Human Element in airline trainng

A specialist paper by the Royal Aeronautical Society andthe Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators London

The humanelement in

airline training

April 2003

R O Y A L A E R O N A U T I C A L S O C I E T Y

The human element in airline training2

This Paper represents the views of the Specialist Group of the Society and of the Guild committee that was involved withits preparation. It has not been discussed outside the Learned Society Board or the Guild’s Secretariat. As such, it does not

necessarily represent the views of the Society or the Guild as a whole, or any other Specialist Group or Committee.

Founded in 1866 to further the science of aeronautics, theRoyal Aeronautical Society has been at the forefront of

developments in aerospace ever since. Today the Societyperforms three primary roles:

n to support and maintain the highest standards forprofessionalism in all aerospace disciplines;

n to provide a unique source of specialist information and acentral forum for the exchange of ideas;

n to exert influence in the interests of aerospace in both thepublic and industrial arenas.

Benefitsn Membership grades for professionals and enthusiasts aliken Over 19,000 members in more than 100 countriesn Over 70 Branches across the worldn Dedicated Careers Centren Publisher of three monthly magazinesn Comprehensive lecture and conference programmen One of the most extensive aerospace libraries in the world

The Society is the home for all aerospace professionals,whether they are engineers, doctors, air crew, air trafficcontrollers, lawyers, to name but a few. There is a grade ofmembership for everyone — from enthusiasts to captains ofindustry.

To join the Society please contact the Chief Executive,Royal Aeronautical Society, 4 Hamilton Place, LondonW1J 7BQ, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20 7670 4300. Fax: +44 (0)207670 4309. e-mail: [email protected]

Royal Aeronautical Society

At the forefront of change

The Royal Aeronautical Society has 20 Specialist InterestGroup Committees, each of which has been set up to

represent the Society in all aspects of the aerospace world.These committees vary in size and activity, but all theirmembers contribute an active knowledge and enthusiasm.The Groups meet four or five times a year and their mainactivities centre around the production of conferences andlectures, with which the Society fulfils a large part of itsobjectives in education and the dissemination of technicalinformation.

In addition to planning these conferences and lectures, theGroups also act as focal points for the information enquiriesand requests received by the Society. The Groups thereforeform a vital interface between the Society and the world atlarge, reflecting every aspect of the Society’s diverse andunique membership.

By using the mechanism of the Groups, the Society covers theinterests of operators and manufacturers, military and civilaviators, commercial and research organisations, regulatoryand administrative bodies, engineers and doctors, designersand distributors, company directors and students, and everyother group of professionals who work within aerospace.

Founded in 1929, the Guild is a Livery Company of the City ofLondon, receiving its Letters Patent in 1956.

With as Patron His Royal Highness The Prince Philip, Duke ofEdinburgh, KG, KT and as Grand Master His Royal HighnessThe Prince Andrew, Duke of York, CVO, ADC, the Guild is acharitable organisation that is unique amongst City LiveryCompanies in having active regional committees in Australia,Hong Kong and New Zealand.

Main objectivesn To establish and maintain the highest standards of air

safety through the promotion of good airmanship amongair pilots and air navigators.

n To constitute a body of experienced airmen available foradvice and consultation and to facilitate the exchange ofinformation.

n To raise the standard knowledge of airmen.n The make awards for meritorious achievement and to

issue Master Air Pilot and Master Air NavigatorCertificates.

n To assist air pilots and air navigators and their dependentswith their children’s education and those in need througha Benevolent Fund.

The first concern of the Guild is to sponsor and encourageaction and activities designed to ensure that aircraft whereverthey may be are piloted and navigated by highly competent,self reliant, dependable and respected people. The Guild hastherefore fostered the sound educational and training of airpilots and air navigators, from the initial training of the youngpilot to the specialist training of the more mature. It rewardsthose who have reached the top of their profession throughlong years of experience and accomplishment and those who,by their outstanding achievement, have added to the lustre oftheir calling.

