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8Prenatal Development And

BirthSocial and Personality Development in Early

ChildhoodThis multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

• any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

• Psychoanalytic Perspectives– Freud

• Anal Stage– Toilet training battles.

• Phallic Stage– Oedipus or Electra Complex

» Identification with the same sex parent» Healthy development requires both parents.

Theories of Social and Personality Development


• Psychoanalytic Perspectives– Erikson

• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt– Centered around toddler’s new mobility

• Initiative versus Guilt– Ushered in by new cognitive skills– Developing conscience dictates boundaries



• Social-Cognitive Perspectives– Social and emotional changes facilitated by

growth in cognitive abilities.

– Person Perception• Ability to classify others

– Make judgments about children similar to adults– Use traits to describe people or patterns of behavior– Preschooler perceptions may vary from day to day.



• Social-Cognitive Perspectives– Understanding Rule Categories

• Social conventions – Rules that serve to regulate behavior

• Moral rules– Regulations based on individual or society’s sense of right and

wrong

• Preschoolers respond differently to social rules and moral rules between 2 and 3.

• Understanding develops on the basis of increased cognitive capabilities and adult emphasis of moral transgressions.



• Social-Cognitive Perspectives– Understanding Others’ Intentions

• Recent research suggests that children do understand intentions to some degree.

– Understand that punishment is for intentional acts

– Can make judgments about actors’ intentions when faced with abstract problems and with punishment



• Attachment– Preschoolers who are securely attached exhibit fewer

behavior problems.

– Insecurely attached children display more anger and aggression at daycare and preschool.

– By age 4, children form goal-corrected partnerships.• The relationships continues to exist even when the partners

are apart.

Family Relationships and Structure


• Diana Baumrind• Focused on 4 dimensions

– Warmth or nurturance– Clarity and consistency of rules– Maturity of demands– Communications between child and parent

• Three parenting styles– Authoritarian– Permissive– Authoritative

Parenting Styles


• Authoritarian– High levels of demand and control– Low levels of warmth and communication.

– Consequences• Children do well in school• Have lower self-esteem• Typically less skilled with peers• Some appear subdued• Others show high aggressiveness• Traits last well into high school

Parenting Styles


• Permissive– High in warmth and communication– Low in demand and control

– Consequences• Do slightly worse in school during adolescence• Likely to be more aggressive• Somewhat more immature• Less likely to take responsibility• Less independent

Parenting Styles


• Authoritative– High in warmth and communication– High in demand and control

– Consequences• Most consistently positive outcomes• Children show higher self-esteem• More independent• More likely to comply with parental requests• Show more altruistic behaviors• Self-confident and achievement oriented• Get better grades in school

Parenting Styles

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006Figure 8.2


• Authoritative Parents– More likely to be involved in child’s school

– Inductive discipline• A strategy in which parents explain to the child why

a punished behavior is wrong

• Helps children in preschool to gain control of their behavior and gain perspective of other’s feelings

Parenting Styles



• Maccoby and Martin add the Uninvolved Type– Low in levels of demand and control– Low in levels of warmth and communication

– Consequences• Most consistently negative outcomes• Disturbances in social relationships• More impulsive and antisocial in adolescence• Less competent with peers• Much less achievement-oriented in school

Parenting Styles


• Authoritative pattern

• More common in white families

• Least common among Asian Americans

• More common among middle class

• Usually more common among intact families

• Positive outcomes seen in all ethnic groups

Ethnicity, Socio-Economic Status and Parenting Styles


• Authoritarian pattern

– Asian Americans • Associated with high levels of school achievement

in Asian American children

• Helps children to succeed economically

• Helps to enable children to maintain ethnic identity



• Authoritarian pattern

– African Americans

• Aware of social forces such as racism that impede social success

• Adopt authoritarian pattern to enhance children’s potential for success

• High correlation between authoritarian pattern and self-control among African American children

• More likely to be poor




• What kind of parenting style was used to raise you? What effects did it have on your development? What style will you use as a parent?

• What can single parents do to improve the developmental progress of their children?

Questions to Ponder


• Family Structure– Diversity in Two-Parent and Single-Parent Families

• Only 50% of children in the U.S. live with both biological parents

• 20% to 30% of two-parent families are created when a divorced or never-married single parent marries another person.

• Many children from two-parent families have experienced single-parenting.

• Since the 1990’s, a higher numbers of single mothers are middle class professionals.

• Teenage mothers are likely to live with parents.

Family Relationships and Structure



• Single parent families more common among African Americans and Native Americans.

– These groups exhibit a higher rate of births to single mothers than seen in other groups.

• 75% of births are to mothers over age 20.

