How to write a scientific paper B. Einollahi Professor of Nephrology Baqiyatallah University of...

How to write a How to write a scientific paperscientific paper

B. EinollahiB. Einollahi

Professor of NephrologyProfessor of Nephrology

Baqiyatallah University of Medical SciencesBaqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences

Writing a Scientific Writing a Scientific ManuscriptManuscript

Sit back and relaxSit back and relax

Enjoy the presentationEnjoy the presentation

Twelve Steps to Developing an Effective Twelve Steps to Developing an Effective First Draft of your ManuscriptFirst Draft of your Manuscript

1. Consolidate all the information. 1. Consolidate all the information.

Ensure you have everything you Ensure you have everything you

need to write efficiently, i.e., all need to write efficiently, i.e., all data, references, drafts of tables data, references, drafts of tables

and figures, etc.and figures, etc.


2. Target a journal. 2. Target a journal. Determine the journal to which you plan to Determine the journal to which you plan to

submit your manuscript and write your submit your manuscript and write your manuscript according to the focus of the manuscript according to the focus of the targeted journal. targeted journal.

The focus may be clearly stated within the The focus may be clearly stated within the journal or may be determined by examining journal or may be determined by examining several recent issues of the targeted journal.several recent issues of the targeted journal.


3. 3. Start writing. Start writing. When writing the first draft, the goal is to put When writing the first draft, the goal is to put

something down on paper, so it does not matter if something down on paper, so it does not matter if sentences are incomplete and the grammar incorrect, sentences are incomplete and the grammar incorrect, provided that the main points and ideas have been provided that the main points and ideas have been captured. captured.

Write when your energy is high, not when you are Write when your energy is high, not when you are tired. tired.

Try to find a time and place where you can think and Try to find a time and place where you can think and write without distractions.write without distractions.


4. Write quickly.4. Write quickly. Don't worry about words, spelling or Don't worry about words, spelling or

punctuation at all at this stage, punctuation at all at this stage, just ideasjust ideas.. Keep going. Keep going. Leave gaps if necessary. Leave gaps if necessary. Try to write quickly, to keep the flow going. Try to write quickly, to keep the flow going. Use abbreviations and leave space for words Use abbreviations and leave space for words

that do not come to mind immediately.that do not come to mind immediately.


5. Write in your own voice. 5. Write in your own voice. Expressing yourself in your own way Expressing yourself in your own way

will help you to say what you mean will help you to say what you mean more precisely.more precisely.

It will be easier for your reader if they It will be easier for your reader if they can “hear” your voice.can “hear” your voice.


6. Write without editing.6. Write without editing. Don't try to get it right the first time. Don't try to get it right the first time.

Resist the temptation to edit as you go. Resist the temptation to edit as you go. Otherwise, you will tend to get stuck and Otherwise, you will tend to get stuck and

waste time. waste time. If you try to write and edit at the same If you try to write and edit at the same

time, you will do neither well.time, you will do neither well.


7. Keep to the plan of your outline.7. Keep to the plan of your outline. Use the headings from your outline to Use the headings from your outline to

focus what you want to say. focus what you want to say. If you find yourself wandering from If you find yourself wandering from

the point, stop and move on to the the point, stop and move on to the next topic in the outline.next topic in the outline.


8. Write the paper in parts.8. Write the paper in parts. Don't attempt to write the whole Don't attempt to write the whole

manuscript at once, instead, treat each manuscript at once, instead, treat each section as a mini essay.section as a mini essay.

Look at your notes, think about the Look at your notes, think about the goal of that particular section and goal of that particular section and what you want to accomplish and say.what you want to accomplish and say.


9. Put the first draft aside.9. Put the first draft aside. Put aside your first draft for at least one day. Put aside your first draft for at least one day. The idea of waiting a day or more is to allow The idea of waiting a day or more is to allow

you to "be" another person. you to "be" another person. It is difficult to proofread and edit your own It is difficult to proofread and edit your own

work; a day or more between creation and work; a day or more between creation and critique helps.critique helps.


10. Revise it.10. Revise it. Revise it and be prepared to do this several Revise it and be prepared to do this several

times until you feel it is not possible to times until you feel it is not possible to improve it further. improve it further.

The objective is to look at your work not as The objective is to look at your work not as its author, but as a respectful but stern critic. its author, but as a respectful but stern critic.

Does each sentence make sense?Does each sentence make sense?


10. Revise it…10. Revise it… In your longer sentences, can you In your longer sentences, can you

keep track of the subject at hand? keep track of the subject at hand? Do your longer paragraphs follow a Do your longer paragraphs follow a

single idea, or can they be broken into single idea, or can they be broken into smaller paragraphs? smaller paragraphs?


11. Revise for clarity and brevity.11. Revise for clarity and brevity. Revise sentences and paragraphs with special Revise sentences and paragraphs with special

attention to clearness. attention to clearness. For maximum readability, most sentences For maximum readability, most sentences

should be about 15-20 words. should be about 15-20 words. For a scientific article, paragraphs of about 150 For a scientific article, paragraphs of about 150

words in length are considered optimal. Avoid words in length are considered optimal. Avoid using unnecessary words.using unnecessary words.


12. Be consistent.12. Be consistent. Often a Ms has more than one author and Often a Ms has more than one author and

therefore the writing may be shared. However, therefore the writing may be shared. However, the style needs to be consistent throughout. the style needs to be consistent throughout.

The first author must go through the entire Ms The first author must go through the entire Ms and make any necessary editorial changes and make any necessary editorial changes before submitting the Ms to the journal.before submitting the Ms to the journal.

Am J TransplantAm J Transplant

Eight Steps to Developing an Eight Steps to Developing an Effective OutlineEffective Outline

Preparing an outline is the most important step in Preparing an outline is the most important step in the process of producing a manuscript for the process of producing a manuscript for publication in a journal. publication in a journal.

The outline bears roughly the same relation to the The outline bears roughly the same relation to the final manuscript as an architectural blueprint does final manuscript as an architectural blueprint does to a finished house.to a finished house.

Its purpose of an outline is to divide the writing of Its purpose of an outline is to divide the writing of the entire paper into a number of smaller tasks.the entire paper into a number of smaller tasks.


A good outline will organize the various topics A good outline will organize the various topics and arguments in logical form.and arguments in logical form.

There is no single best way to prepare a There is no single best way to prepare a scientific manuscript, except as determined by scientific manuscript, except as determined by the individual writer and the circumstances. the individual writer and the circumstances.

You should know your own style of writing best.You should know your own style of writing best. Whatever you decide to do, you should follow at Whatever you decide to do, you should follow at

least these steps before beginning to write your least these steps before beginning to write your manuscript.manuscript.


Remember, at this stage, you are Remember, at this stage, you are only constructing an outline. only constructing an outline.

You are not writing; you just need You are not writing; you just need to put down some notes to guide to put down some notes to guide your thinking.your thinking.


1. Develop a central message of the Ms1. Develop a central message of the Ms Prepare a central message sentence (20-25 Prepare a central message sentence (20-25

words). words). If you were asked to summarize your paper If you were asked to summarize your paper

in one sentence, what would you say? in one sentence, what would you say? Everything in the Ms will be written to Everything in the Ms will be written to

support this central message.support this central message.


2. 2. Define the materials and methodsDefine the materials and methods Briefly state the Briefly state the populationpopulation in which in which

you worked, the you worked, the sampling methodsampling method you you employed, the materials you used, and employed, the materials you used, and most importantly, the most importantly, the methodsmethods you you used to carry out the study. used to carry out the study.


3. Summarize the question(s) and problem(s)3. Summarize the question(s) and problem(s) What was known before you started the What was known before you started the

study? study? What answers were needed to address the What answers were needed to address the

problem(s)? problem(s)? List the key points pertaining to the List the key points pertaining to the

question(s) and problem(s). question(s) and problem(s). What did you do to answer the question(s)?What did you do to answer the question(s)?