The majority of Guild members are or have been professionallicence holders, both military and civil, but many are alsoprivate pilot licence holders. Guild members operate not onlyaircraft in airlines and all the branches of Her Majesty’s armedforces but also in every area of general aviation and sportingflying.

The aircraft flown range from supersonic military and civil,through single and multi-engine fixed-wing and helicopters,training aircraft, microlights, gliders and balloons, toexperimental aircraft. This is, for many members, theparticular strength and attraction of the Guild, with its diversespread of interests together with an entirely non-politicaloutlook, forbidding any trade union activities.

To join the Guild, please contact the Clerk, Guild of AirPilots and Air Navigators, Cobham House, 9 WarwickCourt, Gray’s Inn, London WC1R 5DJ, UK. Tel: +44 (0)207404 4032. Fax: +44 (0)20 7404 4035. e-mail:[email protected] and Website: http://www.gapan.org

Guild of Air Pilots and Navigators

A Guild of the City of London

The human element inairline training

A Paper prepared byCapt Ralph Kohn, FRAeS

Editorial TeamCapt Ronald Macdonald, FRAeS

Capt David Martin, FRAeSCapt Richard Hadlow, FRAeS

Peter Moxham, FRAeSPeter Richards, FRAeS

Reviewed byThe Committee of the Royal Aeronautical Society Flight Operations Group (FOG) and the

Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators of London Education and Training Committee

FLIGHT OPERATIONS GROUP

The Flight Operations Group has a committee membership of 25 persons from the airline operating and training sectors. Its primaryobjective is aviation safety and training.

The FOG is a discussion group which focuses on issues which primarily concern civil aviation, although it touches upon aviationsafety in the armed forces, specifically where the safety issues could be applicable to civilian operations. Its membership is highly

respected within the civil aviation operations areas and brings together countless years of experience in this field.

Flight Operations Group Committee memberrsCapt R Macdonald (Chairman), Capt R. Kohn (Vice chairman), B.M. Collings (Secretary), P.P. Baker, M. Bell, A.E. Bunn,

L. Foat (YMB), L.J. Ghibaut, M.P. Green, Capt P. Griffiths, Capt R.K.J. Hadlow, M.E.J. Hickmott, Capt J.C. Hutchinson, A. Lamb, Capt S.P.J. Lyttle, Capt D.A.J. Martin, Capt C. McLaughlan, P. Moxham, P.G. Richards, Capt T. Sindall,

Capt P.H.S. Smith, Capt A. Stokes, A.G. Thorning and Capt P. Wilson.Participating Consultants: Capt G. Fretz, Capt S. Lawrence (US Air) and R.C. Metcalfe (NATS).

GAPAN EDUCATION AND TRAINING COMMITTEEThe education and Training Committee is made up of past and present instructors and examiners from Civil Aviation and the

Armed Forces. Aircrew licensing and training matters are constantly kept under review and close links are maintained with theRegulatory Authorities to further general training quality and standards.

Education and Training Committee MembersCaptain D.A. Martin (Chairman), Grp Capt R.W. Gault (Vice chairman), G.P. Austin, D.M.S. Simpson, Sqdn Ldr A. Banfield, Capt M.

Butterworth, AVM P. Dodworth, Capt C.E. Elton, Capt R. Felix, Lt Col C. Finnigan, Capt G.L. Fretz, Capt T.R. Fulton, Capt I.W.B. Gibbs,Capt S.J. Green, Capt N.J. Harris, M.E.J. Hickmott, Mrs D. Hockings, Sqdn Ldr R. Jarvis, Capt R. Kohn, Capt D.A. Lewis, Capt D. Lewry,

Capt J. Mason, Capt A.C. MacLauchlan, Capt L. Watson and Sqdn Ldr N. Wilcock.

