. Students may have needed to spell unfamiliar words based

on the sound of word rather than their lexical knowledge, thus we found different spelling

patterns than in corpus 1.

Data Inclusion

The same methods for determining recoverable letters and words were used as in

corpus 1. Because corpus 2 was based on notes, the lecture script was used as a means of

recovering some words. However, corpus two contained many more unrecoverable letters

and words, most likely because students took the notes under time pressures and were unable

to rewrite their notes. Therefore, there exists in this corpus an even greater possibility that

extreme variants of standard spelling were included while mild variants were more often

recoverable.

82

Data Categorization

The same methods of data categorization were used in corpus 2 as in corpus 1.

Results

The following tables summarize the amounts of alternative letter doubling spellings

and word combination spellings found in the three corpora. This data will be used to

determine whether Thai spellers of English are following the spelling patterns of their L1.

Simple contrastive analysis assumptions of L1 to L2 transfer would expect a greater number

of English compound words combined than separated. Furthermore, if these assumptions are

true we would expect to find a greater number of words alternatively spelled by reducing

double letters instead of doubling letters to create non-standard English spellings.

The following table highlights the percentage of alternative spellings from each

corpus that were the result of word combination errors:

total alternative word spellings/

total words in corpus 1

total alternative word combinations spellings/

total errors in corpus 1

Alternative Word

Combination spellings

(WC) / Total Word Combination Errors

Alternative Word

Segmentation Spellings

(WS) / Total Word Combination Errors

Corpus 1 17.19% 11.02% 42% 58.00%

Corpus 2 14% 6.55% 11% 89%

Table 1.1: Word Combination Overview

An average of 9% of the alternative spellings from both corpora were the result of

word combination errors. The slightly lower percent of error in corpus 2 does not appear to

be significant, but may be a result of the dictation task where students were not writing as

much familiar vocabulary, and therefore unable to make semantic links between words.

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In both corpora, word segmentation was more common than word combination errors.

The following table shows specific examples of word combination errors in Corpus 1.

BNC frequency has been included for each misspelled phrase as familiarity of the word has

been identified as a possible factor influencing spelling, and familiarity is related to

frequency of exposure as roughly indicated by frequency in a general corpus such as the

BNC. A higher BNC frequency therefore indicates a higher likelihood of the subjects being

familiar with the word. Only alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been

included in the table.

Misspelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 1

BNC frequency

everytime every time everyday 14 6 23 2180

freetime free time sometime 10 2 30 153

alot a lot ago 4 4 180 22627

everynight every night everyday 3 2 26 679

oneday one day someday 2 2 56 4224

Table 1.2: Alternative Word Combinations Corpus 1

The data suggests that BNC frequency, or word familiarity, is not a significant factor

for determining alternative spellings resulting from WC.

The following table shows a specific example of word combination error in Corpus 2.

Only alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

84

Misspelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 2

BNC frequency

Icecream Ice cream Milkshake 5 3 5 471

Table 1.3: Alternative Word Combinations Corpus 2

There were fewer WC alternative spellings in Corpus 2 than in Corpus 1, but there

were also fewer instances where multiple subjects had the same WC errors. The misspelling

of ice cream by three subjects suggests that word familiarity, as determined by BNC

frequency, was not a factor.

The following table shows specific examples of word segmentation errors in Corpus

1. Only alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

Misspelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 1

BNC frequency

Boy friend boyfriend my friend 5 3 93 1285

Bed room Bedroom Dining room 5 4 61

5865

Grand mother grandmother

Grand piano 5 2 33

1461

May be maybe Can be 4 3 54 10472

Every day Everyday Every night 3 2 83

2124

My self Myself Its self 2 2 46 12444

Table 1.4: Alternative Word Segmentation Corpus 1

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Despite the word’s potential familiarity based on BNC frequency, the data suggests

that subjects had tendencies to separate compound words.

The following table shows specific examples of word segmentation errors in Corpus

2. Only alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

Alternatively spelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 2

BNC frequency

Text book Textbook School book 23 19 23 874

News caster Newscaster News people 2 2 2 33

Team mate Teammate Team player 2 2 2 27

Table 1.5: Alternative Word Segmentations Corpus 2

The segmented words in Corpus 2 had a lower BNC frequency than WS words in

Corpus 1. However, it should be noted that the overall BNC frequency in Corpus 2 was lower

than Corpus 1 because students were spelling words based on an academic lecture. They were

also more likely to spell words based on dictation rather than choosing words they were

familiar with.

Word Combination and Segmentation

Both WS and WC spellings were found distributed fairly evenly throughout the

writing samples in 33 of the 57 journals included in corpus 1. Most alternative spellings of

this nature occurred with frequently used words that are probably not beyond a low-

intermediate English speaker’s lexical knowledge (see BNC frequency data).

The high percentage of alternative word combination and segmentation spellings in

all corpora suggests that this is a problematic area for Thai spellers of English. However, the

86

data suggests that L1 transfer to L2 is not the only cause for these alternative spellings. In

corpus 1 alternative word segmentation (WS) yielded higher results than alternative word

combination occurrences (WC); with five WC multiple subject occurrences and seven WS

multiple subject occurrences listed in tables 1.2 and 1.4.

Word segmentation could be explained by a lack of spellers’ lexical knowledge. On

the other hand, if the WS alternative spellings were caused purely by a lack of lexical

knowledge, we would expect that simple words would always be segmented and not

combined in alternative usages.

It may be that in areas problematic for spellers, overgeneralization of spelling

strategies becomes more prominent. In most cases of WC and WS alternative spellings there

are other similar lexical instances of regularly spelled compound words which would serve as

a basis for making these overgeneralizations, table 1.2.

Corpus 2 contained a lower percentage of total WS and WC alternative spellings and

the amount of WS appeared much more prominent. This may indicate that the cognitive

process activated for overgeneralizing spelling rules is amplified by time constraints.

However, it is important to acknowledge that a single word greatly skewed the data, namely

‘text book’. As all students unanimously spelled ‘textbook’ as two words, it may indicate that

Thai society has adopted an alternative spelling of this word.

The following table highlights the percentage of alternative spellings from each

corpus that were the result of letter doubling errors:

total alternative

spellings/

total words in corpus 1

total alternative letter

doubling spellings/

total errors in corpus 1

Alternative Over

Doubling spellings

(OD)

Alternative Reduced

Doubling Spellings

(RD)

Corpus 1 11.46% 7.35% 65% 35%

Corpus 2 10.25% 4.8% 42.4% 39.4%

Table 2.1: Letter Doubling Overview

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Letter doubling accounted for 12% of the alternative spellings in the corpora. Corpus

2 contained less letter doubling errors than Corpus 1. This may be a result of the dictation

task where students were not writing as much familiar vocabulary, and therefore less likely to

misallocate double letter patterns within known spellings.

In both corpora, over doubling was more common than reduced doubling errors.

The following table shows specific examples of OD errors in Corpus 1. Only

alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

Alternatively

spelled word Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 1

BNC frequency

eatting eating sitting 8 3 34 4894

Untill Until still 5 4 53 34807

Japaness Japanese princess 6 2 40 6168

Remmember remember Summer 3 2 41 26748

Meetting Meeting Betting 2 2 10 20544

Table 2.2: Alternative Letter Doubling Occurrences Corpus 1 (Over Doubling)

As most of the words were frequently found in the BNC, the data suggests that word

familiarity is not a significant factor for determining alternative spellings resulting from OD.

The following table shows specific examples of RD errors in Corpus 1. Only

alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

88

Alternatively spelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 1

BNC frequency

To Too - 3 2 428 2674162

Especialy Especially Special 2 2 9 17694

Stoped Stopped Hoped 2 2 9 6168

Swiming Swimming Summer 2 2 55 906

Table 2.3: Alternative Letter Doubling Occurrences Corpus 1 (Reduced Doubling)

As most of the words were frequently found in the BNC, the data suggests that word

familiarity is not a significant factor for determining alternative spellings resulting from RD.

The following table shows a specific example of word combination error in Corpus 2.

Only alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

Alternatively spelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 2

BNC frequency

Refference Reference Raffle 4 4 4 9638

Table 2.4: Alternative Letter Doubling Corpus 2 (Over Doubling)

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There were fewer OD alternative spellings in Corpus 2 than in Corpus 1, but there

were also fewer instances where multiple subjects had the same OD errors. Even though

‘reference’ is not frequently found in the BNC it was interestingly misspelled the same way

by four subjects suggesting that this word was problematic.

The following table shows specific examples of RD errors in Corpus 2. Only

alternative spelling data from two or more subjects has been included in the table.

