Human Color Perception, Cognition

REPORTERREPORTERREPORTERREPORTERREPORTERTheTheTheTheThe

Volume 20, No. 1, February 2005Volume 20, No. 1, February 2005Volume 20, No. 1, February 2005Volume 20, No. 1, February 2005Volume 20, No. 1, February 2005 "THE WINDOW ON IMAGING""THE WINDOW ON IMAGING""THE WINDOW ON IMAGING""THE WINDOW ON IMAGING""THE WINDOW ON IMAGING"

REPORTERREPORTERREPORTERREPORTERREPORTERHuman Color Perception, Cognition,and Culture: Why “Red” is Always RedTimothy KingDepartment of Anthropological Sciences, Stanford University,Stanford, California

This paper was presented at the IS&T/SPIE Electronic Imaging 2005 Symposium inSan Jose, California, January 16-20, 2005, at the Color Imaging X Conference.

This article is an overview of color vi-sion and color perception from an evo-lutionary and anthropological perspec-tive. It is intended for an audience withno prior background in either of thesefields of study. This is an effort to pro-vide a general overview of some the morerecent significant works regarding colorvision and perception, in an evolution-ary framework, that is accessible to ageneral audience. Though it is intendedto explain some of the general dynam-ics of a detailed and complex history,this cannot be considered an exhaus-tive overview, but a general descriptionof some of the fundamental anthropo-logical and evolutionary understand-ings of color vision and perception.

The Beginning of ColorThe Beginning of ColorThe Beginning of ColorThe Beginning of ColorThe Beginning of ColorThe Evolution of the EyeColor vision is not uniquely human, nordid it evolve in isolation. It is the resultof a very deep history within a dynamicworld of color and light, which beganlong before our vertebrate ancestors leftthe oceans some 370 million years ago.To understand color vision and percep-tion among modern humans, we mustfirst take a glimpse at the ancient historyof vision and the workings of the eye.An eye fundamentally “sees” by the useof photoreceptors which convert lightinto nerve signals. Color vision is due toa certain class of specialized photore-ceptors that not only detect light, butdetect and distinguish specific wave-lengths of light (colors). These color pho-

toreceptors, often called cones, are at-tuned to different color wavelengths byway of pigments known as photopig-ments. One of the fundamental compo-nents of these photopigments is a typeof protein called an opsin, which has theprimary role of tuning color photorecep-tors to specific wavelengths of light.Though each type of color-specific pho-toreceptor can detect a limited range ofcolors, each is most responsive to a spe-cific wavelength of light, referred to asits absorption maxima. For example,many diurnal butterflies have three typesof color photoreceptors: an ultra-shortwavelength cone which has a maxima at360nm (tuned to ultra-violet), a shortwavelength cone with a maxima at440nm (blue-violet), and a long wave-length cone at 588nm (yellow-orange).Though the maximum for each of thesecones is a specific wavelength (color),each cone type can actually detect col-ors within a range near the maximum(e.g., the yellow-orange cone can detectyellow-greens, yellows, oranges, andsome nearby reds).

There have been at least ten opticallydistinct eye types identified amongmodern and ancient animals.1 However,recent studies on the genetics of opsinshave pointed to a common ancestor ofcolor vision.2 The claim is that the vary-ing types of opsins (which offer the vary-ing spectral types of color photorecep-tors) can be traced back to one ancestraltype.3-4 By comparing the genes respon-sible for the synthesis of opsins, across

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numerous species, this common ances-tor has been dated from 500 to 800 mil-lion years ago.2-4 The basis for color vi-sion may be as old as the first primitiveeyes. The fossil record itself does notextend much beyond 600 million years;numerous species of Cambrian Periodfossils from the Burgess Shale (570 mil-lion years ago) show the presence ofeyes, some complex enough to suggestan already rich history of the evolutionof these organs. The use of opsins tofocus photoreceptors to specific lightwavelengths was likely already under-way by the Cambrian Period.

To perceive and distinguish colors,more than one type of color photore-ceptor is needed; color perception is acomparative sensory phenomenon, inwhich signals from more than one typeof color photoreceptor are cross-refer-enced.2 Many animals have only onetype of color photoreceptor, which doesnot actually permit the perception ofcolor, but allows a greater distinction ofgradients of what we would call grey.These animals are referred to as mono-chromats. More than one type of colorphotoreceptor is needed to cross-refer-ence signals, to determine specific col-ors. Mutations in the genes for the singleancestral photopigment likely gave riseto two distinct “spectrally-tuned” typesof photopigments, allowing this cross-referencing process to happen.2 A smallnumber of amino acid changes (onlyseven) in photopigments are needed toshift a photopigment sensitivity by30nm.2 Monochromats tend to see arange of greys, and are able to identifyabout 200 discrete gradients.2 However,dichromats (having two color photore-ceptor types) can distinguish around10,000 colors.2 The addition of eachnew photoreceptor spectral type ex-pands the palette of discernable colorsat a geometric level. Humans have threecone types and have a palette of around1,000,000 distinguishable colors—weare trichromats.2 From a sorted evolu-tionary history, humans have not cometo be the apex of color vision in the worldanimals—we are only trichromats. Somenon-mammalian diurnal vertebrates aretetrachromats. Many fish and birds havefour types of photopigments, including aphotopigment tuned to ultra-violet.

The Evolution of Human ColorVisionBlue and yellow dichromacy is the an-cestral mammalian color vision.5 Thefirst primitive mammals, around 220million years ago, are believed to havebeen nocturnal.2,5 The proposal is thatmammals lost two of the four photo-pigments that we once shared with ournon-mammalian ancestors, given thatcolor vision offers little benefit to a noc-turnal lifestyle.2,5 Within the last 100 to150 million years, diurnal mammalsemerged from the darkness, with onlydichromatic color vision—limited toblue and yellow.5

Humans and our closest of kin, theGreat Apes (Gorillas, Chimpanzees andBonobos, and Orangutans) and our nextclosest of kin, the Old World Monkeys(Baboons, Colobus Monkeys, RhesusMacaques), are the only mammalsknown to have color vision beyonddichromacy.6 Trichromatic visionevolved a second time in our neighbor-hood of the primate and mammalianworlds.6 Of the two mammalianphotopigments we began with (yellowand blue), the medium wavelengthphotopigment (yellow) diverged to be-come two separate spectral types: amedium wavelength (green) and a longwavelength (red), thus offering us agreater spectral range, as well as an ex-ponentially greater ability to distinguishbetween colors.7 The time of this diver-gence has been calculated to be about50 million years ago, which is consis-tent with calculations for the divisionbetween Old and New World Monkeys(60 million years ago).2,5 These threephotoreceptors of humans (and our rela-tives) are often referred to as blue, green,and red, but they can be more specifi-cally described as: short wavelength(maxima at ~420nm, which is actuallyblue-purple), medium wavelength(maxima at ~525nm, which is green),and long wavelength (maxima at~560nm, which is actually yellow).