© Royal Aeronautical Society

April 2003 3


C O N T E N T S

The human element inairline training

CONTENTS

Glossary ............................................................................................................................................................... 5Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6

1.0 Airline flying instruction .............................................................................................................................. 71.1 The role of the instructor ............................................................................................................................ 71.2 How DO pilots and pilot-instructors feel about one another .................................................................. 8

2.0 Awareness of human feelings in flying training ....................................................................................... 82.1 Sources of Information ................................................................................................................................ 82.2 Where does one learn of Human Factors and related issues ................................................................... 92.3 Airline pilot instruction ............................................................................................................................... 9

3.0 The student and his instructors ..................................................................................................................103.1 General .........................................................................................................................................................103.2 Students ....................................................................................................................................................... 103.3 The instructor .............................................................................................................................................. 10

4.0 The air line training captain ...................................................................................................................... 104.1 General Criteria .......................................................................................................................................... 104.2 Selection (Required attributes in a training pilot) ................................................................................... 114.3 Necessary Considerations ........................................................................................................................... 12

5.0 The trainee pilot ......................................................................................................................................... 145.1 Obstacles to learning .................................................................................................................................. 145.2 Progress ........................................................................................................................................................145.3 Summary of training difficulties .................................................................................................................145.4 Student types ...............................................................................................................................................155.5 Breakdown by recognisable type of student ............................................................................................ 16

6.0 Phases of conversion to a new aircraft type ............................................................................................. 176.1 Phase 1 — Ground school ...........................................................................................................................176.2 Phase 2 — Systems trainer ..........................................................................................................................176.3 Phase 3 — Flight simulation ....................................................................................................................... 186.4 Phase 4 — Base training (aircraft handling, take-off and landing practice) .......................................... 186.5 Phase 5 — Route (or Line) training ............................................................................................................196.6 Return to normal operations ..................................................................................................................... 206.7 The next six months .................................................................................................................................... 20

7.0 The failed student ....................................................................................................................................... 207.1 Degree of failure .........................................................................................................................................207.2 The FAILED situation ................................................................................................................................... 217.3 The deteriorating performance ................................................................................................................. 22

8.0 Thought to ponder ..................................................................................................................................... 238.1 Nobody is perfect ....................................................................................................................................... 23.9.0 Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................................... 23

Appendix A: Looking at training in Europe under JAA regulations ............................................................ 24Appendix B: CRM facilitation — Instruction Techniques ............................................................................... 25Appendix C: JAA/JAR Licensing ....................................................................................................................... 28

Training and examining ............................................................................................................. 29Instructor and examiner requirements ..................................................................................... 31

Appendix D: Required reading for Instructors and Examiners ..................................................................... 35Appendix E: Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 38Appendix F: Useful addresses .......................................................................................................................... 41Appendix G: Rationale and acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 43

April 2003 5

GLOSSARY

GLOSSARY

Term DefinitionA Aeroplane(s)Ab Initio Latin for ‘From the beginning’; as in Elementary

Flying TrainingAE Authorised ExaminerAIC Aeronautical Information Circular (UK CAA)AME Aviation Medical ExaminerATC Air Traffic ControlATPL Airline Transport Pilot LicenceATTITB Air Transport and Travel Industry Training BoardBALPA British Air Line Pilots AssociationCAA Civil Aviation Authority, UK National Aviation

RegulatorCAP Civil Aviation Publication, UK CFIT Controlled Flight Into TerrainCFS Central Flying School; RAF school for Service Flight

InstructorsCPL Commercial Pilot LicenceCRE Class Rating ExaminerCRI Class Rating InstructorCRM Crew Resources ManagementEU European UnionFCL Flight Crew LicensingFI Flying InstructorFL Flight LevelFRAeS Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical SocietyFTO Flying Training OrganisationGA General AviationGD Guidance DocumentGAPAN Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators, LondonGASIL General Aviation Safety Information Leaflet (UK CAA)GID General Information Document (UK CAA)H Helicopter(s)HF Human Factors (ergonomics); the study of the

efficiency of people in their working environmentICAO International Civil Aviation OrganizationInter alia Latin for ‘Among others’I/R Instrument RatingIRE Instrument Rating ExaminerIRI Instrument Rating InstructorJAA Joint Aviation AuthoritiesJAR Joint Aviation Regulation(s)JAR/FCL1 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements

