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HOW TO GET A PH.D.: Methods and Practical Hints I-II (2011-2012)

Aarne Mämmelä, 8.12.2011

http://www.infotech.oulu.fi/to_phd

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V Summary of the CourseAarne Mämmelä

A brief summary of the course is presented using thelecture notes and the lectures themselves.

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Outline

Introduction

Doctoral studies

Literature reviews

Research methods: Analytical approach

Research methods: Systems approach

Scientific publication

Conclusions

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Introduction

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Introduction

20-page summary is available, including a bibliography

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Introduction

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What is Research All About: Problem and Hypothesis

No general systematic deductive methods exist to discover hypotheses

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Phases of research

Intial data collection

(literature review)

Tentative solution(hypothesis)

Analysis/simulations/experiments

Theory/paper(new knowledge)

System model(prototype)

Problem

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Criteria for science

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Methodological approaches of research

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Methodological Approaches

1. Analytical approach (reductive approach)

developed in the 1600’s (Galileo, Francis Bacon, Descartes, Newton)

bottom-up approach, a whole is the sum of its parts

knowledge is independent of observer

interested in cause-effect relations in deterministic phenomena and correlations in stochastic phenomena

2. Systems approach (holistic approach)

developed in the 1950’s (Bertalanffy, Buckley, Churchman, Emery)

top-down approach, a whole differs from the sum of its parts (synergy, emergence), environment has an important role

knowledge is independent of observer

interested also in producer-product relations and final causes (purposes)

3. Actors approach

developed in the 1970’s (Silverman, earlier work by Husserl, Weber, Schutz)

top-down approach, actor is an active, reflective, and creative human being

interested in understanding social wholes

knowledge exists only as a social construction and is not independent of observers

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Doctoral studies

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Bottom-Up Learning Process

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Criteria for a doctoral thesis and papers

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Literature reviews

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Hierarchy of publications

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Use of references are citations

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Research methods:Analytical approach

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Toscanelli’s map (1474)

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Methods of discovery: Experimental inductive method

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Method of discovery:Experimental-inductive method

Indu

ctio

n

Syn

thes

is

Ana

lysi

s

Reduction

Experiments

Problem

Model

ResultsCriteria

Deduction

Hypothesis

Experience(analogies)

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Methods of discovery: Problem of creativity

Order Chaos

Creativity

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Method of verification: Hypothetico-deductive method

Newton: = 0.875”Einstein: = 1.75”Measured (1973): = 1.66” ± 0.19”

Source: www.mathpages.com/rr/s6-03/6-03.htm

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Method of verification: Hypothetico-deductive method

Correspondence with reality

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Deductive structure of theories

Coherence or unity

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Classification of models [Barbour74]

1. Experimental models (physical models)

a) Scale models (show spatial relationships), b) working models (show temporal relationships), c) analogue models (a physical system as a model for another)

2. Logical models

Set of entities that satisfy axioms and theorems in axiomatic systems (e.g., points and lines in Euclidean geometry)

3. Mathematical models

Symbolic representation of a physical or social system, basis for computer models, no physical similarities with the actual system (model for supply and demand, growth of population)

4. Theoretical models

Symbolic representation of a physical system, represents also underlying structure (billiard-ball model of a gas, Bohr model of atom)

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Importance of models

“The concept of a model is universal. A scientific claim is essentially a statement about a certain state of things. Since science is an entirely human construction, it does not have a direct connection to the reality. Science is therefore, at a general level, discovery of analogies, or selection between them.”

Kari Leppälä 30.11.2009

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Research methods:Systems approach

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Need for systems approach

What happens to the helium balloon?

How does a wing of an airplane work?

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Limitations of analysis

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Scientific publication

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IMRAD structure

IMRAD = introduction, materials and methods, results, and discussion

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IEEE template

IEEE = Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

Abstract1. What the author has done.2. How it was done (if it is important).3. Principal results (numerically, when possible).4. Significance of the results.

Glossary (only in reviews)I. Introduction

1. Nature of the problem.2. Background of previous work.3. Purpose and significance of the paper.4. Method by which the problem is approached.5. Organization of the paper.

II. Materials and methods (Model)III. ResultsIV. Conclusions

1. What is shown by this work and its significance. 2. Limitations and advantages. 3. Applications of the results.4. Recommendations for further work.

AcknowledgmentReferencesBiography

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Conclusions

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From criteria to publications

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Values and Norms of Research (IEEE Code of Ethics)

Value is a valuable thing.

Norm is a rule of behavior to protect the value.

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Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism

Copyright law refers to economical rights. Usually the copyright is owned by the publisher. Commercial ideas are protected by patents and trademarks. In addition, there are ethical rules that must be followed. Plagiarism, i.e., the use of somebody else’s ideas as new, is forbidden. We cannot publish text, figures, or tables without permission of the publisher. It is not enough to change some words here and there, but the text must be paraphrased, and pictures and tables must be substantially altered. Short paragraphs of text can be quoted in quotation marks without permission. A reference is always needed (in the beginning) and it must be made clear what was quoted and what the author’s own ideas are.Self-plagiarism, i.e., the use of earlier published own ideas as new, is also forbidden. Manuscripts that contain crossover of more than 25 % with another manuscript by the same authors may incur sanctions.An exception: A conference paper can be published as a full journal paper, but some journals request at least 30 % of new material compared to the conference paper. Permission is needed if the publisher is different. Letters (correspondence) must be usually completely new.Results published in a monograph cannot be published in a journal. A monograph to be published in a scientific series cannot be based on earlier journal papers. http://www.signalprocessingsociety.org/publications/periodicals/tsp/tsp-author-info/http://www.computer.org/portal/web/peerreviewmagazines/eic/dt

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Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism

Two manuscripts should havean overlap below 25 %.The overlapping text must beparaphrased.A reference to the earlier paper must be given.