– Single mothers are less likely to marry.

– A lack of economic opportunities for men hinders their taking on of family responsibilities.

– Grandparents and other relatives traditionally help support single mothers.

Family Structure and Ethnicity


• Psychological research– Supports the suggestion that the optimal family structure is two

biological parents

– Single parenting when poverty is an issue is correlated with negative effects on development

– Children of single parents • Twice as likely to drop out of high school

• Twice as likely to have a child by 20

• Less likely to have a steady job

• Preschoolers are less cognitively and socially advanced

Family Structure Effects


• Custodial Grandparents– Stresses of parenting and the physical effects of

aging cause more anxiety and depression in grandparents

• Gay and Lesbian Parenting– Concerns about children’s sex-role identity and

orientation are not supported by research.

– Their children do not differ from heterosexuals on measures of cognitive and social development.

Other Types of Family Structures



• Impacts of divorce on children– Typically exhibit declines in school performance

– Show more aggressive, defiant, or depressed behaviors

– More likely to engage in criminal behavior in adolescence

– Children in step-parent families have higher rates of delinquency, more behavior problems, and lower grades.

Divorce


• Impacts of divorce on children– Higher risk of mental problems in adulthood

– Lack financial and emotional support needed for success in college

– Struggle with fears of intimacy in relationships

– More likely to divorce themselves

– Effects are more severe for boys

Divorce


• Play– Solitary play

• All ages of children

– Parallel play• 14 – 18 months

– Cooperative play• 3 – 4 years old

Peer Relationships


• Play is associated with the development of social skills.

– Group entry• Poor group entry skills lead to aggressive behaviors.

• Children with poor group entry skills are often rejected by peers.

• Social skills training helps to gain acceptance for rejected peers.

Peer Relationships


• Initial aggression in 2 – 3-year-olds– Hitting and throwing things – Instrumental aggression – intended to obtain something a child

wants

• Older children– Hostile aggression – used to hurt another or to gain an

advantage

– With good verbal skills comes verbal aggression.

– Physical aggression declines as dominance hierarchies emerge.

Aggression


• Aggression-frustration hypothesis– Declines with communication skills

• Reinforcement and modeling of aggression

• Trait aggression – Personality style that develops as a way of life

• May have genetic basis• Seen in abusive families• Lack of affection in families

• Aggressive children lag behind in understanding other children’s intentions.

Development of aggression


• Development of Prosocial Behavior– Evident at 2 – 3 years of age– Some behaviors increase with age– Children who show altruistic behaviors are popular with peers

• Parental Influences– Loving and warm family climate– Explain consequences clearly to children– Provide prosocial attributions – positive statements about the

underlying cause for helpful behavior

Prosocial Behavior and Friendships


• Friendships

– Emerges by age 3

– By age 4, children spend 30% of time with one other child

– Become more stable with time

– Early friendships related to social competence

Prosocial Behavior and Friendships


• Self-Concept– The Categorical Self

• Focus is on visible characteristics

– The Emotional Self• Acquisition of emotional self-regulation

– Associated with peer popularity– Lack of control associated with aggression– Associated with the emergence of empathy

– The Social Self• Child sees itself as a player in social games

– Learns a variety of social scripts– Social scripts provide appropriate behaviors for situations

Personality and Self-Concept



• Psychoanalytic Explanations– Identification with the same sex parent

• Social-Cognitive Explanations– Linked to gender-related behavior

• Becomes motivated to exhibit same-sex behaviors

– Parents shape sex role behaviors and attitudes

• Gender Schema Theory– Learn gender scripts– Learn likes and dislikes of own gender– Develops a complex view of other gender

Gender Role Development


• Gender identity – Child’s ability to label his or her own sex correctly

• Gender stability– Understanding that you stay the same gender

throughout life

• True gender constancy– Recognition that someone stays the same gender

even though appearances may change with clothing

Gender Constancy


• Cross-cultural gender stereotypes– Women are associated with gentleness, weakness,

appreciativeness, and soft-heartedness.

– Men are associated with aggression, strength, cruelty, and coarseness.

– Children learn these stereotypes by 3 or 4.• Can assign stereotypical behaviors to jobs, toys, and activities

– By age 5, children begin to associate personality traits with gender.

Sex-Role Knowledge


• Develops earlier than ideas about sex roles• 18 – 24 months – children show preferences for sex-

stereotyped toys• Age 3 – children show preferences for same-sex friends

• Sex-typed behaviors are learned differently.– Girls use an enabling style.

• Supporting a friend, expressing agreement, making suggestions

– Boys use a constricting or restrictive style.• Derails inappropriate interactions, bringing them to an end

Sex-Typed Behavior


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