(Aeroplane pilots)JAR/FCL2 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements

(Helicopter pilots)JAR/FCL3 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Medical RequirementsJAR OPS 1 JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements

(Aeroplanes)

Term DefinitionJAR OPS 3 JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements

(Helicopters)LASORS Licensing, Administration & Standardisation,

Operating Requirements & Safety manual(UK CAA Publication)

LOFT Line Oriented Flight TrainingMCC Multi Crew Co-operationME Multi-engineMPA Multi-Pilot AeroplaneMRAeS RAeS membership grade; Member of the Royal

Aeronautical SocietyNAA National Aviation (Regulatory) AuthorityNPPL National Private Pilot LicencePIC Pilot In CommandPLD Personnel Licensing Department (UK CAA) PPL Private Pilot LicenceRA Radio AltimeterRAF Royal Air ForceRAeS Royal Aeronautical SocietyRaison d’être Reason for being; French termRVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minima

(above FL 290)SE Single-engineSET Single engine turbo-propeller aircraftSFE Synthetic Flight ExaminerSFI Synthetic Flight InstructorSPA Single Pilot AeroplanesTMG Touring Motor GliderTO/GA Take-off/Go-around; power setting selected via

throttle mounted switchesTRE Type Rating ExaminerTRI Type Rating InstructorTRTO Type Rating Training OrganisationUK United KingdomVade-mecum Latin for ‘Go with me’; a useful handbook carried

for constant reference (pocket companion) VAT Velocity at Threshold (1?3 Vs)VMCG Minimum Control Speed to keep aircraft straight

using rudder while on the runway, after enginefailure during take-off

VR Rotation Speed; speed at which the aircraft is liftedoff the ground and into the air during take-off

Vs Stalling speed for a given weight andconfiguration

V1 Speed up to which take-off can be safelydiscontinued on a particular runway

V2 Minimum Safety speed after becoming airborne,for a given aircraft weight


I N T R O D U C T I O N

ABOUT HUMAN BEINGS IN PROFESSIONAL PILOT TRAINING

INTRODUCTION

1. ‘Human factors in airline training’ was published in the January1985 edition of Aerospace, the Royal Aeronautical Society’smonthly magazine. Before its re-issue as this Guidance Documentby the same author, it has been consolidated and revised to bringit up to date with reference to regulatory matters that have sincechanged, though the manner that people interrelate betweenone another has not.

2. Because of the enormous financial penalties that result fromhuman factor related accidents in the aviation community, thereis continued need to address positively all issues that may affecthuman beings involved with flight operations, to identify causesof error and ideally eliminate such costly events. This documentwhich is primarily intended for airline pilot instructors and theirselectors, will hopefully complement work done in other areas;such as fatigue control, stress awareness and obligatory CRMtraining, all of which have already been given attention on theway to increased responsiveness when addressing human needsat every staffing level. Airline management must lead from thetop by example, if true progress is to be achieved in human factorawareness.

3. To that end, it was thought timely to review the inter-actionforces that are ever present between human beings in the worldof teaching, for the guidance of those who are new to airline andother forms of aviation training, and as a reminder for airlineinstructors. Although the words in this paper may sound likepreaching to the converted, one must remember that thedocument is essentially aimed at those who are new to theinstruction scene, and others with a need to broaden their inter-personal relationship perspective in the world of instruction. It isalso intended to focus the mind on instructor selection issues.

4. Of necessity, guidance on how best to deal with problemstudents is kept brief and must not be seen as an over-simplification of the problem. It is only meant as an introductionon how to deal with the rare difficult student and is presented intelegraphic style for economy of space and to make relevantpoints in the fewest words. Such guidance may need to beexpanded before use in airline manuals for instructors, if themaximum desirable result is to be achieved.