4. Define the principal findings and results4. Define the principal findings and results Your central message sentence probably Your central message sentence probably

encapsulates the most important findings.encapsulates the most important findings. There may be others that you feel ought to There may be others that you feel ought to

be included. List these in note form. be included. List these in note form. Don't worry about the order or about how Don't worry about the order or about how

many you put down.many you put down.


5. Describe the conclusions and implications5. Describe the conclusions and implications Make brief notes on each of the implications that Make brief notes on each of the implications that

arise from your study. arise from your study. What are the principal conclusions of your findings? What are the principal conclusions of your findings? What is new in your work and why does it matter? What is new in your work and why does it matter? What are the limitations and the implications of your What are the limitations and the implications of your

results?results? Are there any changes in practice, approaches or Are there any changes in practice, approaches or

techniques that you would recommend?techniques that you would recommend?


6. Organize and group related ideas together6. Organize and group related ideas together List each key point separately. List each key point separately. Key points can be arranged chronologically, by order of Key points can be arranged chronologically, by order of

importance or by some other pattern. importance or by some other pattern. The organizing scheme should be clear and well structured.The organizing scheme should be clear and well structured. You can use a cluster map, an issue tree, numbering, or You can use a cluster map, an issue tree, numbering, or

some other organizational structure.some other organizational structure. Identify the important details, describe the principal Identify the important details, describe the principal

findings, and provide your analysis and conclusions that findings, and provide your analysis and conclusions that contribute to each key point.contribute to each key point.


7. Identify the references 7. Identify the references that pertain to each key that pertain to each key

pointpoint


8. Develop the introduction8. Develop the introduction Before beginning on the introduction, read through the Before beginning on the introduction, read through the

notes you have made so far in your outline. notes you have made so far in your outline. Read them through and see whether there is a coherent Read them through and see whether there is a coherent

and cohesive story and a unifying theme that runs through and cohesive story and a unifying theme that runs through the outline.the outline.

Your introduction outline should start with the main Your introduction outline should start with the main message, describe what the purpose or objective of your message, describe what the purpose or objective of your study was, how you went about doing the study, what you study was, how you went about doing the study, what you found and what are the implications of what you found.found and what are the implications of what you found.

Before Sending To The Journal

Have the paper read by several people. Listen to what they say, especially if same criticism comes up severaltimes. Check and recheck spelling, figures, references, legends etc. Reviewers can be really annoyed by carelessediting and mistakes reflect badly on your science.

Make sure you have followed all the requirements of the journal about electronic submission etc. Some have a specific Checklist and Front Page format (key words; contact Information; e-mail address etc)

Writing ToolsWriting ToolsWriting ToolsWriting Tools

• Plagirism Checker tools• EndNote software knowledge

What is plagiarism?What is plagiarism?

(And why you should care!)(And why you should care!)

Definition:Definition:

Plagiarism is the act of Plagiarism is the act of presenting the words, ideas, presenting the words, ideas, images, sounds, or the images, sounds, or the creative expression of others creative expression of others as your own.as your own.

Do I have to cite everything?

No need to document when:No need to document when:

You are discussing your own experiences, You are discussing your own experiences, observations, or reactionsobservations, or reactions

Compiling the results of original research, Compiling the results of original research, from science experiments, etc.from science experiments, etc.

You are using You are using common knowledgecommon knowledge

What’s the big deal?What’s the big deal?

If I change a

few words, I’m

okay, right?

Wrong! Paraphrasing original ideas without documentingyour source, is plagiarism too!

Anatomy of a research Anatomy of a research manuscriptmanuscript

What’s known?

What’s unknown?Introduction

Methods How do we show it?

What are we showing now?Results

DiscussionWhat did we show?

What’s known?

Some people recommend that you begin with the Some people recommend that you begin with the Introduction and continue in order through each Introduction and continue in order through each section of the paper to help ensure flow.section of the paper to help ensure flow.

Others suggest that you begin with the easiest Others suggest that you begin with the easiest sections, which are usually the Methods and Results, sections, which are usually the Methods and Results, followed by the Discussion, Conclusion, followed by the Discussion, Conclusion, Introduction, References and Title, leaving the Introduction, References and Title, leaving the Abstract until the end.Abstract until the end.

Beginning to Write:Beginning to Write: Start by choosing the tables and figuresStart by choosing the tables and figures write the methodswrite the methods write the resultswrite the results write the Conclusionswrite the Conclusions

- This forces you to think about what you want to say.- This forces you to think about what you want to say. writing the limitations of your workwriting the limitations of your work write the first paragraph of Discussion (Major findings)write the first paragraph of Discussion (Major findings) write the other part of Discussionwrite the other part of Discussion write the Introduction section write the Introduction section write the Abstract sectionwrite the Abstract section Chose the final TitleChose the final Title

TensesText can be written in either the past or present tense, and the preference is to some extent personal. Past tense is OK for describing results of an experiment but use present tense for a general conclusion.“We observed that the expression of Bmp4 WAS increased. This

suggests that the gene IS regulated by Shh.”

Present tense is more immediate and indicates that a process is ongoing.

Whatever tense is used, be consistent &

don’t switch back and forth in the same paragraph !!!

At all costs, avoid the passive voice.

“Oocytes are signaled by MSP such that a cell cycle transition (M-phase entry) occurs” (not good)

versus “ MSP signaling induces oocytes to enter M-phase of

the cell cycle”. (good)

“The genes were seen to be expressed…. (not good)

versus“The genes were expressed….” (good)

Types of Medical WritingTypes of Medical Writing

Editorial Editorial Original ArticleOriginal Article Review ArticlesReview Articles Short PapersShort Papers Case ReportsCase Reports Letter to EditorLetter to Editor Personal ViewsPersonal Views Special CommunicationSpecial Communication

Manuscript Structure Manuscript Structure

Cover letterCover letter Title and Title pageTitle and Title page AbstractAbstract IntroductionIntroduction MethodsMethods ResultsResults Discussion and ConclusionsDiscussion and Conclusions AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements ReferencesReferences Figures and TablesFigures and Tables

Include a cover letter outlining the originality and important findings of the paper and why it will be of interest to the typical audience of the journal you have selected.

Sometimes it is helpful to suggest possible referees,especially if the topic is unusual.

It can save time to send a “presubmission enquiry” to the editor. This should outline in the most persuasive way the importance of your paper. Then the editor can reply with either encouragement to send the complete paper for review or a polite suggestion that you send it to another journal.

Title PageTitle Page1. Title of the article1. Title of the article

2. Author/s name (with the academic degree/s)& 2. Author/s name (with the academic degree/s)& affiliationaffiliation

3.3. Short running head of no more than 40 charactersShort running head of no more than 40 characters

4. Corresponding author/s with the address for reprints4. Corresponding author/s with the address for reprints

5. Source of support or grants5. Source of support or grants

6. Word count6. Word count

Conflict of Interest Notification Page Conflict of Interest Notification Page a separate page a separate page

TitleTitle

It should not be underlined or It should not be underlined or italicized.italicized.

It should be short and yet It should be short and yet sufficiently descriptive.sufficiently descriptive.

TitleTitle If the title does not indicate the contents come If the title does not indicate the contents come

within the reader's range of interests when they do, within the reader's range of interests when they do, the reader may miss a useful paper. the reader may miss a useful paper.

If the title suggests that the contents do come within If the title suggests that the contents do come within his range of interests but they do not, the reader will his range of interests but they do not, the reader will be annoyed. be annoyed.

So, information must be packed carefully into the So, information must be packed carefully into the title.title.

TitleTitle

Abbreviation should never be used.Abbreviation should never be used. Do not write paradoxical or obscure title. Do not write paradoxical or obscure title.

+This is dangerous as it indicates that +This is dangerous as it indicates that your your study has not resolved anything; it is thus a study has not resolved anything; it is thus a waste of time to read the paper.waste of time to read the paper.

Do not write a long title. Do not write a long title.