Alternatively spelled word

Intended word

Related influences

Alternative spelling occurrences

Subject occurrences

Total word occurrence in corpus 2

BNC frequency

comunicate communicate Raffle 4 4 13

2634

diferent different Newsman 3 2 7

48373

finaly finally Team player 2 2 2

13014

Table 2.5 Alternative Letter Doubling Corus 2 (Reduced Doubling)

As most of the words were frequently found in the BNC, the data suggests that word

familiarity is not a significant factor for determining alternative spellings resulting from RD.

90

The following table shows specific examples of Doubling Misallocation (DM) errors

in Corpus 1 and 2.

Alternatively spelled word occurrences

Intended word

swiminng 2 swimming

cokkies 1 cookies

poddle 1 poodle

boos 2 boss

tommow 2 tomorrow

diferrent 1 different

tommorow 2 tomorrow

Felling 1 feeling

Finnaly 2 finally

profesorr 2 professor

Table 2.6: Doubling Misallocation Corpus 1 and 2

Although there were not as many instances of multiple subjects using the same

alternative spellings, the data suggests a possible problem with misallocating letter doubling

patters with words with doubled letters.

Letter Doubling

Alternative letter doubling occurred in two main categories Over Doubling (OD) e.g.

‘cann’t’ and Reduced Doublings (RD), e.g. ‘kiten’. In corpus 1 letter doubling was fairly

evenly distributed throughout 30 of the journals. The high rate of over overall alternative

spellings with letter doubling or reduction also suggests that the subjects are more susceptible

to error in this problematic area.

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We would expect a much higher ratio of RD than OD if the cause was simply lack of

English morpho-phonological rules or if students were directly transferring L1 characteristics

to L2. Because only 30 of the 86 alternative letter doublings were RDs in corpus 1, L1 does

not appear to directly correspond to the L2 spelling patters. The data contained a much higher

ratio of OD which again suggests that students are overgeneralizing English spelling rules in

corpus 1.

A third category of letter doubling errors unexpectedly became necessary while

reviewing the data -- Doubling Misallocation. Words like poddle for ‘poodle’, or cokkies for

‘cookies’ (Table 2.6) seem to suggest that students are aware the word contains a double

letter but are unable to accurately identify the correct grapheme to double. This suggests an

area of cognitive process confusion for Thai spellers. Furthermore, while RD and OD errors

are rather common with native English speakers than word combination errors, doubling

misallocation seems to be a rather novel phenomenon.

In corpus 2 there was a decrease in the percentage of total letter doubling errors and a

higher relative frequency in the percentage of RD error types, 13 out of 33. Again in corpus 2

we found examples of doubling misallocation with words like ‘diferrent’ for ‘different’ and

‘profesorr’ for ‘professor’ suggesting the same cognitive process confusion exists.

Conclusion and Suggestions for Further Research

The data did not match expectations set up for L1 transfer to L2. Because ODs were

more frequent than RDs in both corpora, this L1 trait did not appear to directly transfer to L2.

Furthermore, the more frequent occurrence of WS than WC in both corpora suggests that

most L2 writings of these spellers did not directly transpose this spelling trait from L1.

However, the high occurrence of both these types of errors does suggest a spelling process

unique to the L2 spellers.

In terms of interlanguage influences, native English speaking children may work as a

suitable benchmark for this discussion. Native English speaking children have not been

described as exhibiting significant problems with word segmentation or letter doubling in

previous spelling research literature. Instead other factors such as nasal reductions, silent

92

letter omissions, and homophone confusion are more prominent in native English speaking

children than letter doubling and word combination errors (Frith, 1980).

It is also possible that L2 may influence Thai spellers of English. The spellers may be

projecting the spellings of other L2 words onto L2 spellings, thus overgeneralizing spelling

patterns. Possible L2 lexical influences are listed with the misspelled words in the tables

above. However, in most instances it does not appear that the spellers would be exposed to

the misspelled words less frequently than the other L2 words that may influence the

alternative spellings. Therefore, a connectionist model based on exposure would not

adequately explain the spelling patterns.

The data does not clearly indicate that any of the discussed influences is responsible

for all the alternative spellings analyzed. Instead, the data may suggest that all three

influences are playing some role to varying degrees. In corpus 1, where there was the least

amounts of spelling constraints imposed, there seem to be more instances of

overgeneralization.

Previous research has not identified these specific problems in L2WSs and the

influences of these distinctive spelling strategies deserves further investigation. Controlled

experiments may be able to isolate the factors further and determine the weight of their

influence under different spelling constraints. In a practical sense, once clearly studied,

English teachers and students in Thailand may have an opportunity to better prepare for the

challenges of English spelling. On a more theoretical level this research opens up a new

dimension to exploring possible relationships of influence between L1, interlanguage and L2.

The Authors

Thomas Hamilton is a language specialist at the Asian Institute of Technology’s Language

Center. He teaches Academic Writing and Communication Skills. He has been teaching in

Thailand ten years at several graduate and undergraduate institutions. The current research is

for his PhD dissertation in Applied Linguistics at the King Mongkut’s University of

Technology Thonburi.

Richard Watson Todd and Nuttanart Facundes are lecturers in Applied Linguistics at the

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi.

93

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spelling errors. Language Learning, 20, 183–189.

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neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist, 24, 113–142.

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An Exploration of Approach to Intonational Analysis and Speech Data Collection

Thanin Kong-in

Abstract

Intonation is a key factor to success in effective oral communication.In

addition to its important role in demarcating grammatical boundaries of

utterances e.g. finality and mood, obviously it also conveys natural and

unconscious affective meaning of the speakers. This phenomenon attracts

many linguists having attempted to study and explain its physical properties

and communicative function through phonetic and phonological analysis

until the inextricable link between these two units is found. Over the years,

many theories on intonational analysis have been proposed e.g. Cauldwell

(2003)’s iconic notation, British School Model, ToBI system, H and L

accents, RFC model and Tilt model. Interestingly, it is challenging to

investigate the theory that can entirely cover the description of intonation in

terms of its authentic phonetic and phonological properties. Moreover,

linguists are supposed to select the effective techniques to elicit the most

natural speech data for further analysis. Hence, the aim of this paper is

basically to review thoughts and theories as guidelines to methodology and

analysis of intonation through specific technique e.g. HCRC1 map task.

Further study from this paper is expected to show detailed pragma-

phonological analysis in terms of intonational pattern variations and

discussion of significant correlation between those variations and their

meaning perception.

Introduction

Intonation, when properly used taking context into consideration, does not only

contribute to success in near-native foreign language pronunciation, but it also helps both

speakers and listeners understand the same matter very clearly. Finch (2000: 51) stated that

apart from making decisions about the words we are going to use and the syntactic pattern we

are going to adopt, we may have to choose from a wide range of possible intonation variants.

1Human Communication Research Center of the University of Edinburgh intonation is acknowledged to be crucially in both the construction of

speech and the determination of meaning.

96

In the same way as claimed by Hirschberg and Pierrehumbert (1986) and Catford (1988),

they raised a sample of using the rising pitch to signal topic initialization whereas the falling

pitch for finality of utterances. This fact supports the phonological schema of the speakers to

select a proper form of intonation to present their specific intention while pronouncing. It is to

say, so far, we pronounce using intonation to categorize sentence meaning and other related

affective ones e.g. falling for certainty or neutrals and rising to signal some uncertainty or

questioning.

Furthermore, intonation is thought to be the important component in effective

pronunciation, particularly for English as a global language that is necessary in developing

countries in line with Governments’ policy in terms of foreign language learning enhancement

for students to enroll the basic education institutes e.g. Prathomsuksa 1 by ranking English at the

top of the list as number 1 second language (Office of the National Primary Education

Commission, 2002: 35). One cannot refuse the interference of the mother tongue, so-called

negative transfer to L2 accent learning, which is why we still experience varieties of English

accents from all over the world. The simplest cause of this may be well explained by raising

critical period theory (Lenneberg, 1967) – once L2 learners pass puberty to another stage of

localization, it is very hard or even overburdening to adjust their L2 competence as native

speakers do, especially a prosodic feature like intonation. The L2 normative patterns tend to be

unconsciously replaced by their L1 phonological rules of accent. Worse than that, lack of

prosodic lessons, including intonation practice has been widely found in many schools under

Office of Basic Education Commission. As Tuaycharoen (2006) investigated the deterrence

variables of Thai students’ potential in learning English, she found that 93.10% of Thai teachers

of English spoke English with a Thai accent and never discussed the prosodic lessons to improve

the students’ accent. This fact is in line with the assumption that fundamental contribution of

intonation to communicative competence and proficiency has largely been neglected in foreign

language classrooms (Chun, 1988; Thompson, 1995).