5. With the advent of Crew Resource Management (CRM) trainingand the Multi Crew Co-operation (MCC) course, a certain amount

of ‘human factors’ guidance has been made available. Yet there isstill some way to go in providing instructors and examiners withall the suitable material that could be of help when dealing withtheir charges, in the new JAA environment where there seems tobe a resurgence of the regrettable check-to-chop mentality thatwas part of the scene in by-gone days. This negative attitude maybe the result of the way Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) arepresented and interpreted. Some failings of the present systemare identified in this document without offering a solution indetail, because in-depth answers are considered to be outside itsscope. However, a number of possible avenues to follow areoccasionally suggested but any present system faults noted werethought best left for others to correct, once mentioned.

6. At all levels in society at large, the grant of ‘authority’ has beenknown to create bullies with power to create most unfortunatesituations, therefore such undesirables are best weeded out whenidentified. Careful selection should stop such people from enteringand negatively affecting the training system because of theircharacter. The alternative of trying to change individuals with amore authoritarian personality into more co-operative,empathetic and ‘sensitive’ persons, may be a mistake. Just by hisattitude, an instructor (or examiner) has it in his power toencourage and uplift, or he can depress, dispirit, dishearten,discourage, demoralise and destroy confidence, indeed careers.Guard against becoming such a person. Maintain an unobtrusive,unassuming and well-relaxed attitude when teaching, to reducethe inevitable stress your students may suffer at varying levels andremain considerate towards your fellow ‘airman’. Offerconstructive training at all times to achieve the necessary standardand encourage good performance, while remaining fair but firmin the role of a teacher that will not tolerate mediocrity.Ultimately, always teach a disciplined approach to flying, constantvigilance, situational awareness and encourage communicationwithin the operating team in a spirit of flight safety consciousness.

7. The relationships between primary flying school/aero-club andairline training may have certain points in common, as do theirteaching techniques, but the human factors involved are subtlydifferent and need to be addressed separately. A paper offeringguidance similar to this GD, could therefore be developed toadvantage for those who teach self-sponsored, airline subsidisedor military students to become pilots. Primary selection at thatpoint-of-entry level includes physical fitness, the necessaryintellectual and co-ordination motor skills, interpersonalcommunication qualities and suitability for the intendedappointment upon graduation. (For more on the subject, see Soyou want to be a pilot, published in June 2002 by the RAeS inconjunction with GAPAN).

8. While on the theme of initial selection criteria, it may be usefulto offer a brief thought on the choice of aircrew and the dangerof only looking for a particular type of personality when pickingotherwise suitable individuals to train as pilots. The risk is that byonly looking for those with the highest intellect, or having aspecific peripheral ability, too many ‘management types’ will beselected. The frustration of those rejected for executiveadvancement in later years will result in a dissatisfied majoritywork force with few contented ‘bus drivers’ who have nomanagerial aspirations but are happy to shuttle from A to B, theessential heart and soul of an operation.

9. Although the issue is essentially outside the scope of thisdocument, it must also be pointed out that students may failselection at various stages, through not achieving the imagerequired by the civil or military sponsor concerned, because of aconscious corporate decision that only wants a particular kind ofperson to train as a pilot; hence the discarding of otherwisecompetent students because they do not meet this covert and

Boeing 747-400, Boeing flight line, Seattle (WA) USA.

The instructor unit should reflect the caring image of a protectivefamily group intent on helping the new brood of fledglings that need

to be successfully taught to fly safely …

April 2003 7

A I R L I N E F L Y I N G I N S T R U C T I O N

generally unstated selection standard. Such attitudes are patentlyunfair to an otherwise perfectly adequate potential trainee pilotand are most certainly short sighted, but they are hard to change.Candidates who persevere and succeed may one day become theward of someone who has read this guidance document. Do notdenigrate or privately pour scorn at their success, but give themcredit for what they have achieved in spite of prejudice and helpthem to become as good a pilot as yourself. Motivation,commitment and determination must be encouraged, though notat the cost of accepting mediocrity. You may well be the finalarbiter that makes or breaks careers. Needless to say, it is aresponsibility not to be taken lightly.