+A title should not exceed 20 words. Long +A title should not exceed 20 words. Long title is at risk title is at risk of distraction.of distraction.

TitleTitle

Try to make a "new" thing. Try to make a "new" thing.

+ This can attract readers' attention.+ This can attract readers' attention.

Do not make a statement in title.Do not make a statement in title.

TitleTitleTitleTitle Max info in least words <12-20 words <100 characters The title is a label Should almost never contain abbreviations Question: easier to understand, more impact State results

What is an AbstractWhat is an Abstract

An abstract is a very concise statement An abstract is a very concise statement of the major elements of your research of the major elements of your research project. project.

It states the purpose, methods, and It states the purpose, methods, and findings of your research project.findings of your research project.

An abstract is a condensed version of a An abstract is a condensed version of a full scientific paper.full scientific paper.

Abstract: What is the Purpose?Abstract: What is the Purpose?

Scientific abstractsScientific abstracts– introduce journal articlesintroduce journal articles

– inform readers about article’s contentinform readers about article’s content

– help readers decide whether or not to help readers decide whether or not to read articleread article

Four C's of Abstract WritingFour C's of Abstract Writing

Complete — it covers the major parts of the Complete — it covers the major parts of the project/case. project/case.

Concise — it contains no excess wordiness Concise — it contains no excess wordiness or unnecessary information. or unnecessary information.

Clear — it is readable, well organized, and Clear — it is readable, well organized, and not too jargon-laden. not too jargon-laden.

Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the Cohesive — it flows smoothly between the parts. parts.

AbstractAbstract

There are two kinds of abstracts:There are two kinds of abstracts:

Unstructured Unstructured

StructuredStructured

AbstractAbstract

Summary of Manuscript (200-300 Words)Summary of Manuscript (200-300 Words)

Problem investigatedProblem investigatedPurpose of ResearchPurpose of ResearchMethodsMethodsResults Results ConclusionConclusion

AbstractAbstract

BackgroundBackground AimsAims MethodsMethods Outcome MeasurementsOutcome Measurements ResultsResults ConclusionsConclusions KeywordsKeywords

Writing the Parts of AbstractWriting the Parts of Abstract

1.1. Write 1-2 Write 1-2 introductionintroduction sentences that explain topic, sentences that explain topic, purposepurpose, , and research question(s). and research question(s).

2.2. Write 1-2 sentences describing your research Write 1-2 sentences describing your research methodsmethods (this may (this may also include the type of data analysis you used).also include the type of data analysis you used).

3.3. Write 1-2 sentences describing the results / findings. The Write 1-2 sentences describing the results / findings. The major major findings including key numerical results. Report those results findings including key numerical results. Report those results which which answer the questions you were asking; identify trends, answer the questions you were asking; identify trends, relative change or differences, etc.relative change or differences, etc.

4.4. Write 1-2 sentences containing your Write 1-2 sentences containing your interpretations, interpretations, conclusions conclusions and and recommendationsrecommendations..

5.5. Select 3-6 Select 3-6 keywordskeywords relevant to the manuscript. relevant to the manuscript.

Revising the AbstractRevising the Abstract

Read your abstract all the way through: Read your abstract all the way through: – add transition words to tie ideas together,add transition words to tie ideas together,

– eliminate unnecessary content and add in eliminate unnecessary content and add in things that are missing, things that are missing,

– correct errors in mechanics, and correct errors in mechanics, and

– proofread.proofread.

AbstractAbstract

Common MistakesCommon Mistakes

– Too much background or methods Too much background or methods informationinformation

– Figures or imagesFigures or images

– References to other literature, figures References to other literature, figures or imagesor images

– Abbreviations or acronymsAbbreviations or acronyms

Why Abstracts Not AcceptedWhy Abstracts Not Accepted

Most common deficiencies:Most common deficiencies: Poor presentationPoor presentation Weak discussionWeak discussion Lack of originalityLack of originality Poor methodsPoor methods Inappropriate statistical analysisInappropriate statistical analysis Inadequate resultsInadequate results


What’s known?





What’s known?

INTRODUCTION GUIDELINE ONEINTRODUCTION GUIDELINE ONEDescribe the nature and scope of the Describe the nature and scope of the

problemproblem

What was the problem that you What was the problem that you investigated?investigated?

The amount of detail presented The amount of detail presented should be sufficient to allow the should be sufficient to allow the reader to understand the problem.reader to understand the problem.

Introduction

The first paragraph is crucial for catching the attention ofthe audience and for conveying to them the importance of the questions that you have addressed in the paper.

If you don’t’ catch the attention of the audience in the first few sentences the chances are high that they won’tcontinue reading.

So, make the first sentence both snappy and profound.

The Introduction should not contain an The Introduction should not contain an exhaustive historical review.exhaustive historical review.

Assume that the reader has Assume that the reader has knowledge in the field for which you knowledge in the field for which you are writing, and it does not require a are writing, and it does not require a complete digest. Do not forget that complete digest. Do not forget that citing appropriate and specific credit citing appropriate and specific credit to relevant earlier works is part of to relevant earlier works is part of your scholarly responsibility.your scholarly responsibility.

INTRODUCTION GUIDELINE TWOINTRODUCTION GUIDELINE TWOExplain why the work was importantExplain why the work was important

Why was it important or necessary to Why was it important or necessary to do this work?do this work?

What problems does it solve? What problems does it solve? What questions does it answer? What questions does it answer? What processes does it improve? What processes does it improve? What conclusions does it contradict? What conclusions does it contradict? What conclusions does it support?What conclusions does it support?

INTRODUCTION GUIDELINE INTRODUCTION GUIDELINE THREETHREE

Review the relevant literatureReview the relevant literature Summarizing the relevant research permits the Summarizing the relevant research permits the

reader to understand the context of your work reader to understand the context of your work together with any specialized terminology or together with any specialized terminology or methodology.methodology.

Reviewing the literature also helps to establish a Reviewing the literature also helps to establish a rationale for your work by relating it to existing rationale for your work by relating it to existing unsolved problems, difficulties and questions. unsolved problems, difficulties and questions. Thus a review of the literature helps satisfy both Thus a review of the literature helps satisfy both guidelines one and two.guidelines one and two.

INTRODUCTION GUIDELINE FOURINTRODUCTION GUIDELINE FOURBriefly describe the experimental methods you employed Briefly describe the experimental methods you employed

and, if necessary, justify your choice of methodsand, if necessary, justify your choice of methods

This guideline expands upon the mention of This guideline expands upon the mention of methods that was made in your abstract. It is methods that was made in your abstract. It is not necessary to provide a step-by-step not necessary to provide a step-by-step description of your methods in the introduction description of your methods in the introduction as more detail will be provided in the methods as more detail will be provided in the methods section that follows. Nonetheless, your section that follows. Nonetheless, your introduction should describe at least the introduction should describe at least the type of type of methods you employed while doing your work.methods you employed while doing your work.

The last paragraph of the Introduction should be a short summary of what you set out to do and what you have achieved.

e,g “In this paper, we have studied the …… by using a novel technique in which ……. This approach has allowed us to directly compare A and B, and to distinguish between alternative possibilities for their functions.

What are Some Common Pitfalls of an What are Some Common Pitfalls of an Introduction Section?Introduction Section?

Including Including unnecessary backgroundunnecessary background or being or being repetitive.repetitive.

Exaggerating (or understating)Exaggerating (or understating) the importance of the importance of your work.your work.

Using Using lacklusterlackluster openers and openers and weakweak follow- follow-through in the bodythrough in the body of your introduction.of your introduction.

Not grounding the work in a Not grounding the work in a contextcontext that will be that will be important toimportant to your reader.your reader.

Not Not focusingfocusing on a clear andon a clear and compelling research compelling research question or hypothesis.question or hypothesis.

Copyright 2005, Journal of Young Copyright 2005, Journal of Young Investigators, Inc.Investigators, Inc.