To extend the reflection of such a problem, examining the relation between intonation

and listeners’ attitude has been suggested by academics (Cruttenden, 1981; Haan, 2002; Grice

& Savino, 2003; Šafářová, 2004). Once the speaker is not aware of using the right intonation

pattern, he/she might probably face communication breakdown. The sample raised by

Gumperz (1982: 173) indicated the negative attitudes in the wake of inattentive use of

intonation. It was a story about London's Heathrow airport staff who complained of Asian

97

cafeteria employees’ rudeness. Also, these employees were much upset with discriminative

reaction from those customers. The communication was taped to view personal interaction

between these 2 groups of informants, and Asian employees were convinced to view the tape

together. When customers ordered meat, the server was supposed to question whether they

wanted gravy or not. The British employees asked, 'Gravy?' The Asian women dealt with the

same situation also stated 'Gravy,’ but instead of a rise in their intonation for questioning,

their intonation fell at the end. During the workshop session, the Asian employees did not

understand why they were getting negative reactions even though they were saying the same

thing as the British employees did. The latter pointed out that although they were saying the

same word, they were not saying the same thing i.e. 'Gravy?'- with a rising intonation,

referring to a question; 'Would you like gravy?' The same word spoken with the counterpart

seems to mean somewhat repetitive and aggressive, 'This is gravy, take it or leave it.'

Interestingly, from all samples raised above, it is obvious to find many variations of

intonational use and difficult enough to answer what level we can trustfully analyze them.

Among theories proposed by linguists like the early notation to represent the phonetic form of

intonation using arrows and lines, which one does it seem to be the most powerful approach

to summary of complete features and function of intonation? Besides, we might be familiar

with traditional technique speech data collection such as story-telling, reading text, situational

conversation, or interviewing which enhance the informants to rely on their non-verbal

communication and possible exaggeration. As a result, what we might obtain is only

somewhat unnatural or covert behavior. What techniques should be recommended for data

collection of this kind of study? These issues are to be fundamentally discussed.

Objective

The objective of this paper is to explore an approach to analyzing intonational

patterns as well as intonational data collection techniques.

Analysis of Intonational Patterns (IP)

Cauldwell (ibid.) analyzed intonation pattern making the notation iconic based on chunky sloping

arrows compared to the numerical tone marks1 introduced by Halliday (1966). Actually,

intonation was once studied through the approach preferred by British School (Palmer 1922;

Halliday 1967; O’Connor & Arnold 1973; Cruttenden 1997) so-called nuclear tone analysis.

1 This system focuses on the four functions of notation: a numerical label, a visual symbol, a tonic movement labels, and a terminal tendency e.g. 1 = fall 2 = rise 3 = fall-rise, etc.

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Palmer’s originality was modified to the application of dynamic features i.e. “rise” and “fall” to

describe intonation. For this school, intonation consists of nuclear accent, head, pre-head, and tail.

According to Crystal (1969), nucleus or N, a prominent tone, is considered as the most important

part of the intonational phrase. It may include several movements or combinations e.g. fall, rise-

fall, low rise, etc. These tones are usually located at the last stressed syllable of the phrase. The

term ‘tail’ (T) is coined to refer to the other part following the nucleus. The head (H) is the first

accented syllable, which continues to the nucleus, preceded by prehead (P). The grammar of this

type of intonational phrase is the nucleus is a must whereas the other components can be optional

or (P) (H) N (T).

Mike decided to leave from the place for the station.

Figure 1: Sample of nuclear tone analysis model

Although such a model is simpler than the use of curves for analysis purposes, it is

attacked by other camps for its straight line approximation problem since the real F0 cannot

be fully represented by a smooth straight line as the model adopts.

Later, considering as extension of Pike’s (1945) theory with adoption of numbered

tones from 1 to 4, Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg (1990) proposed the intonation analysis

model which labels the decomposition into sequences of tones. One can find meaning carried

in each of these tones. The meanings of intonation contours are essentially associated with

attitudes and beliefs of speakers and hearers. Theoretically, there are three tone categories:

pitch accent, phrasal tone, and boundary tone. Each tone possibly includes either a high (H)

tone or a low (L) tone. The elaboration of each tone types can be discussed as follows.

Pitch accent is associated with the stressed syllable of the phrase. The stressed

syllable of a certain word reveals pitch prominence seen as starred tone (*) which is also

meaningfully distinctive. For instance, high pitch accent refers to a new or contrastive topic

in the discourse. Contrarily, low pitch accent is used by the speaker to assume the hearer’s

topic accessibility and this reflects the mutual belief space. Phrasal tone covers the space

between the last pitch accent and the boundary tone. It is to say this tone manipulates F0

(Fundamental frequency) between the last pitch accent of the intermediate phrase and the

beginning of the next one or even the end of the utterance. Phrase boundary marked by

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vertical line as shown in figure 1 can be found at the end point of phrasal tone’s region.

According to the elaboration of such a model by Beckman and Pierrehumbert (1986), there

are six types of pitch accents in the English language (H*, L*, H+L*, H*+L, L+H*, L*+H),

two types of phrasal tones (L-, H-), and two types of boundary tones (L%, H%). Finally,

boundary tone helps us understand the scope of the whole utterance. The addition of H or L

indicated with ‘%”is found at the end of the intonational phrase. There are four tune patterns

after the last pitch accent of an intonational phrase: L L% H L% L H% and H H%. This tone

conveys information about interpretive relationships to the subsequent utterance. A high

boundary tone signals questioning whereas a low boundary tone does not.

Figure 2: Intonational phrase with two immediate phrases reprinted from Beckman

and Pierrehumbert (1986)

Apart from Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg’s model, another different well-known

framework must be also referred, the ToBI system or Tone and Break Indices. Devised by a

group of speech scientists from various different disciplines (electrical engineering,

psychology, and linguistics), ToBI is a system for transcribing the intonation patterns and

other aspects of the prosody of English utterances. Wightman (2002: 25) gave 2 principal

reasons of the rapid acceptance and widespread application of ToBI. First, prior to 1992,

there were no widely accepted systems for the transcription of prosody that addressed both

intonation and phrasing in an integrated way. The second reason was the growing emphasis

on computational methods, which were driving dramatic improvements in speech recognition

and synthesis technology. According to Beckman and Hirschberg (1994)’s elaboration, the

system includes tone tier, an orthographic tier, a break index tier, and a miscellaneous tier.

An utterance’s intonation pattern can be found in tone tier. This pattern consists of

phrasal tone transcribes as a sequence of high (H) and (L) added with diacritics1 which

express some particular pitch accents. The orthographic tier is a transcription of the

orthographic form at the final segment of the word based the waveform or spectrogram

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record as to mark the right edge. The challenges of the task is to analyze the orthography of

some phenomena e.g. use of filled pauses such as \um",\uh" or contraction form of \gotta". As

for other comments and markings, they are analyzed in miscellaneous tier such as silence,

laughter, audible breaths, etc.) For instance, a period of laughter followed by speech might be

indicated by marking its beginning and end with laughter< ... laughter>.

Break indices are the 5 value-rating scale2 for the degree of juncture perceived

between each pair of words and between the final word and the silence at the end of the

utterance considering the right edges of the words transcribed in the orthographic tier.

Later, Taylor (2000: 1699) argued on requirements of an intonational model deriving

from the description that is linguistically meaningful apart from low and high level phonetic

descriptions requiring mainly compact representation system and low redundancy. It is to say

one need to search for a representation which contains information which is significant to the

linguistic interpretation of an utterance’s intonation. He consequently proposed Tilt Model

with position of the following 5 desired properties of such a representation:

1. Constrained. The representation should be as compact as possible having few

degrees of freedom. Specifically redundancy should be absent so that one part of the

representation cannot be derived from another.

1Pitch accent or stressed syllable is marked by asterisk, hence L*, H* , phrase tone is marked by hyphen, thus L-, H-. As for bitonal pitch accent is shown as L+H*. Also, intonation always has its own edge which is known as ‘boundary tone’ marked by %, thus L% , H%. Symbol ! represents a downstep, thus !H.

2 Beckman and Hirschberg (ibid.: 1-2) proposed a set of 4 values of break index as follows:

0 for cases of clear phonetic marks of clitic groups; e.g. the medial affricate in contractions of

‘did you’ or a flap as in ‘got it’.

1 most phrase-medial word boundaries.

2 a strong disjuncture marked by a pause or virtual pause, but with no tonal marks; i.e. a well-

formed tune continues across the juncture OR a disjuncture that is weaker than expected at

what is tonally a clear intermediate or full intonation phrase boundary

3 intermediate intonation phrase boundary; i.e. marked by a single phrase tone a affecting the

region from the last pitch accent to the boundary.