Some explanation for why this shiftto trichromacy happened among ourbranch of primates has been explainedby recent works in genetics. In a recentstudy, Gilad et al. found that the emer-gence of full trichromatic color visionamong humans and our next of kin cor-

responds to a significant reduction inour sense of smell.6 The genes that codefor an articulate sense of smell comprisethe largest gene family of the mamma-lian genome.6 When compared to thegenome of other mammals, almost 60%of the genes responsible for the acuityand range in olfactory perception (senseof smell) have been “shut of” in our spe-cies;6 among the Great Apes, 33% ofthese genes have been “shut off.”6 Aninteresting exception to this “re-evolu-tion” of trichromatic vision is theHowler Monkey (Alouatta caraya); itis the only New World Monkey to have

IS&T Reporter "THE WINDOW ON IMAGING" — Volume 20, Number 1 — February 2005 3


also developed trichromatic vision.6 Itappears that it developed trichromaticvision independently of the Old WorldMonkeys, though likely for the samereasons. Similar to humans and otherOld World Monkeys, Howler Monkeysappear to have lost a significant pro-portion of their sense of smell (31% ofthe associated genes have been “shutoff”).6 The co-occurrence of the loss ofsmell and the development of a morefine-tuned sense of vision cannot bedefinitively explained in a manner ofcause and effect, but can be summed-up as a shift in our primary senses—achange to a greater reliance on sightand hearing than smell.

The Natural World of ColorThe Natural World of ColorThe Natural World of ColorThe Natural World of ColorThe Natural World of ColorThe Natural Language of ColorAmong PlantsOur species, Homo sapiens sapiens,evolved within a very dynamic worldof color. To better understand some ofour most fundamental associations withcolor, we must understand the colors ofthe natural world that shaped our spe-cies. Nature has developed a languageof color, which is not only employed incommunication within a species, butacross species (and even across entirekingdoms of life). When examining thehuman relationship with color, we haveto consider that part of the “hard-wir-ing” of our species is to understand andrespond to this natural language ofcolor. Nature tends to use color for com-munication for four basic purposes: toattract or repel members of the samespecies, and to attract or repel membersof different species. These communica-tions can be defined with even greaterprecision:■ (among plants) to attract (a) pollina-

tors or (b) propagators■ (among animals) to attract prey,

either by (a) camouflage, or by (b)decoy

■ to avoid predators, either by (a)warning, or by (b) camouflage

■ mating purposes – (a) attracting theopposite sex (intersexual attrac-tion), or (b) intimidating the samesex competitors (intrasexualcompetition).Being an omnivorous species,

trichromatic vision offers great advan-

tages to humans. Many plants have de-veloped mechanisms for the propaga-tion of their seeds, namely fruits. Thereare many plants that have not co-evolved with specific propagators, butinstead send out a “general signal” to arange of interested parties—by devel-oping a fruit with both a bright salientcolor and a strong and recognizablesmell. Having a bright color and a richsmell is a way to “hedge bets”—attract-ing propagators that may have a keensense of smell but limited color vision,or vice-versa.8 Fruits (or structures de-veloped to serve similar purposes) tendto have rich, salient colors that contrastwith green foliage: reds, pinks, brightoranges, and yellows. Ethylene gas is acomponent in the strong, “fruity,” smellemitted by most ripening fruits—it is arecognizable note common to freshstrawberries and raspberries, freshmelon, ripe figs, and cut apple. Theremay have been an evolutionary advan-tage to sight over the sense of smell,perhaps offering our ancestry a greaterability to find fruits from a greater dis-tance by sight alone.

In a strategy similar to fruits, flowersattract pollinators by color, scent, andeven shape—both visual and olfactorysignals are broadcasted. Many flowersthat emit strong odors, and that are col-ored blue, purple, pink, ultra-violet,yellow tend to be adapted to diurnalinsect pollinators —these colors reflect-ing the range visible to most insects (es-pecially bees (Apis sp.) and their clos-est relatives).9 The honeybee (Apismellifera) has three types of photopig-ments: an ultra-short wavelength(350nm, ultra-violet), a short wavelength(440nm, blue), and a medium wave-length (540nm, green). Flowers in therange of reds, rich oranges, and brightpinks (and lacking strong scents) tendto be pollinated by birds.9 Most diurnalbirds have the ability to distinguish reds,which insects such as bees do not9.Some studies have found that birds thatrely on nectar, such as hummingbirds,do not necessarily show innate prefer-ential interest in red flowers over othercolors.9 However, other competitorssuch as bees have little ability to distin-guish the red flowers from surroundingfoliage, and thus the red flowers are more

available to birds. This is an evolution-ary strategy to select birds as pollina-tors over insects—likely because birdstend to have a greater degree of out-crossing (spreading pollen from oneplant to another) than bees (which mayonly spread pollen from one flower toanother on the same plant).9

The Natural Language of ColorAmong AnimalsNumerous studies on the relationshipbetween human color perception andfood have been undertaken by market-ing researchers, food scientists, and per-ceptual psychologists. With regard toinnate associations between color andflavor, the majority of the results are ei-ther inconclusive or conflictory.10-11

However, what can be concluded fromthese studies is that color associationswith food is a conditioned relation-ship—the product of one’s life experi-ence. The majority of tests that claim todemonstrate that certain colors are un-appetizing actually demonstrate thatuncharacteristic or unexpected colorsadded to foods makes then unappetiz-ing.10-11 This suggests that we indeedmake associations between colors andexpected flavors, however these asso-ciations are acquired through experi-ence.10-11 This can been understood onan adaptive level, given our omnivo-rous history. It may be beneficial to availourselves to novel foods, by not beingcommitted to innate associations andpreferences with particular food appear-ances. Acquired personal associationsbetween certain colors and foods mayserve as a protective measure—we maytry novel foods, but we develop asso-ciations with foods that we consumeregularly and know to edible and safe.

There has been a noted difficultywith the use of blues in processed foods,and it has often tested as one of the mostunappetizing colors.12 The generallyunappealing nature of blue does notconflict with the conditioned color/foodrelationship noted above. Given thatour color associations with expectedflavors, etc. are learned, and that nearlyall natural foods are not blue, this aver-sion to blue foods is the product of apalette with no known natural blue ref-erences. What are called “blueberries”



in English are not in fact very blue, buta deep indigo-purple. Only a few rareexamples of cultural practices of dyingfoodstuffs blue exist, likely becausemost naturally available blue dyes areeither unpalatable, rare, or unstable. An-thocyanin, which is a common naturalpigment in flowers, is responsible for arange of blues, purples, and pinks. It issusceptible to change with acidity—this blue dye is somewhat unstable andreadily turns pink in even slightly acidicenvironments. However, there are cer-tain colors of blue that are naturally as-sociated with food—they tend to ap-pear in the context of decay and mold.Future research in the relationship be-tween the color blue and food mayclarify a possible innate avoidance ofthis color, in terms of instinctive aver-sions to unsafe foods.