IntroductionIntroductionCommon MistakesCommon Mistakes

–Too much or not enough Too much or not enough informationinformation

–Unclear purposeUnclear purpose

–Lists Lists

–Confusing structureConfusing structure

–PlagiarismPlagiarism

The Introduction should not be longThe Introduction should not be long

Try to limit it within two Try to limit it within two double-spaced pages. double-spaced pages.

Overall 300-500 wordsOverall 300-500 words

Write the Introduction in past tense Write the Introduction in past tense when referring to your experimentwhen referring to your experiment

but when relating the but when relating the background information, you background information, you can use both past and present can use both past and present tenses when referring to tenses when referring to another investigator's another investigator's published work.published work.


What’s known?





What’s known?

When appropriately written, the methods When appropriately written, the methods section can provide an extremely useful section can provide an extremely useful resource for the scientific community.resource for the scientific community.

The purpose of the section is to make it The purpose of the section is to make it possible for interested readers to possible for interested readers to repeat repeat the the author’s experiment and reproduce author’s experiment and reproduce his/her results. his/her results.

Methods SectionMethods SectionMethods SectionMethods Section

Methods SectionMethods SectionMethods SectionMethods Section In this section, you should answer the

question "What did you do?“Many readers and reviewers read the

Methods section first to see if they can

understand what the authors did. If there is not, readers can not judge whether

the results are of any value and there is no point

in reading it further.

Methods SectionMethods SectionMethods SectionMethods Section

Enough information for an experienced

investigator to repeat your work Avoid tiresome detail Cut-and-paste from previous work of the

author(s) It is the first section of the paper in which

subheadings should be used (the participants or

patients, the apparatus or materials and the procedure)

Methods Guideline OneMethods Guideline One

Say how you did the Say how you did the work and what you work and what you used to do it.used to do it.

Methods Guideline TwoMethods Guideline Two

Use the past tenseUse the past tense

Because the methods section is Because the methods section is describing things that you have describing things that you have already done, it is written in the already done, it is written in the past tense.past tense.

Methods Guideline ThreeMethods Guideline Three

Don’t describe your resultsDon’t describe your results

Remember that the methods section Remember that the methods section is intended to tell people is intended to tell people how you how you did your did your work. Avoid the temptation work. Avoid the temptation to intersperse this with a discussion to intersperse this with a discussion of your results or their significance.of your results or their significance.

Methods Guideline FourMethods Guideline Four

Show your method section to colleagues. Ask Show your method section to colleagues. Ask them if they could use it to reproduce your them if they could use it to reproduce your

resultsresults..

This simple guideline can often be a very This simple guideline can often be a very fast and effective way of identifying fast and effective way of identifying inadequacies in your writing. Things that inadequacies in your writing. Things that you might consider second nature may be you might consider second nature may be foreign to others.foreign to others.

Methods Guideline FiveMethods Guideline Five

Be precise when Be precise when describing quantitiesdescribing quantities

ParticipantsParticipants

WhatWhat Subjects /patients /animals /specimens were used? Subjects /patients /animals /specimens were used? Reason for Reason for selecting the experimental design of the selecting the experimental design of the

studystudy When particular demographic characteristics are When particular demographic characteristics are

experimental variables or are important for the experimental variables or are important for the interpretation of the results, describe the group interpretation of the results, describe the group specifically, for example, in terms of racial and ethnic specifically, for example, in terms of racial and ethnic designation, national origin, level of education, health designation, national origin, level of education, health status, or language use.status, or language use.

ParticipantsParticipantsShould be checked Should be checked

The number of patients The number of patients How they are grouped How they are grouped (cases (cases

/controls)/controls) Origins of samplesOrigins of samples Inclusion criteriaInclusion criteria Exclusion criteriaExclusion criteria

ParticipantsParticipants Whether informed consent was obtainedWhether informed consent was obtained Whether the experiment or trial had been Whether the experiment or trial had been

approved by an ethics committee and conforms approved by an ethics committee and conforms to the ethical standards of the Declaration of to the ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki. Helsinki.

Similar checks will be made if animals were Similar checks will be made if animals were used.used.

Failure to fullfill the ethical requirements = Failure to fullfill the ethical requirements = reject the paper, without asking any question.reject the paper, without asking any question.

SettingSettingWhere and when your Where and when your

study was conducted?study was conducted?Where and when the data Where and when the data

were collected?were collected?

ProceduresProcedures How did you proceed? How did you proceed?

Briefly explain the general type of Briefly explain the general type of scientific procedure you usedscientific procedure you used

Explain the steps you took in your specific Explain the steps you took in your specific experimental manipulations and experimental manipulations and InterventionsInterventions

Describe method of randomization, Describe method of randomization, counterbalancing, blinding techniques, and counterbalancing, blinding techniques, and other control features in the designother control features in the design

TechniquesTechniques Give enough details for readers to Give enough details for readers to

assess the validity of the results, and assess the validity of the results, and repeat the studyrepeat the study

If standard techniques is used, give If standard techniques is used, give appropriate reference, any modifications appropriate reference, any modifications should be clearly explainedshould be clearly explained

If drug trial- clear description of trialIf drug trial- clear description of trial

ProceduresProcedures

Why you chose the variables to measure and the Why you chose the variables to measure and the reliability of measurement. reliability of measurement.

Do not forget to mention the equipment that you Do not forget to mention the equipment that you used (manufacturer and model number, if unusual).used (manufacturer and model number, if unusual).

If there is a simple well-known procedure, it is If there is a simple well-known procedure, it is acceptable to name the technique. acceptable to name the technique.

If it is new or you did something different, you If it is new or you did something different, you should spend time describing the protocol used.should spend time describing the protocol used.

Measurements of EndpointsMeasurements of Endpoints

Clearly define Clearly define primary and secondary outcomes primary and secondary outcomes of of your study. your study.

The primary outcome The primary outcome is the pre-specified outcome of is the pre-specified outcome of greatest importance and is usually the one used in the greatest importance and is usually the one used in the sample size calculation. sample size calculation.

It is also the outcome, to which the result of your study is It is also the outcome, to which the result of your study is assessed upon. assessed upon.

Secondary outcomes Secondary outcomes include measures that were of include measures that were of interest, which may include unplanned or unintended interest, which may include unplanned or unintended effects of the treatment or intervention.effects of the treatment or intervention.

Sample SizeSample Size

You should provide a statement You should provide a statement about the sample size. about the sample size.

Clearly state how the sample Clearly state how the sample size was determined.size was determined.

RandomizationRandomization

If the study was a randomized If the study was a randomized clinical trial, you need to describe clinical trial, you need to describe the method of randomization, or the method of randomization, or details of any restriction (e.g., details of any restriction (e.g., simple, stratification, blocking) of simple, stratification, blocking) of randomization were use.randomization were use.

BlindingBlinding

If your study (a clinical If your study (a clinical trial) included this trial) included this procedure, then it should procedure, then it should be described in the be described in the paper.paper.

Data AnalysisData Analysis

It is vital to include a sub-section of It is vital to include a sub-section of Data Data Analysis or Statistical Methods. Analysis or Statistical Methods.

In this sub-section, you should tell the readers In this sub-section, you should tell the readers what are your endpoints (or what are your endpoints (or outcome variables), outcome variables), how did you analyze the data, whether data how did you analyze the data, whether data transformation was used and what was the transformation was used and what was the rationale for the transformation.rationale for the transformation.

The author must report the threshold used to The author must report the threshold used to determine statistical significance.determine statistical significance.

StatisticsStatistics

Consult a statistician before starting the study

The author should use the third person, The author should use the third person, passive construction throughout, and passive construction throughout, and always use the past tense. always use the past tense.

For example: “For example: “The sample was heated to The sample was heated to 90 degrees C for 30 seconds.90 degrees C for 30 seconds.” - ” - NOTNOT: “: “I I heat the sample to 90 degrees C for 30 heat the sample to 90 degrees C for 30 secondsseconds.”.”