4 full intonation phrase boundary; i.e. marked by a final boundary tone after the last phrase tone

101

2. Wide coverage. The representation should cover as many intonational phenomena

as possible and should be capable of expressing distinctions in utterances which are

perceptually different.

3. Linguistically meaningful. The form of the representation should be such that its

parameters can be interpreted and generated by higher level components.

4. Automatic synthesis. The model should have an automatic mechanism for

generating F0 contours from the linguistic representation.

5. Automatic analysis. It should be possible to derive the linguistic representation

automatically from an utterance’s acoustics.

In overview, the intonational event is the basic unit where pitch accent and boundary

tone exist respectively. Pitch accent is represented by letter a referring to F0 excursion in line

with speakers’ emphasis on a particular syllable while boundary tone or b indicating the tune

pattern at the edge of the intonatioal phrase. A combination event ab is possible to be

detected when the 2 components occur so close to each other that one can observe merely the

single pitch configuration. As shown in figure 3, the segmental stream or sequences of

syllabic nuclei (usually vowel) is obviously separated from the intonational event and this

autosegmental diagram as widely adopted in the domain of generative phonology makes it

possible to judge if a particular intonational unit is linked to a particular segment or syllable.

Figure 3 Schematic representation of F0, intonational event stream and segment stream in

the tilt model. (Taylor, 2000: 1701)

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The tilt model greatly contributes to automatic analysis and synthesis. Unlike the

RFC (Rise/Fall/Connection) model, the tilt model can control the parametric mechanism,

namely it still leads to high accuracy even if it has fewer parameters: duration, amplitude, and

tilt itself compared to its rival which characterizes the event by 4 parameters: rise amplitude,

rise duration, fall amplitude and fall duration, and this cumbersome acoustical analysis

requires scrutinizing the contours between events, so-called connection or c. As Taylor (ibid.:

1718) stated, the tilt parameter itself is dimensionless and so is independent of amplitude and

time scales. Hence, it is possible that this is already as abstract as it needs to be and would not

require modification.

So far, the tilt model seems to be appropriate approach to analysis of English

intonation. Somehow, further research focusing on intercultural communication in light of

intonation combined with pragmatic study can strongly prove its effectiveness in linguistic

meaningfulness.

Speech Data Collection Method

A decade ago, intonation along with attitude was conventionally studied through two

approaches as Ladd et al. (1986) observed. The first approach is referred to as A approach,

or an experiment of eliciting speech for a sample group and letting the judges listen to the

various intonation patterns and rate their attitudinal meaning. The other is B Approach, which

relies on a field study or corpus materials and cannot avoid the extraneous variables such as

modals and particles which effect on affective use of intonation. Uldall (1964) found

unpleasant attitudes from emphasis of the weak syllables in A approach whereas for B

Approach, Ladd (1980) proposed 2 possible ways of interpretation of fall-rise intonation

contour: disagreement or polite reply depending on pragmatic inference. Somehow, one of

the many methods that is reliable to some extent and popularly used to obtain natural speech

for further acoustic studies is known as HCRC map task (See Appendix A1-A2) initially

introduced by Anderson et al. (1991). The overview of the method seems to be categorized in

A approach, but with more consistent and reliable data from the sample groups. Some

traditional methods adopt simple tasks such as text reading, role play, situational talk, etc.

which either highly bring unnatural speech or provide the subjects with opportunity to hint

their information and feelings with non-verbal languages, for instance, mime and eye-contact.

The faster they understand each other with such a device, the less necessary prosodic data we

will gain for a further study. Worse than that, some activities give them a clue that they are

103

going to encounter. This might lead to Hawthorne effect, an internal validity threat in which

changing of subjects’ behavior to exaggeration or its counterpart is unavoidable due to their

active consciousness while being directly observed. With a map task activity, this effect can

be simply eliminated or much reduced since the conversation between instruction givers and

followers should continue smoothly without face-to-face interaction – they will be blocked by

a large board – or any other presence and interruption of observers, except speech recording

device. (See Chotimongkol, 2008)

Conclusion

Intonation representation systems are varied depending on the completion of relevant

properties, particularly constraints of degree of freedom and accuracy. Among many theories

and thoughts, the tilt model is highly distinctive due to its 5 characteristics to help solve the

weakness of the traditional approaches. Importantly, one rarely finds its application to

investigation of intonational variations produced by native and non-native speakers. Since we

have experienced many forms of intonation used in the authentic situation, particularly when

communicating with others who come from different cultures, the phonetic and phonological

patterns should be properly examined relying on powerful representation. Plus, to gain a

trustful data from conversations of any contexts, especially cross-cultural communication, the

map task is most accepted to be used to manipulate the needed data and deal with any

possible difficulties or limitations. However, to make sure there will not be other

discrepancies in intonational patterns under some contexts, the techniques such as

interviewing or radio program recording might be useful when compared to what found by

the map task through necessary statistical analysis.

The Author

Thanin Kong-in is a lecturer of the Department of English, Faculty of Education at

Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University. His areas of specialization include Phonetics,

Phonology, and applying Phonetics to teaching languages. He is currently conducting his

dissertation entitled “Phonopragmatic and Attitudinal Analysis of English Intonation” under

the supervision of Dr. Anamai Damnet, English as an International Language Program at

Kasetsart University, Kampaengsaen Campus.

104

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S., & Weinert, R. (1991). The HCRC Map Task Corpus. Language and Speech 34(4),

351-366.

Beckman, M. E., & Pierrehumbert, J. B. (1986). Intonational structure in Japanese and English.

Phonology Yearbook, 3, 255–309.

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manuscript, Ohio State University and AT&T Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Catford, C. (1988). A practical introduction to phonetics. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Cauldwell, R. (2003). Discourse Intonation. Centre for Discourse Intonation Studies.

www.speechinaction.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/CDIS_DiscourseIntonation_a.htm

Chotimongkol, A. (2008). Learning the structure of task-oriented conversations from the

corpus of in-domain dialogs. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Carnegie

Mellon University.

Chun, D. (1988). The neglected role of intonation in communicative competence and

proficiency. Modern Language Journal,72(3), 295-303.

Cruttenden, A. (1981). Falls and rises: Meaning and universals. Journal of Linguistics, 17, 77-91.

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Crystal, D. (1969). Prosodic systems and intonation in English: Cambridge studies in

linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Finch, G. (2000). Linguistic terms and concepts. New York: Palgrave.

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accessible and new information. Catalan Journal of Linguistics,2, 153-180.

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Appendix A (A1)

Information Receiver’s Map

108

Appendix A (A2)

Information Giver’s Map

109

How to Evaluate EFL Learners’ Strategy Use

Yasuo Nakatani

Abstract

It has been argued that EFL learners can improve communicative

proficiency by developing an ability to use specific communication

strategies (CSs) that enable them to compensate for their target

language deficiency (e.g., Bialystok,1990; Dörnyei,1995). Although

there are many ways of assessing learners’ strategy use, previous

studies have usually selected only one or two methods to investigate

learners’ behaviors. As there seem to be no fully established set of

assessment procedures, it is important to examine representative studies

of each type of method to reveal their strengths and weaknesses. In

order to address this issue, this paper examined the validity and

reliability of a number of data collection methods. These are

observation, interviews, verbal report protocols, diary and journal

studies, corpus data analysis and written questionnaires. The results

indicate that each of them has a unique set of advantages and

disadvantages.

Introduction

The theoretical model of learning strategies is still based on a number of assumptions

as yet unsupported by enough experimental evidence. In order to develop a strategy-training

programme, the effectiveness of communication strategies (CSs) needs to be examined, and

the types of task in which the strategies are effective need to be identified (e.g. Nakatani,

2005; Nakatani & Goh, 2007). At least, part of the solution to these problems will emerge

from careful inspection of the way in which language learning strategies (LLSs) are used in

specific tasks by EFL students. Although there are many ways of assessing learners’ strategy

use, previous studies have usually selected only one or two methods to investigate learners’

behaviors. As there has been no established scheme analyzing the use of strategies, it is

110

important to examine representative studies of each type of method to reveal their strengths

and weaknesses.

This paper examines the validity and reliability of a number of data collection methods.

These are observation, interviews, verbal report protocols, diary and journal studies, corpus

data analysis and written questionnaires. The validity addresses whether the measurement

process, assessment, or project actually measures what a researcher intends it to measure. The

reliability addresses whether repeated measurements or assessments provide a consistent

result given the same initial circumstances. I assess the advantages and disadvantages of each

method in terms of the validity and reliability in order to explore an ideal research method for

evaluating the effectiveness of CS use.