Typee of natural color signaling thatcould be considered the closest to anatural “universal language” amonganimals are the colored warnings of ven-omous bites and stings, or the warningsof a highly developed passive defense:being poisonous to eat. A few examplesof this common warning pattern are: theBanded Sea Snake (Laticauda colubrina),Coral Snakes (Micrurus sp.), the Lion-fish (also called the Turkeyfish) (Pteroissp.), the Red-Headed Centipede (Scol-opendra heros castaneiceps), bees (Apissp.) and their closest relatives (wasps,yellowjackets, etc.), and Arrow-PoisonFrogs (Dendrobates sp., Atelopus sp.).All are either venomous or are poison-ous to eat (or even poisonous to touch);their shared color pattern could be con-sidered a vibrant and blatant advertise-ment of toxicity—a universal displayto warn any potential predators. All ofthe above examples share a similar,somewhat universal, warning display—liberally employing the colors that aremost salient to dichromats (yellow) and/or trichromats (red). A striped pattern ofblack (or white) is a way to provide anintense signal even to monochromats—a pattern that is also salient when onlyperceived in greyscale. This generalpattern of black stripes with red, yel-low, or white (or combinations of threeor more of these) could be consideredas close to a “universal warning” asmother nature offers. This pattern of

color is salient at multiple levels of colorvision, or even lack of color vision.What is noteworthy about the aboveexamples is that they all share a similarwarning pattern, though nearly eachexample evolved this signal indepen-dently. A few examples of similar pat-terns, which have evolved for very dif-ferent reasons, should be noted. Zebrasalso have black and white stripes, andtigers have black on an orange/yellowbackground. These patterns have dif-ferent functions—the zebras’ stripes in-terfere with a predators’ ability to visu-ally isolate an individual zebra from thesurrounding herd. The tiger’s stripesserve as “disruptive camouflage”—breaking up the “large cat shape” as itwalks through underbrush and grasses.

Humans have independently devel-oped a similar pattern of color and con-trast to attract attention. The most rec-ognizable uses of this pattern are onsafety labels and signs, and even taxi-cabs. Most of us recognize the reflec-tive yellow and black stripes used tolabel dangerous parts of equipment,dangerous areas, and other warningsigns. The traditional design of taxicabsemploys the same pattern—a yellowbackground with a black and whitecheckered band across the midsection.The independent development of thispattern by humans demonstrates our sen-sitivity to certain natural universals ofcolor and perception.

Though the above warning patterncould be considered a lingua francamessage—understood across numerousspecies of the animal kingdom, thereare also “specific languages” of colorwithin a species. We see color signalingby numerous species of birds, fish,cephalopods (octopi, squid, cuttlefish,etc.), some diurnal reptiles, and insects,in which the signals of color conveymessages to members of their own spe-cies. The most common purposes forthese signals are to display fertility orsexual receptivity, or as displays to com-pete with members of the same sex formates. Many of these “species-internalmessages” which are signals for mat-ing, fitness, and fertility are only under-stood by other members of the samespecies. The number of iridescent spotsa peacock has on his tail is a message

only understood and appreciated by thepeahen—the number of spotted tailfeathers a peacock bears is understoodas a sign of fitness to the peahen, andmales with more of these spots mate moreoften.13

Humans are not separate from theanimal world, in terms of color and com-munication. In fact, humans may haveevolved some color variations acrossthe skin for the sole purpose of commu-nication. Population skin color is thedirect product of latitude (and thus sunexposure)—populations that have hada significant history near equatorial lati-tudes have darker skin pigmentation asan adaptation to significant exposureto sunlight. It has been noted that thoughthe skin color tends to be uniform—from the ankles to the scalp—there arenotable exceptions: the palms of thehands and the bottom of the feet. Thepalms of the hands are exposed to atleast as much sunlight as the inner thighor outer ear canal; however, palms, fin-gertips, and fingernails remain notablylighter than the rest of the skin and evenseem to resist tanning.14 One proposalis that this lightness is due to communi-cation needs—that the hands haveplayed a significant role in gestural com-munication for a long period of humanhistory.14 Lighter colored palms and fin-gers, contrasted against the darker skinof the body, provides more salient sig-naling devices. If this proposal is cor-rect, our own hands are a testament tothe role that gestures have played in thehistory of human communication.

The Human World of ColorThe Human World of ColorThe Human World of ColorThe Human World of ColorThe Human World of ColorThe First Human ColorsOur species is defined as “anatomicallymodern” as of 100,000 years ago; at thistime, humans physically appeared thesame as we do today. However, it wasonly 50,000 years ago that we could bedescribed as “behaviorally modern”—humans began to behave technologi-cally and culturally like people today.15

Artifacts from 50 thousand years agodisplay the beginnings of art, the use ofcomplex tools, and even the signs ofcosmology.15 This period could be con-sidered an incredible pan-human renais-sance. A remarkable finding is that thefirst art to appear was polychromatic15.



In human cognitive development, thesigns of art and color appeared simulta-neously. There is no evidence of a“monochromatic phase” in early humanhistory—use of color appears to havebeen a legitimate channel of communi-cation from the very beginning of artand symbolism.15

It is likely that at this time in humanhistory, the distinctions between colorsmay have been quite small in number.Though several distinct colors were em-ployed in Paleolithic cave art, this doesnot require that each of the colors wasgiven its own specific name or recog-nized as canonically different from oth-ers. The colors of cave art can be de-scribed as the product of mimesis—sim-ply copying what one sees, which doesnot necessarily require having a namefor what one sees. Modern linguisticevidence substantiates this possibil-ity—though small in number, there arecultures today which have only twobasic color terms. The Jalé in HighlandNew Guinea have only two basic colorterms: hóló, which could be glossed as“brilliant,” and sing, which could beglossed as “dull.”16 The term hóló ap-pears to encompass the colors that wecall white and yellow, and likely coversthe lighter ranges of blue and green; theterm sing names black and red andlikely the darker ranges of blue, green,purple, and brown.16 Among the Tangmaof New Guinea, the two basic color termsare mola and muli. The term mola en-compasses the “brilliant” colors white,red, and yellow,16 and muli encompassesthe “dull” colors black, green, andblue.16 Along with Jalé, three otherDamian family languages (New Guinea)have been found to be two color termsystems also.16 These limited systemsdo not reflect a physical impairment ofcolor vision across the population, butappear to be the product of adaptiveneed (or lack of need). In simple terms,their cultures and environments havenot provided significant pressureswhich would warrant the distinctionsbetween certain colors.

Basic Color Terms and PerceptionIn their study, Berlin and Kay set a foun-dation for current understandings of therelationship between color perception

and language. They compared basiccolor terms collected from 20 languages(from several distinct, unrelated linguis-tic stocks), and further supplementedtheir comparison with basic color termsfrom 98 languages previously collectedby other linguists and ethnographers.16

Their comparison focused on basic colorterms. These can be defined as a class ofwords which canonically identify col-ors, which (a) are not composed of namesof other color terms, (b) cannot be clas-sified as a subset or variant of anothercolor term, (c) are not specific to a par-ticular object or substance, (d) andwhich are known and clear to all speak-ers of a language.16 The English lan-guage has 11 basic color terms: black,white, red, green, yellow, blue, purple,orange, grey, pink, and brown.16 Someexamples of what are not basic colorterms are: blonde (this term is specificto hair color), chartreuse (this term isnot used or known by all speakers ofEnglish), blue-green (this term is com-posed of two other basic color terms),brownish (this term is a derivation of acolor term), scarlet (this can be consid-ered a specific color within/below thebroader basic color term, red).16

To elicit basic color terms from in-formants, they used a Munsell colorchip chart, of 329 color chips (320 chipsof 40 equally spaced hues and 8 de-grees of brightness, all at maximum satu-ration, and 9 chips of neutral hue).16