When reading your M&M When reading your M&M section, ask yourself at each section, ask yourself at each place: “place: “Would I need to know Would I need to know this to reproduce this this to reproduce this experimentexperiment?” If the detail is ?” If the detail is notnot needed, needed, remove itremove it..

Common Mistakes in a Methods & Common Mistakes in a Methods & Materials SectionMaterials Section

1.1. Not Enough Information. Not Enough Information. Oddly, few people Oddly, few people include include too much information - too much information - nearly every nearly every author includes author includes too little.too little.

Background/Introduction Material Included. Background/Introduction Material Included. Sometimes an author will include background Sometimes an author will include background material or explanations of concepts in the material or explanations of concepts in the Methods & Materials section. That material Methods & Materials section. That material belongs in the Introduction. belongs in the Introduction. In this section, the In this section, the author should make no references to outside author should make no references to outside work, unless referencing a method or work, unless referencing a method or materialmaterial..

Common Mistakes in a Methods & Common Mistakes in a Methods & Materials SectionMaterials Section

3. 3. Verbose Descriptions. Verbose Descriptions. In the case of In the case of experimental setups, a diagram is experimental setups, a diagram is worth a thousand words.worth a thousand words.

4. 4. Results Reported. Results Reported. Sometimes, Sometimes, authors get so carried away authors get so carried away describing their experiments that they describing their experiments that they report results in this section.report results in this section.

Results SectionResults SectionResults SectionResults Section

the heart of the

publicationThis section must answer the

question "What did you find?"

The Results SectionThe Results Section

The purpose of a Results section is to present the The purpose of a Results section is to present the key results of the experiment key results of the experiment without without interpreting their meaning. interpreting their meaning.

The author should The author should not include the raw data, not include the raw data, but should summarize it with text and tablesbut should summarize it with text and tables. .

The The author should avoid writing out long lists of author should avoid writing out long lists of numbers - numbers and measurements should all numbers - numbers and measurements should all be tabulated.be tabulated.

ResultsResults Communication of facts, measurements, Communication of facts, measurements,

and observations, and observations, not interpretation of data not interpretation of data or speculation,or speculation, gathered by the author gathered by the author Start with the results that are easier to Start with the results that are easier to

interpret interpret Results should be set out in tables and Results should be set out in tables and

figuresfigures Do not duplicate illustrationsDo not duplicate illustrations

It is sometimes a good idea to It is sometimes a good idea to divide the divide the Results section into Results section into sub-sectionssub-sections which your which your have have

described in the described in the Methods section Methods section earlier. This helps keeping the earlier. This helps keeping the

manuscript manuscript coherent.coherent.

RESULTS GUIDELINE ONERESULTS GUIDELINE ONEPresent your findings clearlyPresent your findings clearly

The data should be presented in a clear, The data should be presented in a clear, readable form. Often this will involve the readable form. Often this will involve the use of one or more tables.use of one or more tables.

Depending upon the audience for your Depending upon the audience for your article, it may be more appropriate to article, it may be more appropriate to present only a present only a summary of your data in the summary of your data in the results section. results section. In this case, the full data set In this case, the full data set can be relegated to one or more appendices.can be relegated to one or more appendices.

RESULTS GUIDELINE TWORESULTS GUIDELINE TWOUse the past tenseUse the past tense

Because the results section Because the results section is describing findings that is describing findings that you have already made, it is you have already made, it is written in the past tense.written in the past tense.

RESULTS GUIDELINE THREERESULTS GUIDELINE THREEDon’t interpret your resultsDon’t interpret your results

Remember that the results Remember that the results section is intended to present section is intended to present your findings. Avoid the your findings. Avoid the temptation to intersperse this temptation to intersperse this with a discussion of their with a discussion of their significance.significance.

The Results section should be presented to The Results section should be presented to support what you state to do in the support what you state to do in the

Introduction.Introduction.

Be sure you have looked at Be sure you have looked at your data and that you are your data and that you are clear about what each result clear about what each result means ... if you're not clear means ... if you're not clear about it, you're reader can't about it, you're reader can't hope to be.hope to be.

Set out the important results in a series of Set out the important results in a series of tables and graphs that you want to include tables and graphs that you want to include

in the paper.in the paper. If a result is simple, recording it in the text is If a result is simple, recording it in the text is

sufficient. sufficient. However, for complex results, tables and figures However, for complex results, tables and figures

will be needed (will be needed (A lot of numbers, make Table)A lot of numbers, make Table)..Refer to data (Fig. X, Table Y)Refer to data (Fig. X, Table Y)

Don’t repeat numbers in TablesDon’t repeat numbers in Tables

Can state numbers from Figures if precision is Can state numbers from Figures if precision is

required required

Do not include unimportant or Do not include unimportant or disturbing informationdisturbing information

If it is important present it in a If it is important present it in a table or a figure; if it is not, no table or a figure; if it is not, no matter how much work went matter how much work went into getting that data ... throw into getting that data ... throw it out!it out!

Avoid a long list of results Avoid a long list of results with no interpretationwith no interpretation

Develop each idea within the Develop each idea within the text: describe the effect; text: describe the effect; how did the levels of the how did the levels of the

independent variable differ.independent variable differ.

Do not use qualitative words in the Do not use qualitative words in the Results sectionResults section

Do not write "Do not write "This difference was This difference was highly significant (p = 0.001)highly significant (p = 0.001)," but ," but simply state "simply state "This difference was This difference was significant (p = 0.001)significant (p = 0.001)."."

Do not interpret the data in the Do not interpret the data in the Results sectionResults section

Comments such as "Comments such as "the data the data suggest that ....suggest that ...." are not really " are not really meaningful, a sort of "meaningful, a sort of "putting putting words into the readers' mouthwords into the readers' mouth." ." Save these indirect interpretations Save these indirect interpretations for the for the Discussion section.Discussion section.

It is very unwise to make It is very unwise to make statements such as statements such as ""The ANOVA The ANOVA showed that.…showed that.…“ “ Statistical tests Statistical tests do not show anything; they just do not show anything; they just crunch numbers. crunch numbers.

It is up to you to use the right It is up to you to use the right test and consider its results.test and consider its results.

You should report You should report negative resultsnegative results

In either case, your results In either case, your results may be of importance to may be of importance to others even though they did others even though they did not support your hypothesis.not support your hypothesis.

Criteria for RevascularizationCriteria for Revascularization

When renal insufficiency is presentWhen renal insufficiency is present and the objective is and the objective is recovery of renal function together with prevention of recovery of renal function together with prevention of further renal function impairment, the prerequisites for further renal function impairment, the prerequisites for revascularization are as follows:revascularization are as follows:– The serum creatinine level is lower than 4 mg/dL. The serum creatinine level is lower than 4 mg/dL. – The serum creatinine level is higher than 4 mg/dL but with a The serum creatinine level is higher than 4 mg/dL but with a

possible recent renal artery thrombosis. possible recent renal artery thrombosis. – When these conditions are satisfied, revascularization can be When these conditions are satisfied, revascularization can be

done if the following apply: done if the following apply: The degree of stenosis is more than 80%. The degree of stenosis is more than 80%. The serum creatinine level is increased after administration of ACE The serum creatinine level is increased after administration of ACE

inhibitors. inhibitors. The degree of stenosis is 50-80%, and the scintigraphy findings are The degree of stenosis is 50-80%, and the scintigraphy findings are

positive.positive.

Writing the discussion and Writing the discussion and conclusionconclusion

Eight common components of a Eight common components of a discussion sectiondiscussion section

Elements to Include in the Elements to Include in the DiscussionDiscussion

State the Major Findings of the StudyState the Major Findings of the Study The discussion should begin with a The discussion should begin with a

statement of the major findings of the statement of the major findings of the study. This should be the very first study. This should be the very first paragraph in the discussion.paragraph in the discussion.