1. Observation

By observing students’ behaviors in classrooms for long periods, a number of useful

strategies of a good language learner can be identified (see e.g. Bialystok, 1990; Rubin,

1981). Bialystok presents four categories of learning strategies, inferencing, monitoring,

formal practising, and functional practising. In her model, learning strategies are defined as

“optimal means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second

language” (1978, p. 71). Rubin categorizes such strategies into two primary types. The first

category consists of strategies that directly affect learning, such as clarification, monitoring,

memorisation, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, and practice. The second category

consists of strategies that indirectly affect learning, such as creating practice opportunities

and regulating emotions. These studies present useful implications for the categorisation of

learning strategies.

To obtain quantitative data by observation, a classroom observation scheme called

Communication Orientation of Language Teaching (COLT) was designed (Allwright, 1988).

It enables researchers to make use of data for statistical analysis.

However, one of the disadvantages of the observation method is that data could be

subjective and influenced by the observer’s intuition and expectation. Another point is that it

is impossible to observe a learner’s thoughts and mental strategies, which are also important

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elements of strategies for communication. Consequently, observation could be a valid method

but it should be combined with other reliable methods.

2. Interviews

Interviewing learners can provide useful data (see e.g. O’Malley et al, 1985). In

general, there are three types of interviews: unstructured, structured and semi-structured

interviews. Each method has advantages for specific research purposes. Unstructured

interviews can be used for ethnographic studies. The interviewers just introduce the topic,

and then let the interviewees talk about the things within that topic they are interested in. On

the other hand, structured interviews can offer more reliable data. The interviewers control

the responses of the interviewees by asking questions which require a set answer such as 'yes'

or 'no'. Semi-structured interviews offer topics and questions to the interviewees, but are

carefully designed to elicit the interviewees’ ideas and opinions on the topic of interest, as

opposed to leading the interviewees toward preconceived choices. The advantages of semi-

structured interviews are that they can avoid leading the interview or imposing meanings, and

create relaxed, comfortable conversation. However, one to one interviews are time-

consuming and small group interviews can be more practical. In small group interviews,

students can report on their behaviors in English learning activities in classrooms. For

example, they may list the skills that they employed when speaking with a native English

speaker. It can be assumed that this kind of procedure, to some extent, enables researchers to

understand students’ intentions to use particular strategies in learning contexts. This

information is difficult to obtain by observation only.

Indeed, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) present a finely-tuned learning strategy model

developed from their interview studies. They divide learning strategies into three major

categories; metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and social/affective strategies.

According to their classification, metacognitive strategies involve executive processes in

planning for learning, monitoring their own comprehension and production, and evaluating

how well one has achieved a learning objective. Cognitive strategies are specific to distinct

learning activities, and involve the use of operations or steps in learning and problem solving

that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. They include

strategies such as inferencing, guessing meaning from contexts, or relating new information

to other concepts in memory. Social/affective strategies are required when learners either

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interact with another person in order to assist learning, as in cooperation or asking questions

for clarification, or use some kind of affective control to assist themselves with their learning

task.

This classification by O’Malley and Chamot contributes greatly to the understanding of

ESL learners’ awareness of strategy types. However, there are several disadvantages of

interviewing. For example, the data are inevitably subjectively reported by the student.

Though group interviews can save time and money, some students’ responses might also be

affected by peer pressure. Interviewing skills and techniques of investigators also affect

students’ reaction to the questions. Just as observation is insufficient on its own, it is also

difficult to obtain concrete evidence of particular strategy use by an interview method alone.

We still need other objective data to validate the result of the interview.

3. Verbal report protocols

In order to collect psycholinguistic data concerning cognitive processing, some

researchers use a verbal report protocol in which students provide their verbal comment

before, during or after performing particular learning tasks. Cohen (1987) categorizes three

different types of verbal report: self-report (in which students say what they usually do or

think), self-observation (inspection of specific language behaviors by introspection and

retrospection), and self-revelation (disclosure of thought processes by thinking aloud while

doing a task).

Another example of this method was demonstrated by Robinson (1991), who asked

Japanese ESL students to complete a questionnaire concerning their discourse, and to provide

taped think-aloud data during the task. The results of his study indicate that students have

many things on their mind while carrying out tasks, and that their cultural background

influences their production. This method can provide researchers with useful information on

learners’ cognitive process.

However, think-aloud methods may be highly selective, suiting only participants who

are readily able to master the think-aloud technique, and to introspect and articulate their

learning behaviors. To rectify this shortcoming in verbal data collection, it would be desirable

to construct training procedures which elicit learners’ thinking during tasks more effectively.

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Also, think-aloud protocols may disturb the task performance itself. Furthermore, as Cohen

and Robbins (1976) say, it is difficult to collect language learning strategy (LLS) and

communication strategy (CS) data by this method long after the event has occurred.

When collecting the data of learners’ strategies for oral production, it is impractical to

ask speakers to provide a think-aloud protocol in the middle of interaction. To solve this

problem, Cohen and Olshtain (1993) presented an improved verbal report method in a study

of role-play. They made a video of students’ performance and asked them to provide

retrospective verbal reports whilst watching the videotape recording. This enabled students to

recall what they had actually thought and tried to do by witnessing their performance

immediately after the task. This method can help researchers examine how students assess,

plan and execute their utterances more clearly and increase the reliability and validity.

4. Diary and journal studies

By having students keep diaries or journals about their use of strategies in tasks, it is

possible to get rich and dynamic data concerning their thoughts and achievements. The

journal-keeping experience leads students to identify and overcome variables which may

have harmful effects on learning. Students’ journals can function as an instrument for self-

awareness, self-analysis and self-evaluation of their learning (see e.g. Bailey, 1983;

Matsumoto, 1989). Hence, keeping learning diaries helps learners make a habit of reflecting

their own learning in order to become more autonomous learners.

However, we should note the drawbacks of this method. The data collected via journals

may also be too subjective and random to analyze. It is difficult to generalize the results to

larger populations of interest. Furthermore, students might face difficulties in recalling their

strategies if they are asked to keep diaries as homework.

If students are given guidance in the keeping of diaries, and if their diary entries are

limited to particular strategies of oral production, this might help the students recognize their

strategy use clearly. It is also possible for researchers to control their diary data for specific

research purposes. In order to help students remember which strategies they used, teachers

should encourage them to take notes during the task, and then write them up in their diaries

by making use of those notes.

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5. Corpus data analysis

By making corpus of learners’ interaction through audio or video taped data,

researchers can investigate more precisely how the learners use strategies in actual

communication and increase the validity of research. Previous studies of corpus data analysis

have generally categorised strategies for communication into two types: achievement or

compensatory strategies, and reduction or avoidance strategies (see e.g. Bialystok, 1990;

Dörnyei & Scott, 1997; Faerch & Kasper, 1983; Tarone, 1983; Willems, 1987).

Table 1: A representative taxonomy of strategies for communication

Achievement strategies

1. Self-solving strategies: solving problems caused by learners’ own insufficient linguistic

resources without getting interlocutors’ help. (e.g. Willems, 1987)

2. Interactional strategies: trouble-shooting behaviors with interlocutors.

・ Help seeking: seeking interlocutors’ assistance or requesting repetition when not

hearing or understanding what the interlocutor says. (e.g. Bialystok, 1990; Tarone,

1983)

・ Negotiation of meaning: making efforts for modifying utterances to overcome

communication breakdowns. (e.g. Tarone, 1983; Willems, 1987)

・ Using fillers: using gambits to fill pauses when gaining or giving time to maintain

the conversation smoothly. (e.g. Dörnyei & Scott, 1997)

･ Response for maintenance: providing active responses by shadowing, making

positive comments or using other conversation gambits. (e.g. Dörnyei & Scott, 1997)

・ Offering assistance: helping listeners to follow conversations by repetition,

speed reduction or circumlocution. (e.g. Dörnyei & Scott, 1997)

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Reduction strategies

・ Message avoidance: avoiding engaging in communication when facing problems and

leaving a message unfinished. (e.g. Bialystok, 1990; Faerch & Kasper, 1983)

・ Message reduction: reducing an intended message by using the L1, interlanguage or a

simplified utterance because of TL deficiency.

(e.g. Bialystok, 1990; Faerch & Kasper, 1983)

The former enable learners to work on an alternative plan for reaching the original goal

by means of whatever resources are available. They are regarded as “good learner” behaviors.

The latter enable learners to avoid solving a communication problem and give up on

conveying the message. They are common among low proficiency learners. Table 1 contains

a summary of representative taxonomy with definitions.