A full journal paper may besimilar to an earlier conferencepaper of the same author.Usually 30 % of new material is requested. Explain the differencein the introduction.New material may be expansions of key ideas, examples, elaborations, etc.

A reference to the earlier paper must be given.

Conference paper

Conference paper

Conference paper

Journal paper

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Typical mistakes of a doctoral student

Research problem is not defined properly and the work is too wide. The hypothesis is not concrete enough. The student does not discuss with people with different backgrounds to find new ideas.

Existing literature is either not studied or all time is used for studying literature. The student either does not present intermediate results at all or concentrates on writing comprehensive technical reports.

The student does not concentrate on own original results. The start of writing papers is postponed to wait for better times. The student is all the time publishing at low-level conferenceswhere the requirements are modest and thus the possible problems are not noticed.

Reporting is ambiguous and the reproducibility is not guaranteed.

07/12/2011 44What do you mean by IP? [http://www.acronymfinder.com]

Internet Provider--International Paper--Internet Protocol--In Particular--Information Protection--Information Processing--Industrial Property--International Protection--Infrastructure Protection--Intellectual Property--Image Processing--Input--InProgress--In Person--Interested Party--Installation Procedure--Improved Performance Information Policy--In Position--Innings PitchedIndustrial Park--Industrial Policy--Implementation Plan--Industrial Production--In Perspective iPod IncomeProtection Industrial Protocol--Institute of Physics--Information Paper--Instrument Panel--Ipswich--In-Patient--IntegerProgramming--Ingress Protection--Information Provider--Interpersonal--Industry Practice--Innocence Project--InternalProtocol--Investment Program--Instruction Pointer--Information Professional--International Partner--Induced Polarization--Infection Prevention--Independence Party--Initial Production--Interface Program--Immunoprecipitation--InvestmentPortfolio--Implementation Procedure--Intraperitoneal--Investment Promotion—International President--IndividualProvider--Iraqi Police--Identity-Preserved--Indiana Pacers--initial position--Issue Paper--Institute of Petroleum--IndustryPromotion--Instructor Pilot--Initial Point--Iberian Peninsula--Integrated Process--Integration Plan--Interrupt Process--Integrated Program(s)--Improvement Plans--Injured Person--Interphalangeal--Inspection Procedures--Installation Plan--Information Publication--Intersection Point--Integrated Programme--Intelligent Peripheral--Intermediate Point--Intercessory Prayer--Intermediate Pressure--Interstitial Pneumonia--Ionization Potential--Incontinentia Pigmenti--Individual Protection--Incentive Pay--Ischemic Preconditioning--Implementing Partner--Index Pointer--IntegratedPackaging--Industry Pack--Institutional Plan--Intensive Production--Inspection Plan--Injector Pump--InternetworkingProtocol--Indicator Panel--Intestinal Permeability--Idler Pulley--Individual Psychology--Intelligence Processing--Incineration Plant--Individual Permit--Intoxicated Person--Ice Pellets--Iron Project--Internal Pilot--Insured Property--Illinois Power Company--Issue Point--Isotope Production--Imagery Processing--Infection Preventionist--IndianPharmacopoeia--Intelligence Problem--Implementation of Plan--Inward Processing--Interproject Interpositive--InterimProcedure--Internal Publication--Intermodulation Product--Instruction Pamphlet--International Pharmacopoeia--Informational Program--International Provisioning--Isolated Personnel--Instrument Procedure--Itinerário Principal--Intelligent Pig--Interactive Processor--Interrupt Priority Register--Initial Pressing--Indian Posse prison gang--Indexed Price--Isolated Platform--Indigenous Personnel--Intelligence Plot--Inter Positive--Intermediate Processor--Irresistible Poison--Information Plaque--Instruction Plate--Identification of Position--Infantry Portal--Inhalable Particle--Immersible Pump--Irish Pennant--Iniciació a la Programació--Intelligence Peripheral--Immediate Past Office--ISDN Access Port--ImageryAnalysis Paper--Inspector of Penitentiary--Instituti I Pyjeve (156 meanings)

Everybody knows that I mean

”instruction pointer”!

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Summary of my talkuse bibliographies to improve your efficiency in literature reviews (start from books and reviews, see the introduction of original papers)

learn the terminology, write a classification (taxonomy) for the state of the art, and see historical trends

define a problem and hypotheses (use bottom-up empirical-inductive approach, make experiments early in your project)

start to outline the paper right from the beginning (there will never be “more time”), emphasize good organization, use top-down deductive approach in documents

reserve time for all phases in your project plan

Intial data collection

(literature review)

Tentative solution(hypothesis, goal)

Verification(analysis, etc.)

Publication(new knowledge)

System model(prototype)

Problem

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Final Word: Focus“General Groves -- asks Oppenheimer [the leader of the Manhattan project that developed the atomic bomb] -- what it will take to get the Gadget [atomic bomb] built. “Focus,” Oppie answers, naming a critical element at every Great Group.” [W. Bennis and P. W. Biederman, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative Collaboration. Addison Wesley, 1998.]

Source of the figure: Associated Press (http://www.infoplease.com/spot/mm-beamon.html)

field: kenttä, long jump: pituushyppy, standing long jump: vauhditon pituushyppy, running long jump: vauhdillinenpituushyppy, running race: juoksukilpailu, run up: ottaa vauhtia, run-up, approach: vauhdinotto, take off: ponnistus,ponnistaa, take-off board: ponnistuslankku, landing: alastulo

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Reference

I. G. Barbour, Myths, Models, and Paradigms. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1974.

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VTT creates business from technology