State the Major Findings of the StudyState the Major Findings of the Study It should be a direct, declarative, and It should be a direct, declarative, and

succinct proclamation of the study succinct proclamation of the study results. However, it should not results. However, it should not include data or reference to the study include data or reference to the study design.design.


State the Major Findings of the StudyState the Major Findings of the Study ““Our results confirm that these nasal and Our results confirm that these nasal and

full-face masks are similarly efficient over full-face masks are similarly efficient over 15 min of NPPV with COPD patients 15 min of NPPV with COPD patients recovering from acute hypercapnic recovering from acute hypercapnic respiratory failure.” respiratory failure.”

This clearly states the most important This clearly states the most important finding of that study.finding of that study.


State the Major Findings of the StudyState the Major Findings of the Study ““Our findings suggest that ambient light Our findings suggest that ambient light

has no statistically significant effect on has no statistically significant effect on SpO2 readings and that ambient light’s SpO2 readings and that ambient light’s effect on SpO2 is clinically unimportant.”effect on SpO2 is clinically unimportant.”

That is a good example of a direct, That is a good example of a direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of declarative, and succinct proclamation of

the study results.the study results.


Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why the Findings Are ImportantWhy the Findings Are Important

As the person who conceived, designed, As the person who conceived, designed, and conducted the study, the meaning of and conducted the study, the meaning of the results and their importance seem the results and their importance seem obvious to you. obvious to you.

However, they might not be so clear for However, they might not be so clear for the person reading your paper for the first the person reading your paper for the first time.time.


Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why the Findings Are Importantthe Findings Are Important

One of the purposes of the discussion is to One of the purposes of the discussion is to explain the meaning of the findings and why explain the meaning of the findings and why they are important.they are important.

After reading the discussion section, you want After reading the discussion section, you want the reader to think, “That makes perfect sense. the reader to think, “That makes perfect sense. Why hadn’t I thought of that?”Why hadn’t I thought of that?”


Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why the Findings Are ImportantWhy the Findings Are Important

Even if your study findings are provocative, Even if your study findings are provocative, you do not want to force the reader to go you do not want to force the reader to go through the paper multiple times to figure through the paper multiple times to figure out what it means; most readers will not go out what it means; most readers will not go to that effort and your findings will be to that effort and your findings will be overlooked, disregarded, and forgotten.overlooked, disregarded, and forgotten.


Relate the Findings to Those of Relate the Findings to Those of Similar StudiesSimilar Studies

The findings of other studies may The findings of other studies may support your findings, which support your findings, which strengthens the importance of strengthens the importance of your study results.your study results.


Relate the Findings to Those of Relate the Findings to Those of Similar StudiesSimilar Studies

It is also important to point out It is also important to point out how your study differs from how your study differs from other similar studies.other similar studies.


Consider Alternative Consider Alternative Explanations of the FindingsExplanations of the Findings

It is important to remember that It is important to remember that the purpose of research is to the purpose of research is to discover and not to prove.discover and not to prove.


Consider Alternative Explanations of Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findingsthe Findings

When writing the discussion section, When writing the discussion section, it is important to carefully consider it is important to carefully consider all possible explanations for the study all possible explanations for the study results, rather than just those that fit results, rather than just those that fit your biases.your biases.


State the Clinical Relevance of the State the Clinical Relevance of the FindingsFindings

The reason we conduct studies is The reason we conduct studies is usually to improve the care of our usually to improve the care of our patients. Thus it is important to cast patients. Thus it is important to cast the findings of your study in the the findings of your study in the context of clinical practice.context of clinical practice.


State the Clinical Relevance of the State the Clinical Relevance of the FindingsFindings

Experimental studies conducted in the Experimental studies conducted in the laboratory usually do not involve laboratory usually do not involve human subjects, but the results may human subjects, but the results may have clinical implications, which have clinical implications, which should be stated.should be stated.


Acknowledge the Study’s LimitationsAcknowledge the Study’s Limitations All studies have limitations. All studies have limitations. Unfortunately, the limitations of some Unfortunately, the limitations of some

studies are fatal flaws that preclude studies are fatal flaws that preclude publication.publication.

However, even the best studies in the However, even the best studies in the most prestigious journals have most prestigious journals have limitations.limitations.


Acknowledge the Study’s LimitationsAcknowledge the Study’s Limitations It is far better for you to identify and It is far better for you to identify and

acknowledge your study’s limitations acknowledge your study’s limitations than to have them pointed out by a than to have them pointed out by a peer-reviewer or a reader (in a letter peer-reviewer or a reader (in a letter to the editor after publication).to the editor after publication).


Make Suggestions for Further ResearchMake Suggestions for Further Research Although a study may answer important Although a study may answer important

questions, other questions related to the questions, other questions related to the subject may remain unanswered.subject may remain unanswered.

Moreover, some unanswered questions Moreover, some unanswered questions may become more focused because of may become more focused because of your study.your study.


Make Suggestions for Further ResearchMake Suggestions for Further Research You should make suggestions for You should make suggestions for

further study in the discussion section. further study in the discussion section. Laboratory experimental studies Laboratory experimental studies

typically lead to suggestions for follow-typically lead to suggestions for follow-up clinical studies with human subjects.up clinical studies with human subjects.


Give the “Take-Home Message” in the Give the “Take-Home Message” in the Form of a ConclusionForm of a Conclusion

What is the “take-home message”? What is the “take-home message”? What do you want the reader to What do you want the reader to

remember from your study? remember from your study? The take-home message should be the The take-home message should be the

first sentence of your conclusions section.first sentence of your conclusions section.


Give the “Take-Home Message” in the Give the “Take-Home Message” in the Form of a ConclusionForm of a Conclusion

In some journals the conclusions In some journals the conclusions section is a paragraph or subsection at section is a paragraph or subsection at the end of the discussion, whereas the end of the discussion, whereas other journals require a separate other journals require a separate conclusions section.conclusions section.


Give the “Take-Home Message” in Give the “Take-Home Message” in the Form of a Conclusionthe Form of a Conclusion

The conclusions section may also The conclusions section may also provide suggestions for practice provide suggestions for practice change, if appropriate.change, if appropriate.

Things to Avoid When Writing Things to Avoid When Writing the Discussionthe Discussion

Overinterpretation of the ResultsOverinterpretation of the Results It is easy to inflate the interpretation of the It is easy to inflate the interpretation of the

results. results. Be careful that your interpretation of the Be careful that your interpretation of the

results does not go beyond what is results does not go beyond what is supported by the data. supported by the data.

The data are the data: nothing more, The data are the data: nothing more, nothing less.nothing less.


Unwarranted SpeculationUnwarranted SpeculationThere is little room for speculation in There is little room for speculation in

the discussion.the discussion.The discussion should remain The discussion should remain

focused on the your data and the focused on the your data and the patients and/or devices in your study.patients and/or devices in your study.


Unwarranted SpeculationUnwarranted Speculation If the subjects in your study had asthma, it is If the subjects in your study had asthma, it is

usually not appropriate to speculate about usually not appropriate to speculate about how your findings might apply to other how your findings might apply to other patient populations.patient populations.

If you feel compelled to speculate, be certain If you feel compelled to speculate, be certain that you clearly identify your comments as that you clearly identify your comments as speculation: “We speculate that. . . . ”speculation: “We speculate that. . . . ”


Inflating the Importance of the FindingsInflating the Importance of the Findings After all of the hard work that goes into a After all of the hard work that goes into a

study, it is easy to attribute unwarranted study, it is easy to attribute unwarranted importance to study findings.importance to study findings.

We all want our study to make an We all want our study to make an important contribution that will be cited important contribution that will be cited for generations to come.for generations to come.


Inflating the Importance of the Inflating the Importance of the FindingsFindings

However, unwarranted inflation However, unwarranted inflation of the importance of the study of the importance of the study results will disgust reviewers and results will disgust reviewers and readers. readers.

Things to Avoid When Writing Things to Avoid When Writing the Discussionthe Discussion The “Bully Pulpit”The “Bully Pulpit”

Do not use the discussion section Do not use the discussion section to criticize other to criticize other studies.studies.