Basic color terms were elicited from in-formants, then the boundary of eachterm was identified, and then the focusof each term was identified.16 The focusof a color term is what the informantdetermines to be the single best exem-plar of that basic color term. For example,

an English speaker will offer red as abasic color term, then will determinewhich color chips are considered redand not-red (the boundaries of red) andthen decides which specific chip (withinthe broad field of what they defined asred) best exemplifies red—which chipis “the reddest of the reds”.16 These fociwere originally used by Berlin and Kayto refer to the different levels of termsystems—a two color term system iscalled black and white; a three term sys-tem is black, white, and red.16

Berlin and Kay identified a patternin the way languages develop new colorterms, which suggests an evolutionaryprogression. This progression occurs ina regular and systematic order.16 Themost fundamental distinction is be-tween black and white—all languageshave this distinction, there is no “onecolor term system.”16 If a language hasonly two basic color terms, the spec-trum is divided along the lines of “bril-liant” and “dull” colors (also called“warm” and “cold” colors; called“black” and “white” in the Berlin andKay study) as exemplified in the Jaléterms above. If a language has only threebasic color terms, the spectrum is notdivided along the lines of brilliant, dull,and intermediate. The novel third colorterm is actually a distinction of red (thefocus of this color term is what we wouldcall red in English). Red is the first colorto receive recognition aside from theother colors.16 This may be linguisticevidence for the salience of red and itsimportance to human survival.

Most of these three-color term lan-guages exist in Melanesia, Australia, andAfrica.16 An example of a three-colorterm language is Tiv, a Bantoid lan-

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guage from Nigeria.16-17 In Tiv, the threebasic color terms are: ii, which encom-passes all greens, some blues, and somegreys; pupu, which encompasses verylight blues, light greys, and white; andnyian, which encompasses red, somebrowns, orange and yellow.16-17

An interesting note about red, as oneof the most fundamental color terms, isthat numerous examples of the wordsfor red appear to be derived from theword for “blood.”16 In Mid-Grand Val-ley Halyhalymo: mepmep ‘red’ and mep‘blood;’16,18 in Nasioi: esereng ‘red’ andereng ‘blood;’16 in Queensland Aborigi-nal: oti ‘red’ and oti ‘blood.’16,19 At leastin some examples, the early distinctionof red may be related to the cultural sig-nificance of blood, human or animal.

The stages of complexity (and ac-quisition of novel color terms) amongcolor term systems identified by Berlinand Kay can be summed as follows:■ Two-term systems distinguish black

and white (as all languages do) anddivide the spectrum along the linesof brilliant and dull colors.

■ Three-term systems distinguish black,white, and red and divide the spec-trum along lines similar to the two-color system above, yet isolating redand similar colors (yellow, orange,some browns) in a discreet category.

■ Four-color systems tend to distin-guish blue and green as their own dis-crete category, though they do notdistinguish between blue and green.There are a smaller number of ex-amples in which yellow is distin-guished as a fourth color term beforeblue/green. Similarly, there are also asmall number of examples in whichblue/green is then the fifth color termdeveloped. There are no identifiableexamples of the simultaneous acqui-sition of yellow and blue/green, bothappear to be acquired in separatestages.16

■ Five-color systems distinguish be-tween black, white, red, blue/green,and yellow; they are found in a largenumber of languages, in Africa andthe New World (a large percentage ofNew World languages are five colorterm systems).16

■ Like the previous stages, six-term lan-guages bear all of the distinctions of

the previous stages, with an addi-tional distinction: differentiating be-tween blue and green.

■ Seven-color-term languages containall previous distinctions (black,white, red, green, yellow, and blue),with the addition of brown.

■ Systems with eight or more terms tendto acquire the remaining terms almostsimultaneously: orange, pink, grey,and purple. The maximum numberof color terms identified for any lan-guage is eleven.16

■ There is ongoing analysis and con-sideration for a few twelve-color termsystems. Russian and several otherSlavic languages appear to have twobasic color terms for what is referredto as blue in English; in Russian, theseare goluboy, which encompasseslight blues, and siniy, which encom-passes the dark ranges of blues.16

There is still debate about the ety-mology of these words and whetheror not they fit the criteria of basic colorterms.Another correlation noted by Berlin

and Kay is that of general cultural com-plexity (complexity of social order andcomplexity of technology) and the com-plexity of color term systems.16 Thiscorrelation can be described in terms ofa direct relationship between color andtechnology. Though a society may havearisen in a very color-rich environment,it appears that the complexity of inter-action with the environment, and therelated technologies employed by theculture, dictate what color terms are nec-essary (how specific one needs to beabout colors). That is not to say thatsocieties with only two or three basiccolor terms have no other words thatrefer to colors—most have rich vocabu-laries of terms for colors, however, theytend to be case-specific (used for onlyparticular substances or only in specificcontexts). The number of basic colorterms simply demonstrates that distinc-tions between certain colors are notuniversal, and that greater specificityamong color terms is not entirely requi-site for human survival. The pattern ofacquisition of color terms (the predict-able nature of the acquisition of addi-tional color terms) does demonstrate auniversal in the prioritization or rank-

ing of colors and their relative saliencewith respect to one another.

The Hering Elementary Colors andPerceptionAnother line of study which has offeredinsight into human color perception wasinitiated by Ewald Hering in 1878; hegenerated the foundation model for un-derstanding color perception beyondthe retina of the eye. Hering proposedopponent-process theory, which ex-plains much of color perception in termsof how signals from the eye are trans-mitted and perceived. The opponent-process model considers that though theeye has three types of color photore-ceptors (blue, green, and red), the sig-nals sent to the brain travel along threechannels: one that transmits light anddark, one that transmits red and green,and one that transmits blue and

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Registration Deadline :March 26, 2005

www.imaging.org



yellow.20 With regard to the color-spe-cific channels, each channel transmitsonly one of the two colors at any giventime. When the red-green channel is ex-cited, red is perceived; when this chan-nel is inhibited, green is perceived;when the signal is balanced betweenexcitation and inhibition, the result isachromatic—no color is seen. This pro-cess is identical for the blue-yellow chan-nel. This model explains why red andgreen are not perceived simultaneously,and why blue and yellow are also re-portedly imperceptible together. Thesefour colors are considered unique interms of this model—they are not com-posed of other colors. The specificunique colors can be identified by, forexample, testing differing types of red—the red that does not have any percep-tible traces of the other unique colors(such as red with some detectable tracesof yellow) can be considered unique.Colors such as purple and orange canbe considered binary—they are percep-tually composed of other identifiablecolors (namely, red and blue, red andyellow). The four unique hues combinedwith black and white (the achromaticcolors of the light-dark channel) aretermed the Hering Elementary Colors.

Though the Hering Elementary Col-ors can be considered meaningful interms of some of the mechanical as-pects of light perception, they do notreadily parallel basic color terminol-ogy data (and the underlying cogni-tive processes that shape these data).There has been the assumption thatthe (chromatic) Hering ElementaryColors are perceived as equally dis-tinct from each other. However, a studyby Berlin et al. has revealed that thefour (chromatic) Hering ElementaryColors are not perceived as equallysalient or distinct from each other.21

Red and yellow are perceived as quali-tatively more “alike” than either is togreen or blue, and the qualitative rela-tionship between green and blue iscloser than the relationship betweenred and yellow.21 This dynamic is ex-emplified in the pattern of color termacquisition identified by Berlin andKay (see above). As a novel color dis-tinction (a novel basic color term) ismade, the next “most distant” relation-

ship will dictate which color will bedistinguished next. It is likely due tothe salience of red (in other terms, thatit has a greater total distance from theother three colors) that it is the first tobe recognized—though in simplercolor term systems, it is merged withyellow in the earliest stages. This red/yellow set is the first to be distin-guished. In the majority of examples,the blue/green partnership is the nextto receive distinct recognition. Then,the next most distant relationship, redand yellow, separates and yellow re-ceives distinction from red. Then, theclosest relationship between these fourcolors, blue/green, is finally severedand blue becomes distinct from green.