Yet, as Dörnyei and Scott (1997) explain, there is no clear agreement on these

taxonomies among researchers. This problem is partly caused by the nature of corpus data

itself. The approach provides a large amount of qualitative data and it is difficult to evaluate

such data objectively. Hence, it is important to introduce other reliable methods to support the

results of corpus data analysis.

Furthermore, there is little research which assesses EFL learners’ performance by

corpus data. It is essential to examine taxonomies based on this method carefully and then

introduce them into our contexts.

6. Written questionnaires

A written questionnaire has many advantages. If a highly structured questionnaire is

developed, it is possible for researchers to elicit data from a large number of subjects. This

certainly improves the reliability of the data when carrying out statistical analysis. It also

saves money and time. Accordingly, it is important to introduce this approach as well as other

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methods. To ameliorate this situation, Nakatani (2006, 2010a) developed a reliable inventory.

Factor analysis was used to identify eight factors in strategies for coping with speaking

problems and seven factors in strategies for coping with listening problems during

communicative tasks. Based on the results of the analysis, the Oral Communication Strategy

Inventory (OCSI) was developed (see, Appendix). The reliability of the scale was confirmed

by Cronbach’s alpha (speaking part: .86; listening part: .85). The survey instrument was used

to investigate EFL learners’ strategy use in a simulated communicative task. The results

indicate that a significant difference was found in students’ awareness of strategy use

according to their oral proficiency level (Nakatani, 2010b).

It must be remembered that a written questionnaire also has its limitations. For

example, items tend to be restrictive and students rarely have the opportunity to elaborate on

the answer. Another drawback of this method is that these data are based not on students’

actual use of particular strategies, but on their self-reporting of generalised statements. They

may overestimate or underestimate their own strategy usage, and provide less than accurate

answers concerning their behavior. One of the solutions for improving this method is to

conduct a questionnaire right after the learning event. Questionnaire items should focus on

specific strategies such as CSs in interaction during the task, instead of general vague

questions.

In the field of psychology, researchers often have to rely on established statistical

methods by using written questionnaires. This is because they need to investigate internal

human behaviors which are difficult to elicit from other procedures. However, linguistic

research can utilize real language use such as videotaped corpus data, which presents clear

evidence of learners’ particular behavior. So results of questionnaire research can be

compared with actual discourse data to examine specific strategy use more precisely.

Conclusions

By examining previous data collection methods of learners’ strategy use, it was found

that each of them has a unique set of advantages and disadvantages. The available data on

strategies depend on their collection methods and there seem to be no fully established set of

assessment procedures yet. It is crucial to carefully choose methods that provide the desired

information for the research. One solution is to introduce multiple data collection procedures

in order to obtain more accurate and valid data on learners’ cognitive process. This should

117

compensate for problems inherent in each method. The same can be said when developing

reliable and valid research methods for the use of strategies for communication. Accordingly,

I propose the following framework for future research in communication strategies:

(1) Participants’ pre- and post-test scores for oral communication tests will be compared.

(2) A well designed objective self-report questionnaire such as the OCSI which covers

detailed information of strategies for oral communication will be administered. This

instrument, which can be used immediately after the tasks, will be highly reliable and

valid.

(3) Participants’ performance in interactional tasks will be recorded and transcribed.

Their speech act behaviors on the corpus data will be analyzed.

(4) Participants will be asked to listen to the recorded tapes right after the tasks and asked

to explain the strategies that they use during the tasks. This post task verbal report will

also be recorded and put into the corpus data. The data will be used to improve the

validity of the research.

Through this multiple data collection framework, the validity and reliability of the

research should be assured. In order to deepen understanding of learners’ learning processes

during oral communication, it is crucial to carefully examine their actual use of CSs in EFL

contexts. Accordingly, we need to consider how valid information about CSs can be gathered

systematically from learners, and what means of data analysis should be used in the future

research.

The Author

Yasuo Nakatani is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Hosei University. He received his

PhD from the University of Birmingham and was a visiting scholar at Oxford University. He

has published 3 research articles in Modern language Journal and a reviewer of Modern

Language Journal, TESOL Quarterly & Language Learning.

118

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Appendix

Oral Communication Strategy Inventory (OCSI)

Please read the following items and choose a response, and write it in the space

after the item.

5. Always or almost always true of me

4. Generally True of me

3. Somewhat true of me

2. Generally not true of me

1. Never or almost never true of me

PART 1 Strategies for Coping with Speaking Problems

No

.

Items Point Ave.

1 I try to relax when I feel anxious.

2 I try to enjoy the conversation.

A 3 I try to give a good impression to the listener.

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4 I actively encourage myself to express what I want to say.

5 I don’t mind taking risks even though I might make mistakes.

6 I try to use fillers when I cannot think of what to say.

7 I pay attention to my rhythm and intonation.

8 I pay attention to my pronunciation.

B 9 I pay attention to the conversation flow.

10 I change my way of saying things according to the context in

order to continue conversation.

11 I take my time to express what I want to say.

12 I try to speak clearly and loudly to make myself heard.

13 I make comprehension checks to ensure the listener

understands what I want to say.

C 14 I repeat what I want to say until the listener understands.

15 While speaking, I pay attention to the listener’s reaction to my

speech.

16 I give examples if the listener doesn’t understand what I am

saying.

17 I pay attention to grammar and word order during

conversation.

18 I notice myself using an expression which fits a rule that I

have learned.

D 19 I correct myself when I notice that I have made a mistake.

20 I try to emphasize the subject and verb of the sentence.

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21 I try to talk like a native speaker.

22 I reduce the message and use simple expressions.

E 23 I use words which are familiar to me.

24 I replace the original message with another message because

of feeling incapable of executing my original intent.

F 25 I try to make eye contact when I am talking.

26 I use gestures and facial expressions if I can’t communicate

what I want to say.

27 I leave a message unfinished because of some language

difficulty.

28 I ask other people to help when I can’t communicate well.

G 29 I give up when I can’t make myself understood.

30 I abandon the execution of a verbal plan and just say some

words when I don’t know how to express myself.

31 I think first of a sentence I already know in English and then

try to change it to fit the situation.

H 32 I try to think of what I want to say not in my native language

but English.

PART 2 Strategies for Coping with Listening Problems

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No

.

Items Point Avera

ge

1 I ask for repetition when I can’t understand what the speaker

has said.

2 I make a clarification request when I am not sure what the

speaker has said.

I 3 I ask the speaker to use easy words when I have difficulties in

comprehension.

4 I ask the speaker to slow down when I can’t understand what

the speaker has said.

5 I make clear to the speaker what I haven’t been able to

understand.

6 I pay attention to the speaker’s rhythm and intonation.

7 I send continuation signals to show my understanding in order

to avoid conversation gaps

J 8 I use circumlocution to react to the speaker’s utterance when I

don’t understand his/her intention well.

9 I ask the speaker to give an example when I am not sure what

s/he has said.

10 I pay attention to the speakers’ pronunciation.

11 I pay attention to the subject and verb of the sentence when I

listen.

K 12 I especially pay attention to the interrogative when I listen to

WH – questions.

13 I pay attention to the first part of the sentence and guess the

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speaker’s intention.

14 I try to catch the speaker’s main point.

15

I don’t mind if I can’t understand every single detail.

L 16 I anticipate what the speaker is going to say based on the

context.

17 I guess the speaker’s intention based on what s/he has said so

far.

18 I try to respond to the speaker even when I don’t understand

him/her perfectly.

M 19 I use gestures when I have difficulties in understanding.

20 I pay attention to the speaker’s eye-contact, facial expression

and gestures.

N 21 I try to translate into native language little by little to

understand what the speaker has said.

22 I only focus on familiar expressions.

23 I pay attention to the words which the speaker slows down or

emphasizes.

O 24 I guess the speaker’s intention by picking up familiar words.

25 I try to catch every word that the speaker uses.

26 I pay attention to pay attention to the first word to judge

whether it is an interrogative sentence or not.

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A: social affective strategies

B: fluency-oriented strategies

C: negotiation for meaning while speaking

D: accuracy-oriented strategies

E: message reduction and alteration strategies

F: nonverbal strategies while speaking

G: message abandonment strategies,

H: attempt to think in English strategies

I: negotiation for meaning while listening,

J: fluency-maintaining strategies

K: scanning strategies

L: getting the gist strategies,

M: nonverbal strategies while listening

N: less active listener strategies

O: word-oriented strategies

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Gender-discriminatory Language and Gender-stereotyped Images in Japanese Junior High School English Textbooks

Yuka Ishikawa

Abstract

This paper examines the use of gender-discriminatory language and gender stereotypes seen in twelve English textbooks for Japanese junior high school students. The textbooks were all screened by the Japanese government (MEXT), which declares that one of the goals of English education in Japan is to foster the ability to make impartial judgments and cultivate a rich sensibility. The study investigates five interrelated research questions, focusing on courtesy titles for women, and descriptions and illustrations of males and females at work, at home, and at school. The results of the study have revealed several discriminatory expressions and illustrations, which may reconstruct and maintain gender stereotypes. Although gender-fair titles Mr. and Ms. are used in all the textbooks surveyed in this study and Ms. accounts for almost 70% of the total number of titles used for women, Ms. is used only for female teachers, who are always under a male principal, and other women who are not teachers are addressed with Mrs. or Miss. Both descriptions and illustrations associate men and boys with paid work, study, and sports, and women and girls with unpaid housework, childrearing, and cooking.