Although you should contrast your findings to other Although you should contrast your findings to other published studies, this should be done published studies, this should be done professionally. professionally.

Do not use the discussion Do not use the discussion to attack other to attack other investigators.investigators.

Moreover, Moreover, never preach never preach to the reader.to the reader.


Conclusions That Are Not Conclusions That Are Not Supported by the DataSupported by the Data

The hypothesis study data The hypothesis study data conclusions should be a tight package. conclusions should be a tight package.

Avoid the temptation to allow your biases Avoid the temptation to allow your biases to enter into the conclusions.to enter into the conclusions.

SummarySummary

The discussion section gives you an The discussion section gives you an opportunity to explain the meaning of opportunity to explain the meaning of your results. your results.

When writing the discussion, remember When writing the discussion, remember that the focus should be to help the reader that the focus should be to help the reader understand the study and that the highlight understand the study and that the highlight should be on the study data.should be on the study data.

AcknowledgementAcknowledgement

Those who do not justify to be Authors should be Those who do not justify to be Authors should be

AcknowledgedAcknowledged

Those who have provided technical help Those who have provided technical help

Financial and material supportFinancial and material support

Funding sources should be listed in this section. Funding sources should be listed in this section.

Acknowledgements (Silent partners)Acknowledgements (Silent partners)

““We wish to thank” - all those who deserve We wish to thank” - all those who deserve

recognition for their contribution but who have not recognition for their contribution but who have not

made a significant intellectual contribution and are made a significant intellectual contribution and are

therefore not included as authors (Colleagues, therefore not included as authors (Colleagues,

Institutions, Organizations providing financial Institutions, Organizations providing financial

help, laboratory and secretarial staff).help, laboratory and secretarial staff).

Conflict of interestConflict of interest

A financial interest that may affect, or appear to A financial interest that may affect, or appear to affect, the presentation or content of a affect, the presentation or content of a publication thus calling into question its publication thus calling into question its credibility or importance. Financial interests may credibility or importance. Financial interests may include, but are not limited to: include, but are not limited to:

1. Research Funds: Funds received for operations, 1. Research Funds: Funds received for operations, supplies, salaries, travel etc… from supplies, salaries, travel etc… from organizations that may gain or lose financially as organizations that may gain or lose financially as a result of the publication. a result of the publication.

Conflict of interestConflict of interest

2. Employment Funds: Funds received for employment 2. Employment Funds: Funds received for employment during the time that the research is conducted or during the time that the research is conducted or promise of future employment from organizations that promise of future employment from organizations that may gain or lose financially as a result of the may gain or lose financially as a result of the publication. publication.

3. Personal Financial Interests: Owning stocks or shares in 3. Personal Financial Interests: Owning stocks or shares in organizations that may gain or lose financially as a organizations that may gain or lose financially as a result of the publication. Having patents or patent result of the publication. Having patents or patent applications in progress whose value you may increase applications in progress whose value you may increase as a result of the publication. as a result of the publication.

ReferencesReferences

Please check them in PubMed.Please check them in PubMed.


The Vancouver StyleThe Vancouver Style

In the text, number references in order of appearance using In the text, number references in order of appearance using Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 2, 3) in parentheses for citations. Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 2, 3) in parentheses for citations. Include the names of up to six authors before resorting to Include the names of up to six authors before resorting to the use of "et al." Use only abbreviations approved for the use of "et al." Use only abbreviations approved for use in the latest edition of Index Medicus and conform to use in the latest edition of Index Medicus and conform to style and punctuation in the examples below. style and punctuation in the examples below.

Journal article: Journal article:

Matas AJ, Ramcharan T, Paraskevas S, Gillingham KJ, Dunn Matas AJ, Ramcharan T, Paraskevas S, Gillingham KJ, Dunn DL, Gruessner RWG et al. Rapid discontinuation of steroids DL, Gruessner RWG et al. Rapid discontinuation of steroids in living donor kidney transplantation: A pilot study. Am J in living donor kidney transplantation: A pilot study. Am J Transplant 2001; 1(3):278-283. Transplant 2001; 1(3):278-283.


Book chapter: Book chapter:

Cecka JM. The UNOS scientific renal transplant registry. In: Cecka JM. The UNOS scientific renal transplant registry. In: Cecka JM, Terasaki PI (eds). Clinical Transplants. Los Cecka JM, Terasaki PI (eds). Clinical Transplants. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Tissue Typing Laboratory, 2000: 1-Angeles, CA: UCLA Tissue Typing Laboratory, 2000: 1-18. 18.

Abstract: Abstract:

Halloran PF, Urmson J, Zhu L-F. High MHC class I Halloran PF, Urmson J, Zhu L-F. High MHC class I expression protects rejecting kidney al-lografts: decreased expression protects rejecting kidney al-lografts: decreased class I and increased necrosis in kidney grafts lacking TAP class I and increased necrosis in kidney grafts lacking TAP transporters [abstract]. Am J Transplant 2[S3], 2002, 240. transporters [abstract]. Am J Transplant 2[S3], 2002, 240.


3.3. DisertationDisertation

Kaplan SJ. Post-hospital home health care: the elderly's access and Kaplan SJ. Post-hospital home health care: the elderly's access and untilizaiion (dissertation]. St. Louis (MO): Washington Univ: untilizaiion (dissertation]. St. Louis (MO): Washington Univ:

19951995..

4. Unpublished material4. Unpublished materialLeshner AL. Molecular mechanisms of cocaine. N Engl J Med. Leshner AL. Molecular mechanisms of cocaine. N Engl J Med. In press 1996.In press 1996.

5. Electronic material5. Electronic material

Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious disease. Emerg Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious disease. Emerg Inftect Dis [serial online] 1995 Jan-Mar (cited 1996 Jun 5]; 1(1): Inftect Dis [serial online] 1995 Jan-Mar (cited 1996 Jun 5]; 1(1): [24 screens]. Available from URL: [24 screens]. Available from URL: http:/www.cdc.gov/ncdod/EID/eid.htmhttp:/www.cdc.gov/ncdod/EID/eid.htm

Sending Manuscript to the JournalSending Manuscript to the Journal

Covering letter signed by all co-authorsCovering letter signed by all co-authors

Has not been submitted else whereHas not been submitted else where

Approved by all authorsApproved by all authors

Do not fear to submit in high IF journalsDo not fear to submit in high IF journals

Some GuidelinesSome Guidelines

Choose an appropriate JournalsChoose an appropriate Journals

Go through the “uniform requirements for Biomedical Go through the “uniform requirements for Biomedical

publications”publications”

Write simple grammatically correct sentencesWrite simple grammatically correct sentences

Brevity is the best practice Brevity is the best practice

Avoid irrelevant detailsAvoid irrelevant details

Show the draft to colleaguesShow the draft to colleagues

Read final draft carefully Read final draft carefully

Typographical and grammatical mistakes give bad impressionTypographical and grammatical mistakes give bad impression

Check tables and figures (Captions, size, clarity)Check tables and figures (Captions, size, clarity)

Some Writing TipsSome Writing Tips

Active voice is preferable to passive voiceActive voice is preferable to passive voice ““We studied 15 patients with ARDS.” is much We studied 15 patients with ARDS.” is much

better than “Fifteen patients with ARDS were better than “Fifteen patients with ARDS were studied.”studied.”