SummarySummarySummarySummarySummaryHuman color vision and perceptionbegins long before human history, andeven long before the history of verte-brates. Recent evidence suggests thatthe basis for color vision may be be-tween 500 to 800 million years old.Our first mammalian ancestors, be-tween 220 million and 100 millionyears ago, lost much of the full colorvision appreciated by other verte-brates, given that they had taken tothe safety of nocturnal life. The morerecent ancestor of humans and theirnext of kin “re-evolved” full color vi-sion, giving us a world of full color,instead of the limited blues and yel-lows of other mammals. This abilityto see a greater volume of colors coin-cided with the loss of much of our senseof smell—committing us to a greaterreliance on our eyes than many of ourfellow mammals. The new ability tosee red gave us and our next of kin agreat advantage—greater ability to seefruits, as well as the warning colors ofnature. The earliest examples of hu-man art demonstrate the use of color.To humans, the use of color as a chan-nel for communication is as old as art.Though humans have the ability tosee a great range of colors, comparisonsof human languages demonstrate thatwe do not necessarily all make the samedistinctions between colors, nor are allof these distinctions necessary for oursurvival. However, distinguishing redfrom other colors is one of the first, sec-

ond only to a fundamental division be-tween black and white. Though colordistinctions may vary among popula-tions, they are varied in a predictableand regular fashion, which may reflecthuman perceptual universals.

References1. R. D. Russell, “Evolution of eyes” Current

Opinion in Neurobiology 10: 444-450, 2000.2. J. Neitz et al., “Color Vision: Almost Reason

Enough for Having Eyes,” Optics & PhotonicsNews Jan: 26-33, 2001.

3. J. Nathans et al., “Molecular genetics of humancolor vision: The genes encoding blue, green,and red pigments,” Science 232: 193-202, 1986.

4. C.W. Oyster, The Human Eye: Structure andFunction. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Sunderland,MA, 1999.

5. G.H. Jacobs, “The distribution and nature ofcolour vision among the mammals,” BiologicalReviews 68: 413-71, 1993.

6. Y. Gilad et al., “Loss of olfactory receptor genescoincides with the acquisition of fulltrichromatic vision in primates,” PLoS Biology2(1): 0120-0125, 2004.

7. L.T. Sharpe et al., Color Vision: From Genes toPerception, Cambridge University Press, NewYork, NY, 1999.

8. P. Sumner and J.D. Mollon “Chromaticity assignal of ripeness of fruits taken by primates,”Journal of Experimental Biology 203: 1987-2000, 2000.

9. M. Rodríguez-Gironés and L. Santamaria “Whyare so many bird flowers red?,” PLoS Biology2(10): 1515-1519, 2004

10. H.R. Moskowitz, “Taste and food technology:Acceptability, aesthetics, and preference,”Handbook of Perception, Via: 158-193, 1978.

11. L.L. Garber et al., “Placing food colorexperimentation into a valid consumer context,”Food Quality & Preference 14(1): 41-43, 2003.

12. T. Hine, The Total Package. Little, Brown andCompany, New York, NY, 1996.

13. Amotz Zahavi and Avishag Zahavi, The HandicapPrinciple: A Missing Piece of Darwin’s Puzzle.Oxford University Press, 1997.

14. G. Hewes, “The current status of fhe gesturaltheory of language origin,” Origins andEvolution of Language and Speech 280: 482-504, 1976.

15. R. G. Klein and B. Edgar, The Dawn of HumanCulture. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2002.

16. B. Berlin and P. Kay, Basic Color Terms: TheirUniversality and Evolution. University ofCalifornia Press, Berkeley, 1969.

17. P. Bohannan, Social Anthropology. Holt,Rinehart, and Winston, New York, NY, 1963.

18. M. Bromley, “The linguistic relationships ofgrand valley dani: A lexico-statisticalclassification,” Oceania 37: 286-308, 1967.

19. W.H.R. Rivers, “Introduction and vision,”Reports on the Cambridge AnthropologicalExpedition to the Torres Straits, (A.C. Haddoned.), Vol. II, part 1, 1901.

20. E. Hering, (translated by L.M. Hurvich and D.Jameson) Outlines of a Theory of the LightSense. Harvard University Press, MA, 1878, 1964.

21. B. Berlin et al., “Merrifield color term evolution:Recent evidence from the World Color Survey,”Presented at the 84th Annual Meeting of theAmerican Anthropological Association,Washington D.C, 1985.



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I am writing these observations shortly after returning fromthis year’s outstanding IS&T/SPIE Electronic Imaging meet-ing in San Jose, CA. For me a highlight of the meeting wasthe Human Vision Conference banquet, organized by Con-ference Co-chairs Bernice Rogowitz, Thrasyvoulos Pappas,and Scott Daly. The featured after-dinner speaker was Profes-sor Stanley Klein of UC Berkeley, who addressed issues atthe interface of science and religion in a most entertainingand thought-provoking fashion.

Klein’s thesis, following Einstein, is that modern scienceand liberal theism are natural, intellectually-compatible al-lies necessary to each other. In other words, science can de-fine problems and propose solutions; religion, where com-patible with science, can provide the motivation and thevalue construct in which the potential of science for thegood of humankind and the planet can be realized. Scien-tists must also have a spiritual life, lived in community. Asused by Klein, liberal theism refers to any religious view-point, regardless of cultic tradition, which posits the realityof the divine, but rejects as essential to its belief system anyliterally “revealed truth,” paranormal phenomena, or miracu-lous intervention. Liberal theistic communities are charac-terized as accepting of and compatible with each other, re-gardless of the traditions from which they may have evolved(Judaism, Christianity, Islam, etc.) and whose ritualistic ex-pressions they may continue to use.

I could flesh out Klein’s thesis with a couple of examplesfrom my own life experience. First, in the 1960s I had theprivilege to be working in Washington, DC, at the time Dr.Martin Luther King, Jr., led his famous March on Washing-ton. (Coincidentally the Human Vision lecture was deliv-ered on Martin Luther King Day this year!) While I com-pletely supported the aims of the March, I didn’t see anyneed to take part personally. My logic, or lack thereof, wasquickly challenged by fellow members of the faith commu-nity in which I participated, and with their encouragement Ibecame an active supporter of the civil rights movement.Second, in recent days my wife and I attended an interfaithmemorial for victims—dead and surviving—of lastDecember’s Indian Ocean Tsunami. From this experience ofimmersion in gamelan orchestration, Buddhist chanting,Ojibway drumming, and the music of Johan Sebastian Bach,accompanied by words of encouragement from rabbis, pas-tors, and imams, we came away motivated to increase signifi-cantly our monetary commitment to Tsunami relief efforts.In other words, the experience of ritual, prayer, and medita-tion focused our thoughts and translated into concrete, use-ful action.