10. To close this introduction and in acknowledgement of thenumerous women pilots in our profession, please accept thatwhere for the sake of brevity and to reduce repetition thepronoun ‘he’ is used in this document, it should be read to mean‘he or she’.

1.0 AIRLINE FLYING INSTRUCTION

1.1 The role of the instructor

11. Being an airline instructor can be a most satisfying task forthose who enjoy helping others. The best results are achieved ina friendly, generally relaxed, happy and constructive, pleasantlywarm (figuratively and literally) educational environment. Anencouraging and caring approach is of the essence, whilepatience and wisdom beyond the years of a young instructor isneeded from the very start of a teaching career. Instructors, bothindividually and collectively, in the group that is involved with thetraining of pilots in an airline or elsewhere, must take a personalinterest in the welfare and progress of those who are entrustedto their care, much like a parent. Trainees inevitably suffer varyingamounts of stress due to the make-or-break situation theyperceive they are in. It is most important to recognise and reducethis stress if the best is to be obtained from students who maylook up to their instructor(s) with awe in the case of the morejunior pilots, mingled with a certain amount of trepidation andprobably also fear. Whatever the level of experience, you can besure that the fear of failure is ever present in the mind of everystudent pilot, young or old, and needs to be controlled by theteacher if the desired result is to be achieved by both the traineeand his mentor.

1.1.1 General training aspects, stress and differences instudent progress rates

12. Training should be geared to recognise and then deal with thevariable progress rates of an otherwise fundamentally soundpilot-to-be. In brief, stay alive to the slow learners and teach themaccordingly (slowly, caringly and with patience?) to achieve thedesired result.

13. The instructor unit should reflect the caring image of aprotective family group intent on helping the new brood offledglings that need to be successfully taught to fly safely,whether in ab initio flying circles or when converting moreexperienced pilots to a different aircraft type in an airline. In bothenvironments the pilot-to-instructor relationship remains broadlysimilar while a pilot is under tuition, with varying and constantlychanging interpersonal factor levels slowly developing as timegoes by. As training progresses, the instructor’s image graduallychanges from that of a person from whom something is wantedto that of an ‘examiner’, who thus becomes (in the trainee’s mind)a career threat to overcome and hence no longer welcome on theflight deck.

1.1.2 The 21st century flight deck

14. A particular word of early warning needs to be spoken in thisday and age of ‘glass cockpits’ and automatic flight computers.One cannot allow a pilot to learn how a system really works bytrial and error in the fullness of time, if the computer softwarelogic is not clearly understood at the ground school stage orbefore flight training. Instructors must therefore be particularlycareful to make sure that their trainees have a thoroughunderstanding of all the information presented on the flightinstruments and that the selection procedures of all on-boardflight system modes are carefully taught and noticeablyunderstood. Clearly, it is most important for trainees to be fullyconversant from an early stage with how to correctly set up theprogrammes for desired flight profiles, whether in auto-flightmodes or to provide Flight Director guidance when handling theaircraft manually.

15. From the very start in the present generation of sophisticatedcontemporary flight decks, it is vital for a pilot to have an in-depth understanding of what one can or cannot do. In particular,that pilot input will cause the aircraft to react only to the limits ofcriteria programmed into the flight computer and that reactionmight not be as expected. For example, an A320 pilot must beaware of changes to computer flight control laws that occur nearthe ground during an approach to landing, and know aboutautomated safeguards like the ‘Alpha floor’ function which is astall protection feature that sets TO/GA thrust automaticallywhen the aircraft reaches a very high angle of attack, a shieldavailable from lift-off to 100 feet RA before touchdown. Theintricacies of ‘glass cockpits’ and allied new auto-flight andautomatic flight envelope protection computers must thereforebe well understood by those who are under tuition, becausethere is no time to learn by making mistakes after release tonormal operations, particularly as some mistakes could be fatal. Itis also vital for the student learning to fly a ‘glass cockpit’ to befully conversant with how to fly the aircraft when a majorcomputer fails, forcing reversion to basic stand-by flightinstruments. Training management must ensure that there is nosignificant technology gap to bridge within the training unit andthat all instructors are fully competent to convey any newtechnology to students.