Introduction

Language is not a simple tool to convey information. It shapes society as much as it reflects society. For instance, girls who have been brought up in a society where the term “police officer” is used are more likely to assume such a position than girls from a society where “policeman” is used to refer to members of the profession. The feminist language reform which aimed to eliminate gender-discriminatory language from our society launched in the 1970s, and it has greatly influenced the English language. For example, some new job titles, such as “firefighter” or “chairperson,” were introduced into the English language as non-discriminatory alternatives to the traditional discriminatory ones with a morpheme referring to one sex or the other, such as “fireman,” “chairman,” or “stewardess.” This language reform has also influenced English textbooks, dictionaries, and the way English classes are managed as English teachers, educators, and textbook makers came to realize that they might have subconsciously pushed old stereotypes onto students, thus inadvertently

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limiting their future aspirations even though schools are supposed to be places which encourage each student to realize their full potential. Ishikawa (1999) investigated English textbooks used in Japanese high schools, and claimed that although non-discriminatory language was elaborately used in some textbooks, discriminatory language was not completely eliminated from most textbooks. As more than one decade has passed since the previous study, this paper will once again survey the English textbooks used in Japanese junior high schools for gender stereotyping and their use of gender-discriminatory language.

Gender-discriminatory language and gender-stereotyped images Originating in the US, the feminist movement aimed to secure the equality of men and women in language use as well as in the workplace. Its advocates claimed that sexist or discriminatory language and stereotyped gender images may lead to a discriminatory society, and that they should be eliminated at least from public documents and school textbooks. Although several types of interrelated discrimination can be seen in textbooks, this paper will focus on gender-discriminatory language and gender-stereotyped images created through the language and illustrations used in the textbooks surveyed.

Discriminatory language So, what are discriminatory expressions? Many lawyers, for instance, would call something discriminatory only when it causes a real loss or damage to someone. However, publishers, editors, academics and teachers instead choose to define it in the broadest possible way, suggesting that any expression denoting only a part of the human race can be “discriminatory.” Thus, if you say that “all men were created equal” or that “everyone should have his own opinion,” it can be discriminatory, for women are semantically excluded from what is meant by those generic expressions.

Publishers and academics began to work on guidelines to delete discriminatory language from their own texts in the 1970s. Language was re-evaluated thoroughly and revised on the basis of a “gender-fair” and/or “gender-free” policy. Gender-free language does not indicate the sex of the person mentioned, such as “teacher” or “chairperson,” while gender-fair language includes “the symmetrical use of gender-specific words” (Maggio, 1987), such as “Mr. and Ms.” or “s/he.” For example, the American Psychological Association issued “Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals” in 1977, which were generally based on a gender-fair policy. Another example is the “Do’s and Don’ts for Non-Sexist Language” published by the Honolulu County Committee on the Status of Women, which states that “When Mr. is used, Ms. is the equivalent. Use Ms. to designate both a married and unmarried woman.”

In contrast, the National Council of Teachers of English set guidelines for nonsexist use of language in NCTE publications, which were primarily based on a gender-free policy, and distributed these guidelines to the members of NCTE in 1974. Similarly, The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law (2000) is based on a gender-free policy. It insists that writers should “refer to both men and women by first and last mane: Susan Smith or Robert Smith” without using courtesy titles, and that they should “not use the courtesy titles Mr., Miss, Ms. or Mrs. expect in direct quotations.” Officials and governments also tackled

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the problem. For example, in 1986, the generic he pronoun was eliminated from state laws in Minnesota (Maggio, 1987), and the US Department of Labor published the Job Title Revisions to Eliminate Sex- and Age-Referent Language from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (3rd ed.) in 1975 and published a fourth edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles in 1991, based on a gender-free perspective. As a result, the dictionary basically does not include occupational titles with morphemes referring to sex or age such as “policeman” or “salesgirl,” and has very few gender-fair titles such as “actor/actress.”

As we have seen so far, some guidelines take a gender-free perspective in selecting alternative non-discriminatory language and others take a gender-fair perspective, and on the surface, there may seem to be a contradiction between the two views. However, gender-free and gender-fair expressions are basically complementary to each other. In denoting the whole human race, when both sexes are relevant to the matter discussed, gender-free expressions should be chosen instead of discriminatory sex-determined expressions which exclude one of the sexes, and when one sex is mentioned, the other should be mentioned equally.

Gender-stereotyped images Besides developing guidelines on the elimination of discriminatory language, publishers and government authorities have also created guidelines to eliminate gender-stereotyped images from their books and texts, which are sometimes more difficult to identify than discriminatory language. For example, A Guide to Educational Equity in Vocational Programs, published by the Illinois State Office of Education in 1979, argued that stereotyping such as associating women with the kitchen and men with business should be avoided in instructional materials and suggested that stating a woman’s marital status should be avoided when it is irrelevant and when the same information about men is not available. Stereotypes have penetrated into society so deeply that people are seldom aware of them and they are not easy to eliminate. The guidebook also insists that biases should be acknowledged so that “schools can provide a more rounded and equitable education” (p. i).

Another example is the McGraw-Hill Book Company, one of the best-known publishers of textbooks. It released Guidelines for Equal Treatment of the Sexes in McGraw-Hill Book Company Publications in 1974, which besides other suggestions relating to gender stereotypes stated that:

1) An attempt should be made to break job stereotypes for both women and men. No job should be considered sex-typed, and it should never be implied that certain jobs are incompatible with a woman’s “femininity” or a man’s “masculinity.”… Women within a profession should be shown at all professional levels, including the top levels. Women should be portrayed in positions of authority over men and over other women, … . (p.2)

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2) Books designed for children at the pre-school, elementary, and secondary levels should show married women who work outside the home and should treat them favorably. Teaching materials should not assume or imply that most women are wives who are also full-time mothers, but should instead emphasize the fact that women have choices about their marital status, just as men do… . (p.2)

Gender analysis of school textbooks A review of the literature on school textbooks and children’s books reveals that women have been treated unfairly. For example, women and girls are underrepresented in children’s books (U’Ren, 1971; Weitzman et al., 1972; Hartman & Judd, 1987; Clark et al., 1993; McCabe et al., 2011). U’Ren (1971), after investigating thirty textbooks for elementary school pupils in California, found that in many cases less than 20% of the story space was dedicated to girls and women and that only 15% of the illustrations were of girls or women. Similarly, Hartman and Judd’s (1987) examination of ESL textbooks published in the US and Britain revealed that male referents heavily outnumbered female. In addition, McCabe et al. (2011), having surveyed 5,618 children’s books published in the US, found that within these, women and girls occupied a less important role in society than men or boys. Moreover, Ishikawa (2003) investigated forty-eight high school textbooks published in Japan in 1996, and found that courtesy titles were used more frequently for men than for women in the books examined.

Textbook samples

This study surveyed twelve English textbooks for Japanese junior high school students published in 2006 by four publishing companies. There were only seven publishing companies which were allowed to publish English textbooks for junior high school students in Japan, and these were among them. The textbooks were all screened in 2005 by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), which declares that one of the goals of English education in Japan is to foster the ability to make impartial judgments and cultivate a rich sensibility. It therefore follows that the textbooks it approves should avoid discriminatory language and stereotypes, especially in materials for primary and junior high school levels that must be studied by every Japanese child and that may as a result have a greater influence on the entirety of the next generation than materials for those who continue on to complete non-compulsory senior high school and tertiary education.

Research questions This study investigated five interrelated research questions as shown below. Research questions 1-3 focused on discriminatory language used in English textbooks for Japanese junior high school students and 4-5 on gender stereotypes.

1) Do English textbooks use Ms. instead of Miss or Mrs.? 2) How frequently are Ms./Mrs./Miss used in textbooks? 3) In what cases are Ms./Mrs./Miss used in textbooks?

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4) Do English textbooks represent stereotypes such as associating women with household or childrearing and men with working?