Discussion among attendees of Klein’s talk raised the is-sue of intellectual honesty or integrity; was he calling onpeople to give lip service to an ideology to which they couldnot honestly assent? We didn’t have time to talk through thisissue to any point of resolution, but it has been addressedadmirably by Erich Schumacher, the former head (1960s) ofthe British Coal Board and one of the founders of the sus-tainable growth movement. The principles of the latter werelaid out in his famous book Small is Beautiful, but my inter-est is more with an earlier book of his—titled with obviousreference to Maimonides’ medieval treatise—A Guide forthe Perplexed. His thesis here is that in order to make sense ofour life experiences and learn how to respond to them, we

need to use a set of assumptions, just as we usually need a setof assumptions to interpret the data from a laboratory experi-ment. These assumptions may or may not be true, and as newdata become available the assumptions may need to be re-jected or revised. Every one of us makes and uses such as-sumptions in life, whether we realize it or not. In religion, theset of assumptions—whatever they may be—is called “faith”and the process of testing them against reality, revising them,and thereby growing in understanding is called “the spiri-tual life.” A life lived in this way, consciously reflected upon,is thus an example of the scientific method in action; hencethe compatibility of science and (liberal theistic) religion.

In my experience the practice of science provides excel-lent discipline for the spiritual life, helping keep the lattergrounded in reality. As rational people we don’t make as-sumptions in science, religion, or any other aspect of lifebecause we have been convinced by some external authoritythat they are true, but because they may be useful to us as astarting point—and only as a starting point—in understand-ing the data of life experience. Admittedly, the wisdom ofthose who have gone before us may help us select assump-tions that may prove of value in our undertaking. In sciencewe find this wisdom in the literature; in things spiritual wemay look to Plato or Aristotle, Jesus or Mohammed, Lao Tzeor the Buddha.

To my hearing, Klein was specifically asking us to makethose assumptions which can lead us into situations (com-munity participation, liturgies, etc.) that provide us with thedirection and motivation we need to employ our scientificexpertise for the good of the planet and of humankind. With-out making the right starting assumptions these things justwon’t happen.

My thanks go to Drs. Rogowitz, Pappas, and Daly forarranging the Human Vision Conference banquet and forproviding this wonderful experience for all of those present.

—M. R. V. Sahyun

From tFrom tFrom tFrom tFrom the Editorhe Editorhe Editorhe Editorhe Editor’’’’’s Desks Desks Desks Desks Desk

Book reviewers needed!

Many current and forthcoming books cover subjectsof interest to our membership. We would like topublish more reviews, and to do that effectively weneed to enlist the help of members who are wellqualified to write them. We do not offer an hono-rarium to reviewers, but each reviewer is entitled tokeep the book after writing its review.

If you are interested in participating in the reviewprocess, please drop me a line describing yourparticular interests and expertise. We’ll forward toyou the publisher’s description(s) of books in yourfield and have a book sent to you only if you expressinterest in writing its review. Typical review length is1,000 to 1,500 words.

With sincere appreciation,Vivian Walworth, editor([email protected])



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This issue of Standards Update touches on a number of recentactivities of CGATS, TC130, TC42, and CIE.

PPML/VDXPPML/VDXPPML/VDXPPML/VDXPPML/VDXISO 16612-1, Graphic technology—Variable printing dataexchange—Part 1: Using PPML 2.1 and PDF 1.4 (PPML/VDX-2005), was approved at the DIS level with no negativevotes. This means that it can go directly to publication onceall comments have been resolved.

However, there are still some pieces missing that are neededto facilitate the implementation of this standard.

One of the most important pieces, being developed byCGATS/SC6/TF2 (the CGATS committee working on thisstandard in parallel with the ISO effort), is the definition/identification of reference characterization data specificallyfor variable data printing.

Preliminary gamut testing indicates that three reference colorcharacterization data sets are adequate to define the data ex-change for high speed digital printing devices.

The proposed gamuts and their descriptions are:1. Reference color characterization data set 1 (largest color

gamut)—Grade 1 substrate (white point) and typically highgloss image characteristics;

2. Reference color characterization data set 2 (intermediate colorgamut)—Grade 1 substrate (white point) and typically lowgloss (satin) image characteristics;

3. Reference color characterization data set 3 (small colorgamut)—based on Grade 5 substrate (Grade 5 white point)CGATS TR 001 data set.At this point the next step is to define the internal color char-

acterization data appropriate for gamuts 1 and 2.In addition TF2 is working to complete a set of application

notes to help developers and advanced users in software devel-opment and implementation.

In support of the Application Notes, TF2 is also developing aseries of test suites to help both developers and users evaluateand test applications. These will include tests of both PPML/VDX functionality and color management.

PDF/XPDF/XPDF/XPDF/XPDF/XThe current PDF/X standards (ISO 15930-4, Graphic tech-nology Prepress digital data exchange using PDF—Part 4:Complete exchange of CMYK and spot colour printing datausing PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-1a); ISO 15930-5:2003 Graphictechnology—Prepress digital data exchange using PDF—art 5: Partial exchange of printing data using PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-2); ISO 15930-6:2003 Graphic technology—Prepress digi-tal data exchange using PDF—Part 6: Complete exchangeof printing data suitable for colour-managed workflowsusing PDF 1.4 (PDF/X-3)) as their titles show are based onPDF version 1.4. Adobe has recently released version 1.6 ofthe PDF specification.

CGATS/SC6/TF1 (the CGATS committee working on thePDF/X standards in parallel with the ISO effort) has taken onthe task of preparing a proposal, to be submitted to ISOTC130, of the features that should be incorporated in thenext revision of the PDF/X standards.

This group met in early February 2005 and their discus-sions resulted in the following recommendations, which willform the basis for the proposed revision.

Development in a single new partParts 4 (PDF/X-1a), and 6 (PDF/X-3) of ISO 15930, pub-lished in 2003 were intended to differ only in a few areas,notably around colour spaces. Subsequent to publication ithas been found that other small discrepancies crept in duringthe editing process. While the differences found are not acause for concern, they highlight the additional work andrisk required to publish separate parts for PDF/X-1a and PDF/X-3. In addition, the bulk of the PDF/X-2 standard (15930-5)is defined by reference to PDF/X-3. CGATS therefore willrecommend that all three conformance levels be folded intoa single part, to be published as ISO 15930-7.

Renaming of PDF/X-1a to PDF/X-1Input to the CGATS meeting shows that the majority of users donot understand why PDF/X-1a has the letter ‘a’ at the end, andthat simplifications would assist implementers. CGATS there-fore will recommend that the CMYK-only conformance level inthis revision be named PDF/X-1 rather than PDF/X-1a.

PDF VersionThe initial proposals for this revision suggested that it should bebased on PDF 1.5 (the 2003 parts are based on PDF 1.4). That wasbased on assumptions about the publication date of the PDFReference version 1.6 from Adobe Systems. Version 1.6 waspublished, earlier than expected, in late 2004. CGATS thereforewill recommend that the new work be based on PDF 1.6

Monochrome PDF/X-1 filesPrevious versions of PDF/X-1a have required monochrome filesto be encoded using CMYK output intents. A job that will beprinted in black ink only, or in black with one or more spots,must currently be encoded either with a CMYK output intent, oras a PDF/X-3 file. CGATS will recommend that PDF/X-1 beextended to allow greyscale output intents as well as CMYK.