16. The introduction of glass cockpits and computer-controlledflight, have produced other problems. One distinctive aspect offlight operations that has not improved safety quite as expected,

Boeing 767-400.


H U M A N F E E L I N G S

relates to the introduction of inadequate ‘need-to-know’ trainingand is a matter that needs to be resolved satisfactorily by honestappraisal of the situation. Another of the many so-calledimprovements that have led to more problems than they havealleviated, is in-flight automation. Computerisation has had aconsiderable impact on manual piloting dexterity which suffersbecause of the lack of flying practice caused by the extensive useof ‘automatic flight’ during normal operations on state-of-the-artaircraft. The consequential deterioration in handling proficiencyneeds to be countered by suitably appropriate refresher trainingto regain proficiency, during mandatory periodic testing sessionsthat flight crew members undergo at regular intervals as requiredby current legislation.

1.2 How do pilots and pilot-instructors feel about one another?

17. How do people feel when undergoing instruction? What aretheir thoughts and how do they react to the manner informationis being offered them? How well does the instructor teach? Howably does he handle the group or the individuals within it, toachieve the desired result? Lastly, how do the trainees andinstructors relate to one another? The currently in-favour phrase‘human factors’ refers to all of these, whenever people and theirfeelings are involved. Then again, human factors can also dealwith the integration of the human being into an aircraftenvironment, as well as other flight deck issues. Hopefully,readers will find some of the answers in this compilation ofthoughts about people that have been gleaned from experienceover the years as a teacher of 'ab initio' student pilots, then laterin the airline pilot and pilot-instructor environments.

18. Sharing your enthusiasm in flying is a good way to bridge thestudent-teacher gap. Imitation being the highest form of flattery,hope that those you teach will be sufficiently motivated by yourattitude to want to be like you or, better still, strive to at leastequal if not better your performance. The feel-good result ofseeing your students developing into able and happy pilots ismost satisfying.

2.0 AWARENESS OF HUMAN FEELINGS IN FLYING TRAINING

2.1 Sources of information

19. A trainee instructor in the UK can find a certain amount ofinformation about the practicalities of how to become aninstructor. Generally speaking, in the world of ab initio trainingwithin the aero-club and flying school environments, little iscovered other than the basic rudiments of ‘flying instructionpatter’; that is, the standard words to be used when a flightmanoeuvre or procedure is taught. A new instructor will findsome guidance that will prepare him for the problems that hemay, indeed WILL encounter when dealing with students andother people around him with respect to the basic personalemotions involved. These ‘human factors’ can be best described asthe ability, some might say the art, of relating to others andunderstanding behaviour.

20. The world of airline flying can be an even greater literarydesert with regard to how people feel, inter-react or respond toone another. Some Regulatory Authorities include an amount of‘human factors’ material in course notes for would-be instructors.In addition, the last ten years or so have seen the publication of anumber of books on the subject. However, apart from what isbriefly mentioned in JAA JAR OPS/JAR FCL documents and someUK CAA publications, only extracts of relevant information arereflected in the rare airline in-house guidance material preparedfor those about to join a company ‘training section’, for studyprior to the new four-day CAA (JAA/JAR) TRI/TRE standardisationCore Course at Gatwick that has replaced the longer two weeksAuthorised Examiner (AE) course of old. There is still much to doto improve the situation.