5) Do English textbooks portray women in positions of authority over men and other women?

Method In order to answer the RQs mentioned above, a count was made of the number of occurrences of the personal titles Miss/Mrs./Ms. within each textbook. For example, if “Ms. King” was used twice in one book, “Ms.” was counted as 2, even though the word refers to the same person. Each person referred to with a courtesy title was also listed with his or her job, social status, family role, personality and hobby or personality type. Any descriptions of males or females were also investigated in addition to their depiction in illustrations.

Results and discussion

The Use of Ms. instead of Miss or Mrs. This study found that English textbooks for Japanese students do indeed use Ms. instead of Miss or Mrs., which is not very surprising as Ms. was introduced into the English language in the 1970s, and nearly forty years have passed since the title first entered a school dictionary, The American Heritage School Dictionary in 1973. The title is now given in most English dictionaries published in Japan for junior and senior high school students.

However, the study also found, maybe more interestingly, that three publishers out of the four studied here do use traditional titles and refer to some women with Miss and Mrs. in textbooks for the second-year and/or the third-year junior high school students, though the gender-fair titles, Ms. and Mr., are introduced for first-year students irrespective of which publisher’s textbook is selected for a class. We will return to a discussion of this point later in this paper.

How frequently Ms./Miss/Mrs. are used in textbooks In the pie chart below, it can be seen that the non-discriminatory title Ms. is used in nearly 70% of the total courtesy titles for women, so it can be said that Ms. is the standard courtesy title for women in English education in Japan. However, we should keep in mind that the frequency of Mrs. accounts for one quarter, though it only starts to be used in the second year of junior high school.

Fig. 1: Frequencies of Titles

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What determines the use of Ms., Miss or Mrs. So, what kinds of women are referred to with the traditional courtesy titles? Could the study reveal how publishers determine whether to use Ms., Miss or Mrs.? The survey revealed that in textbooks for the first-year students, all women are addressed with the title Ms. and all men with Mr. as mentioned above. Those men and women are zteachers. Female teachers in Japanese junior high school English textbooks are always addressed with the title, Ms. As a result, the gender-fair titles, Ms. and Mr., are introduced instead of Miss and Mrs., which are conspicuous for their absence in textbooks for the first-year students. However, the three publishers use Miss and Mrs. to address some women who are not teachers. In other words, a woman can be treated in a gender-fair way if she has a teaching position.

The title Miss rarely appears in junior high school textbooks. Miss is used for a woman only in the case where she has starred in a movie or is named as a star. In contrast to Miss, Mrs. is used relatively frequently as is shown in Fig. 1. Excluding historical persons such as the US civil rights activist “Mrs. Rosa Parks”, three publishers out of four use the traditional courtesy title Mrs. when referring to a mother such as a friend’s mother or host family mother, which could inadvertently keep alive the stereotype of single and childless working women versus married housewives who are no longer in the paid workforce and excludes the alternative possibilities of single working mothers, or single stay-at-home mothers. So, Mrs. is used for mothers, Ms. for teachers and Miss reserved for movie stars, which revealed that simply counting the frequency of Ms. is a rather poor indicator of advance in gender equality. Rather, its use as revealed in this study seems to suggest that only female teachers have gained full equality with men, which could lead to a new stereotype and suggest a rather limited and somewhat traditional career choice to girls yearning for gender equality.

Stereotypes such as associating women with household or childrearing and men with work The textbooks seem to be imposing a stereotype of what is considered a desirable

and appropriate family style and the gender-roles which are to be expected within this ideal family type. Indeed, the way women are addressed in the textbooks suggests that women should get married and have children, and that a student should have a family with both a mother and father, where the mother is at home with her children and present if ever a school friend visits as is often the scenario in the textbooks reviewed in this study. This kind of stereotyping not only fails to present the full range of lifestyle options to students but also falls short of reality in society, and in particular the alternative family arrangements which may be necessary after divorce, or parental death due to disease, accident, or natural disaster such as the very tragic recent earthquakes and tsunami in Japan. Indeed, in a country where being different is sometimes frowned upon, this uniformity of family type as depicted in the textbooks must make it more difficult for orphans, stepchildren, or those who may be experiencing nascent LGBT inclinations.

In the textbooks reviewed, fathers present an image of culture or intelligence while in contrast mothers are connected with clothing and fashion. For example, “My father gave my

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brother a computer” and “(My father) gave me an interesting book,” while “My mother gave me nice shoes,” and “His mother bought him a new bag.” Example sentences in another textbook also include “father” and “mother” in a stereotyped way such as “My father works in a library” and “I asked my father to help me (with my homework),” but “My mother told me to help her after dinner” and “I have already helped my mother (with house chores).” In addition to these, sentences such as “The shirt my mother bought was too big for me” and “This doll was made by Ms. Beck’s mother” associate mothers with shopping and sewing work, or unpaid work. “My father is older than my mother” is another example sentence in one of the textbooks which purportedly represents a traditional Japanese couple and so stereotypes fathers as senior and the chief support of Japanese families.

Although Japanese mothers are referred to much more often than Japanese fathers surveyed in the textbooks in this study, they are surprisingly never described as working outside the home. For example, one mother is described in a textbook as bringing a cup of tea and a piece of cake to a child who is studying in a child’s room, and another mother appears taking a telephone message for her child, while other mothers are cooking for children.

The stereotypes emerged even more clearly when all illustrations in the twelve textbooks studied representing women/men and boys/girls were investigated closely. For example, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 shown below are presented on one page of a textbook showing people talking on the phone. The conversation reveals the two boys played soccer near the girl’s house while the girl was cooking at home when the telephone rang.

Fig. 2: Boys on the phone

Fig. 3: Girl on the phone

Another illustration shown below as Fig. 4 describes four junior high school students on the same page: the two boys are depicted as actively playing soccer, while the two girls sitting on a picnic mat talking and having lunch look gentle and passive. Such gender stereotypes associating boys with sports and girls with the piano or cooking are also seen in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. Unfortunately, even though some girls playing soccer or doing judo have begun to appear in textbooks, they still tend to be treated as exceptional examples.

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Fig. 4: Active boys and passive girls

Fig. 5 Boys associated with sports

Fig. 6 Girls associated with cooking

Likewise, when boys are pictured inside the house, they tend to be at a computer or studying as can be seen in Fig. 7 below, with girls cooking and watching TV in a living room with a small child and cat, and boys studying, playing the guitar, and using a computer elsewhere in the home.

Fig. 7: Contrasting activities of boys and girls at home

Depictions of Women with Authority over Men and Women While such portrayals of women in authority do exist, they are rare. Most depictions of women put them under the authority of a working husband, or a male school principal in

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the case of teachers. Indeed, all publishers surveyed in this study depict school principals as male, as Fig. 8 shows below, even though most teachers in the textbooks are women.

Fig. 8: Male school principals

Conclusion The number of textbooks examined in the survey discussed in this paper is rather limited, considering that twenty-one textbooks for junior high school students have been published in Japan; however, the study has revealed several discriminatory expressions and illustrations in the textbooks, which may reconstruct and maintain gender stereotypes and impose traditional expectations and aspirations on students. Indeed, although Ms. is used as a courtesy title in all the English textbooks surveyed and it accounts for almost 70% of the total number of titles used for women, Mrs. still appears in 25% of the total, with the former being the only courtesy title used for female teachers who are always under a male principal, and the latter Mrs. being the exclusive preserve of mothers. In addition, both expressions and illustrations in the textbooks associate women and girls with the stereotyped roles of childrearing, cooking and unpaid housework, and men and boys, in contrast, with paid work outside the home and sport.

The study also revealed that these textbooks are changing and being revised. The previous versions of textbooks issued by the same publishers nine years ago included even more explicit discriminatory expressions such as “generic man” and stereotypes which discriminated against women and mothers even more than is now the case. Indeed, it might be said that the most obvious types of discrimination or sexist language have been removed from the current versions of textbooks and there is the possibility and hope that the more subtle remaining discriminatory expressions and gender-stereotyped illustrations identified in this study will be eliminated from subsequent editions of Japanese junior high school English textbooks. While this may require sustained pressure from academics as well as teachers and parents, once achieved, it will be an important step towards removing gender stereotyping from society and working towards greater equality of opportunity for all no matter what their gender identity might be.

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Acknowledgement

This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research form MEXT, Japan. The author would like to thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions for improving the manuscript.

The Author

Yuka Ishikawa (Dr.) is a professor at Nagoya Institute of Technology in Japan. She received her Master’s Degree in Education from Kobe University, and her PhD in Language and Culture from Hiroshima Jogakuin University in 2003. Her recent academic concern is genre analysis and gender roles seen in language.

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