Optional content (layers)The PDF 1.5 reference introduced structures defining op-tional content within a PDF file. Commonly known as ‘lay-ers’, these are powerful and flexible features designed formany use cases, amongst them regional versioning of printedmaterial. A single PDF file may be supplied that includes allthe data for multiple variants of the output, e.g., a brochure tobe published in both English and German. The groups ofoptional content all carry names, allowing the file recipientto configure his production workflow in such a way that thesame file can be processed twice to generate two differentprinted outputs, e.g.,one in English and one in German.

While the flexibility of the PDF layering structure can lead tounexpected output in the context of graphic arts, it is relativelyeasy for the PDF/X standard to place limits on the use of thoseoptions that would lead to variable output.

CGATS will recommend that optional content be permit-ted in PDF/X, subject to the addition of suitablerestrictions.

TransparencyAll previous parts of ISO 15930 prohibit the use of PDF transpar-ency structures in PDF/X, either explicitly or implicitly (through

Continued on page 11



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William M. Aitken, Editor

The DisplayMaker 72UVR isMacDermid ColorSpan’s first 72-inchwide-format flatbed UV printer. This high-performance 600-dpi printer has flatbed /roll fed features using UV-curable ink tech-nology at an affordable price. UV-curableink technology is the latest in advancedprinting options offering you the versatil-ity of printing directly to just about anyrigid or roll fed material up to ¼” thick.

New to the “Gator” family is theDisplayMaker 98SX, “ElonGator”. A98" wide-format solvent version of theaward-winning DisplayMaker 72S, withthe capability of printing up to 98.5 inches(2.5 meters) on both roll-fed and option-ally on rigid media by adding flatbedtables. This printer is designed for biggerruns with faster print speeds (up to 700square feet per hour) using 16 piezo-elec-tric printheads, for more output per inchon elongated media and multipurposeextensive format applications. It’s a grandformat printer without the grand formatprice. More information at www.macdermid.com.

IC INTRACOM has added a Network IPCamera that supports wireless transmis-sion based on the IEEE 802.11b standardto its INTELLINET ACTIVE NETWORK-ING Professional Series line.

The Wireless Network IP Camera al-lows users to view live, full-motion videofrom anywhere on the Internet or a com-puter network using a standard webbrowser. Unlike conventional PC webcameras, it has a built-in CPU and can trans-mit high-quality video images for secu-rity, surveillance and other types of moni-toring in homes, offices, banks, hospitals,

nursing homes, amusement parks andmany additional applications. The cam-era can be remotely managed, accessedand controlled by any PC or notebookcomputer and supports up to 100 simulta-neous users.

The Wireless Network IP Camera of-fers all of the advanced features availablein other INTELLINET ACTIVE NET-WORKING Professional Series cameras.These include exceptional image quality,direct image access, an enhanced applica-tion program interface (API) and user-based frame rate control. In addition, userscan specify the time interval for internalclock synchronization for time-criticalsecurity surveillance applications.

For maximum flexibility, open stan-dards including TCP/IP networking,SMTP e-mail, HTTP and other Internetprotocols are supported. In addition, thecamera can function in a mixed operatingsystem environment.

The Wireless Network IP Camera(model 550703) will be available in Feb-ruary at a manufacturer’s suggested retailprice of $499. High- and low-resolutionphotos and more information are avail-able at www.icin tracom.com.

Carl Zeiss has introduced the newAxioCam MRc5 high-resolution, colordigital camera with 5-megapixel CCD sen-sor, FireWire, high dynamics, and greatflexibility in read-out modes. In addition,the AxioCam MRc5 offers brilliant, truecolor, high-quality images rich in detail atan amazing price/performance ratio. It isperfectly designed to suit applications inpathology, histology, cytology, as well as,biology and materials research and test-ing.

The AxioCam MRc5, 5 megapixels,36-bit RGB color depth camera is basedon a new generation of innovative CCDsensors. Because of the increased pixeldensity and significantly higher imageresolution, these sensors produce colorimages of exceptional brilliance andneedle-sharp details. The camera featuresa dynamic range of 1:1300, with the 12bit digitization to ensure loss-free imagedynamics and to guarantee high perfor-mance when working with difficult speci-mens (e.g., reflecting surfaces in materialsmicroscopy).

AxioCam MRc5 offers exception-ally fast live image acquisition. Theframe rate can be freely selected, pro-viding an ideal ratio between speed of

data transmission and resolution thatthe specimen requires. Maximum elec-tronic signal processing guaranteesminimal interference, thus providingexcellent signal-to-noise ratio.

The FireWire interface allows directconnection to the laptop. The camera iscompletely integrated with the operatingsoftware to ensure that you have a power-ful and upgradeable digital imaging sys-tem, which includes image acquisition andprocessing functions. For more informa-tion contact Carl Zeiss MicroImaging, Inc.,Thornwood, NY 10594, 800-233-2343,www.zeiss. com/micro or email at [email protected].

PhoTags, Inc. has introduced V3.0 of theirActive Captions photo-messaging andmanagement technology in their DigitalPhoto Suite. Capabilities include acqui-sition of images from any source, organi-zation of images quickly and easily, edit-ing enhancing and sharing. The softwareallows creation of Digital Photo Albumswhich can be viewed, printed and burnedonto CD for viewing on PC’s or DVD play-ers. Calendars, greeting and postal cardscan be easily created from your images,including both sides of a 4”x6” postalcard. External editing software can belaunched directly from the application,applied and then returned directly to theapplication when finished. Active Cap-tions allows inserting captions, shapes,frames, keywords, photographer identityand categories in the JPEG photo file sodata are always part of the photograph andnot in a separate linked database. Thestored metadata do not impact the photo-graph and, along with select EXIF datastored in the image file, can be searcheddirectly from Windows at any time. Moreinformation at www.photags.com orwww.active captions.com.

Concord Camera demonstrated WiFi fordigital cameras at Photokina 2004, calledWIT® (Wireless Image Transfer). Theshowcase demonstration was a 2”x2” de-vice that plugged into the digital cameraUSB port and downloaded images to a PCusing IEEE 802.11b and 802.11g wire-less protocols. Downloads are as much as1500 times faster than GSM (GPRS) and20 times faster than Mobile G. The tech-nology enables a 4 MP image transfer in1/10s or video clip transfer at up to54Mb/s. The company is evaluating botha stand alone device and one integrated in

Display Maker 72UVR

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a digital camera. More information atwww.concordcamera.com

Epson introduced its PhotoPC L-4104Mpixel camera last summer. The camerawill capture up to 3 frames/sec at maxi-mum resolution up to the capacity of theoptional memory card. The camera fea-

StandardsContinued from page 9

selection of PDF version). Many currentdesign applications are capable of pro-ducing PDF files containing such struc-tures, and they are in widespread use bydesigners.

The reasoning behind prohibition oftransparency in previous parts of PDF/Xwas that different workflows, using prod-ucts from different vendors (or even differ-ent products from the same vendor or dif-ferent versions of the same product), arecapable of producing different printed re-sults from the same PDF file. That leads toa lack of predictability.

Over the years, since the introductionof PDF transparency (in PDF version 1.4),the variability of output has reducedsteadily. CGATS now believes that, by thetime 15930-7 is published and productscreating and consuming it are available tousers, that variability will have reducedstill further.

Rather than passively hope for such areduction, however, CGATS is also ac-tively developing a program designed todrive down that variability:• Adobe will be urged to issue an Adobe

technical note describing all the trans-parency blend modes that are not fullydocumented in PDF version 1.6.