Always use the full term before you refer to it by Always use the full term before you refer to it by acronym [for example, Orthotopic Liver acronym [for example, Orthotopic Liver Transplantation (OLT)] Transplantation (OLT)]

Write only one thought per sentenceWrite only one thought per sentence.. Eliminate unnecessary wordsEliminate unnecessary words Ensure that verb tenses are consistent and correctEnsure that verb tenses are consistent and correct

Prior to SubmissionPrior to Submission

Check Yourself did youCheck Yourself did you : : Follow the instructions!!!! Follow the instructions!!!! Include headings Include headings exactly as stated exactly as stated in the in the

instructions/template? instructions/template? Use short, clear sentences; one idea per sentence? Use short, clear sentences; one idea per sentence? Limit your abstract to the word count/character Limit your abstract to the word count/character

count requirement? count requirement? Edit, edit, edit Edit, edit, edit Check grammar, syntax and punctuation Check grammar, syntax and punctuation

Writing:Writing:Abbreviations and AcronymsAbbreviations and Acronyms

Writing:Writing:Abbreviations and AcronymsAbbreviations and Acronyms

• Liked by authors, hated by readers

• Reading should not require a

glossary• Unwieldy word occurring > 10 times

Writing: SentencesWriting: SentencesWriting: SentencesWriting: Sentences

• Only one idea in a sentence• Keep short: <20 words• Vary length• Long sentences: greater risk

of grammatical error

Some Practical Advice on Data Some Practical Advice on Data PresentationPresentation

Numbers beginning a sentence must be Numbers beginning a sentence must be fully spelled. For example, “Ninety-nine fully spelled. For example, “Ninety-nine patients were recruited.”patients were recruited.”

Put a space between numbers and units: Put a space between numbers and units: for example, “75 kg.” Exception: 75%.for example, “75 kg.” Exception: 75%.

Use a zero before decimal numbers that Use a zero before decimal numbers that are less than 1. For example, write “0.32,” are less than 1. For example, write “0.32,” not ”.32.” not ”.32.”


When you quote numbers, make sure you use the minimum When you quote numbers, make sure you use the minimum number of significant digits or decimal places. For example, number of significant digits or decimal places. For example, 23 ± 7 years is easier to read than 23.4 ± 6.6 years, and the 23 ± 7 years is easier to read than 23.4 ± 6.6 years, and the loss of accuracy is not important in most situations.loss of accuracy is not important in most situations.

Use the appropriate number of digits: two significant digits Use the appropriate number of digits: two significant digits for standard deviations (one digit if the standard deviation for standard deviations (one digit if the standard deviation is for a descriptive statistic like height or weight, or if is for a descriptive statistic like height or weight, or if precision is not important); two decimal places for precision is not important); two decimal places for correlations, two significant correlations, two significant digits for percentages. digits for percentages. Examples: 73 ± 5; r = 0.45; r = 0.08; 16%; Examples: 73 ± 5; r = 0.45; r = 0.08; 16%; 1.3%; 0.013%.1.3%; 0.013%.


If it is more convenient to show p values than If it is more convenient to show p values than confidence limits, show the exact p value to one confidence limits, show the exact p value to one significant digit (for p < 0.1) or two decimal significant digit (for p < 0.1) or two decimal places (for p > 0.10). places (for p > 0.10).

Do not use p < 0.05 or p > 0.05. Examples: p = Do not use p < 0.05 or p > 0.05. Examples: p = 0.03; p = 0.007; p = 0.09; p = 0.74. (The exact p 0.03; p = 0.007; p = 0.09; p = 0.74. (The exact p value is important for anyone using your data to value is important for anyone using your data to calculate confidence limits or using your data in calculate confidence limits or using your data in a meta-analysis.)a meta-analysis.)


Use the standard deviation as a measure of Use the standard deviation as a measure of spread. Do not use the standard error of the spread. Do not use the standard error of the mean.mean.

Avoid test statistics like t, F and χ2, but if the Avoid test statistics like t, F and χ2, but if the journal insists on them, show only two journal insists on them, show only two significant digits.significant digits.

Show 95% confidence intervals for effect Show 95% confidence intervals for effect statistics like a correlation coefficient or the statistics like a correlation coefficient or the difference between means.difference between means.


Do not use scanned images of graphs or Do not use scanned images of graphs or diagrams, because the lines and symbols diagrams, because the lines and symbols become too "pixelly." Draw the figures become too "pixelly." Draw the figures directly in a computer, using preferably directly in a computer, using preferably PowerPoint, Excel, or the drawing PowerPoint, Excel, or the drawing window of Microsoft Word.window of Microsoft Word.

Make sure the fonts and any symbols are Make sure the fonts and any symbols are big enough.big enough.


Use Use italics for emphasis and italics for emphasis and bold for strong emphasis.bold for strong emphasis. Use italics in expressions such as the term Use italics in expressions such as the term whatever, whatever,

and for listing descriptors of a and for listing descriptors of a scale. For example, scale. For example, items on the 5-point scale ranged from items on the 5-point scale ranged from not at all to not at all to always.always.

Do not use italics for foreign words and abbreviations Do not use italics for foreign words and abbreviations common in scientific English, common in scientific English, such as such as ad lib, ad lib, per se, et per se, et alal., via, ad hoc, post hoc, a priori, a posteriori.., via, ad hoc, post hoc, a priori, a posteriori.


An abbreviation or acronym (short name) An abbreviation or acronym (short name) is justified only if the full expression is is justified only if the full expression is excessively long or if the abbreviation is excessively long or if the abbreviation is well known to all researchers in the field.well known to all researchers in the field.

Even so, an easily understood short form Even so, an easily understood short form of the expression that avoids abbreviations of the expression that avoids abbreviations or acronyms is preferable.or acronyms is preferable.


If you must use an abbreviation, If you must use an abbreviation, define it in parentheses the first time define it in parentheses the first time you use it: for example, body mass you use it: for example, body mass index (BMI), maximum oxygen index (BMI), maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), the fatigue uptake (VO2max), the fatigue dimension of the Profile of Mood dimension of the Profile of Mood States (POMS-fatigue).States (POMS-fatigue).


Use the following well-known Latin Use the following well-known Latin abbreviations only within parentheses: abbreviations only within parentheses: that is that is ((i.e.), for example (e.g.), and so on (etc.). i.e.), for example (e.g.), and so on (etc.).

Do not use the abbreviations for namely Do not use the abbreviations for namely (viz.) or (viz.) or compare (cf.), which few people understand.compare (cf.), which few people understand.

Use Use vs (versus) and et al. (and others) inside or vs (versus) and et al. (and others) inside or outside parentheses without defining outside parentheses without defining them.them.


Use abbreviations without Use abbreviations without explanation for the following terms in explanation for the following terms in the Summary, but define them in the the Summary, but define them in the Methods: standard deviation (SD), Methods: standard deviation (SD), 95% confidence interval 95% confidence interval (95%CI), (95%CI), 95% confidence limits (95%CL).95% confidence limits (95%CL).


Use no periods or spaces in abbreviations Use no periods or spaces in abbreviations of countries: USA, UK, NZ.of countries: USA, UK, NZ.

Use a period only if the last letter of the Use a period only if the last letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the word, as in these examples: Prof., Dr, Mr, word, as in these examples: Prof., Dr, Mr, Ms, Vol. 1, p. 3, p. 23-25, 2nd ed., et al., Ms, Vol. 1, p. 3, p. 23-25, 2nd ed., et al., vs, etc., and so on.vs, etc., and so on.


Scientific names consisting of Scientific names consisting of genus and species, should be genus and species, should be underlined or italicized, with only underlined or italicized, with only the genus capitalized: the genus capitalized: Homo Homo sapiens or Ilex opaca.sapiens or Ilex opaca.


Use the following Systeme Internationale Use the following Systeme Internationale (SI) abbreviations for units of measurement, (SI) abbreviations for units of measurement, and never add an "s" to the following and never add an "s" to the following abbreviations.abbreviations.

meter, m; gram, g; kilogram kg; mole mol; meter, m; gram, g; kilogram kg; mole mol; liter L; mililiter ml; degree liter L; mililiter ml; degree ooC; millisecond C; millisecond ms; second s; hour h; minute min; day d; ms; second s; hour h; minute min; day d;

week wk; year y.week wk; year y.

Thank you Thank you all for your all for your

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How to write a scientific paper B. Einollahi Professor of Nephrology Baqiyatallah University of...

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