• Representatives from a number of RIPvendors will work together to developas complete a set of unit test files aspossible. It is expected that Adobe willbe able to provide reference output fromthose test files (as electronic raster files).The test files and reference output willthen be made available to encouragevendors to develop their products to-wards a common rendering.The least technically sophisticated or

most conservative print sites may be un-able or unwilling to accept files requiringcolour management. In the same way,CGATS believes that those same sites willprobably be unwilling or unable to acceptfiles containing live PDF transparency.

tures 3x optical and 3x digital zoom, a1.5” LCD and Print Image Matching IIcompatibility for direct printing on en-abled printers. A Print Image Frame but-ton on the back of the camera allows theuser to add a frame to any image. The cam-era can be operated in fully automatic pointand shoot mode or in manual mode. While

CGATS therefore will recommend thatPDF transparency continue to be prohib-ited in PDF/X-1, but that it be allowed inPDF/X-3.

It is planned that the proposed drafttext for ISO 15930-7 will be submitted toTC130 at the May 2005 meeting in Lon-don and will be entered into DIS ballotshortly after that meeting.

New Parts for ISO 22028New Parts for ISO 22028New Parts for ISO 22028New Parts for ISO 22028New Parts for ISO 22028ISO 22028, Photography and graphictechnology—Extended colour encodingsfor digital image storage, manipulationand interchange, is a key imaging stan-dard being developed by TC42. Part 1:Architecture and requirements was pub-lished in 2004.

JWG 23, the Joint Working Group ofTC42 and TC130, which developed Part1 has two new parts ready for ballot as ISOTechnical Specifications. These are Part2: Reference output medium metric RGBcolour image encoding (ROMM RGB) andPart 3: Reference input medium metricRGB colour image encoding (RIMMRGB).

Both of these image encoding spaceshave larger gamuts than most RGB gam-uts. Their definitions follow the require-ments outlined in Part 1. It is hoped thatadditional encodings, useful in photo-graphic and graphic technology applica-tions, will be defined using the principlesoutlined in Part 1. Where their definitionis not specifically related to other stan-dards, it is suggested that they can becomeadditional parts of ISO 22028.

Image Quality Standards PublishedImage Quality Standards PublishedImage Quality Standards PublishedImage Quality Standards PublishedImage Quality Standards PublishedThe following 3-part standard, preparedby TC42, is in the final stages of publica-tion. This standard represents a significantstep in the standardization of image qual-ity evaluation procedures.• ISO 20462-1:2005, Photography—

psychophysical experimental methodsfor estimating image quality—Part 1:Overview of psychophysical elementsunder development

• ISO 20462-2:2005, Photography—Psychophysical experimental methodsfor estimating image quality—Part 2:Triplet comparison method

• ISO 20462-3:2005, Photography—psychophysical experimental methodsfor estimating image quality—Part 3:Quality ruler methodThese standards may be ordered from

www.iso.org or www.ansi.org.

New CIE PublicationsNew CIE PublicationsNew CIE PublicationsNew CIE PublicationsNew CIE PublicationsThe following recent CIE publicationsmay be of interest to the imaging com-munity.• Colorimetry CIE 15:2004 (3rd edition)

ISBN 3 901 906 33 9• A Review of Chromatic Adaptation

Transforms CIE 160:2004 ISBN 3 901906 30 4

• Chromatic Adaptation Under MixedIllumination Condition when Com-paring Softcopy and Hardcopy ImagesCIE 162:2004 ISBN 3 901 906 34 7

• Proceedings of the CIE Symposium ’04on LED Light Sources: Physical Mea-surement and Visual and Photobio-logical Assessment 7-8 June, 2004 To-kyo, Japan CIE x026:2004 ISBN 3 901906 36 3

• The Effects of Fluorescence in theCharacterization of Imaging MediaCIE 163:2004 ISBN 3 901 906 35 5

• CIE Standard S 012/E:2004 StandardMethod of Assessing the Spectral Qual-ity of Daylight Simulators for VisualAppraisal and Measurement of Colour

• CIE Draft Standard DS 014-1.2/E:2004Colorimetry—Part 1: CIE StandardColorimetric Observers

• CIE Draft Standard DS 014-2.2/E:2004Colorimetry—Part 2: CIE StandardIlluminants

Details and ordering information areavailable at www.cie.co.at.———————————————For suggestions (or input) for future up-dates or standards questions in general,please contact the author at [email protected] or [email protected].

it has 16MB memory built in, the cameraalso accepts Secure Digital (SD) memorycards up to 512MB. Power is supplied bya CR-V3 battery or can use 2-AA alkaline,NiCd or NiMH batteries. An AC adapter isavailable. Street price is estimated at$399USD. More information at www.epson.com.



IS&TThe Society for Imaging Science and Technology7003 Kilworth LaneSpringfield, Virginia 22151 USAwww.imaging.org

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Upcoming IS&T ConferencesUpcoming IS&T ConferencesUpcoming IS&T ConferencesUpcoming IS&T ConferencesUpcoming IS&T ConferencesApril 25-28, 2005 IS&T Archiving 2005Washington, DC General Co-chairs: Robert Buckley and Franziska Frey

Early Registration Deadline: March 26, 2005

May 9-12, 2005 DPP 2005 (co-located with GRAFIVAK 2005)Amsterdam, The Netherlands General Chair: Ramon Borrell


May 23-26, 2005 IS&T/CSIST 2005 Beijing International Conference on Imaging:Technology and Applications for the 21st CenturyBeijing, China Chairs: David Weiss, Rong-Qian Wen, and Pei-Jie Xia


September 18-23, 2005 NIP21: 21st International Congress on Digital Printing TechnologiesBaltimore, Maryland General Chair: Rita Hofmann

Call for Papers Deadline: February 28, 2005

September 18-21, 2005 Digital Fabrication Processes (co-located with NIP21) Baltimore, Maryland General Chair: James Stasiak

Call for Papers Deadline: February 28, 2005

November 8-11, 2005 CIC13 Color Science and Engineering: Systems, Technolgoies,Application Scottsdale, Arizona General Co-chairs: Po-Chieh Hung and Michael Brill

Call for Papers Deadline: April 1, 2005

For a more complete listing of imaging conferences, visit www.imaging.org

Other Meetings Other Meetings Other Meetings Other Meetings Other MeetingsMarch 6 - March 10, 2005Smart Structures and Materials/Nondestructure Evaluation for HealthMonitoring and Diagnostics JointConference San Diego, California.Sponsored by SPIE, [email protected]; 360/676-3290.

March 17 - March 20, 2005Photo Imaging Expo 2005 Tokyo, Japan.Sponsored by Fiji Sankei Business, +816-45-861-0075.

April 20 - April 22, 2005Ink Jet Printing Developers Conference2005 Geneva, Switzerland. Sponsored byIMI, [email protected]; +446-1223-235920.

April 24 - April 27, 2005Inter Society Color Council’s Symposiumon Automotive Color and AppearanceIssues Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored byISCC, [email protected]; 703/318-0263.

May 8 - May 13, 2005AIC Colour 05 Granada - 10th Congressof the International Colour Assn.Granada, Spain. Sponsored by AIC,[email protected]; +346-958-208650.

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Human Color Perception, Cognition

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