21. Ideally, guidance notes for instructors and examiners shouldbe prepared in the form of a very comprehensive vade-mecumcovering all aspects of importance to the holder, with addedwords on the human factors aspects of the job. It should besuitable for use as a comprehensive teaching instrument andreference source during the in-house preparation of training staffabout to become Simulator Instructors. Later, it can also be usedto refresh memory when appointments follow to Instrument andType Rating Examiner on simulators and/or aircraft in the JAR-FCLprogression.

2.1.1 New Instructors

22. In the past, only a few major UK operators prepared theirpilots in depth for the move to the training role even thoughsome of the newcomers to training had never been exposed toany formal instructional skills tuition prior to being asked to teachand test. Candidates sent on the CAA Authorised Examiner courseto be taught the rudiments of testing pilots on behalf of theAuthority, were expected to ‘automagically’ return as fully-fledged instructors/examiners after their few days with the CAA.It was also assumed they now knew all about human feelings orfailings, though little if any tuition on the subjects was offered onthat course. In contrast, RAF pilots at Central Flying School havesome human factors awareness developed before they areallowed to teach or test.

23. Under JAA/JAR Regulations, aircraft operators now have theadded responsibility for dealing with the conversion of theirtraining-pilots-to-be to the instruction and examining role. Newinstructors can either be trained in-house or at an approvedtraining centre, in consolidation of the present CAA four-day core'standardisation' course that offers less than the old ten working-days course did. In the old AE course, an attempt was made todiscuss the teaching role in addition to addressing examiningtechniques. When possible, albeit on an individual basis, the

The modern ‘glass cockpit’ of the A340-600.

April 2003 9

H U M A N F E E L I N G S

candidate would also be introduced, to the understanding ofbehaviour or why other human beings react as they do in certaincircumstances. What very little time is now available on the ‘corecourse’ is devoted to moulding the candidate as a TRI/TRE tosatisfy JAR-FCL guidance. It follows that both ‘How to instruct’training and any introduction to ‘Human factors’ rate, ofnecessity, low in priority because the assessment of flyingperformances takes precedence.

2.1.2 Check-to-chop competency tests or recurrent training?

24. Words of caution need to be spoken regarding the tendencyfor JAR-FCL proficiency tests to become a recurrent pass or failhurdle for professional pilots to jump at regular intervals, becauseof the way the Regulations are written and then understood bysome examiners.

25. Operators (and Regulatory Authorities) must remember that itis important to use periods allocated to recurrent testing also forrefresher training. It should not be considered wrong for therecord to show that a test was successful after repeated practiceif necessary, to achieve once again the required standard. Whenthe required level of proficiency is reached and competenceregained in dealing with a rarely experienced flight emergencybetween refresher training sessions, it should be accepted thatthe spirit of the test has been satisfied and a better-prepared pilotproduced by this exposure to repeating the exercise. The check-to-chop approach, meaning to test a pilot with every intention offailing him so as to remove him from the scene, should be firmlydiscouraged; but it must be recognised that on the rare occasionwhen an inability to perform adequately is noted or where asevere degradation in demonstrated performance has occurredand cannot be explained, more training may not produceenhanced competence and withdrawal from the operation mightneed to be seriously considered.

26. Constructive instruction is of the essence and the tools arethere to achieve this economically. In lieu of training on anaircraft with its safety-dictated limitations and comparativelyhigh running costs, it is fortunate that the present generation of

flight simulators allow errors that could otherwise be fatal to bemade in total safety on the ground, from which lessons are learnt.In addition, the simulator’s ability for frequent resets permits therepeat of an exercise with the least amount of wasted time, toreinforce a message or procedural point. Simulators are also usedin real time to familiarise crews with normal, abnormal andemergency procedures during Line Oriented Flight Training(LOFT) sessions and practice circuit work, making them suchversatile and useful training tools. The most important word isTraining within a regular recurrent crew-testing programme, tolegally satisfy Regulations while achieving practically, theessential best possible and operationally-safe result.

2.2 Where does one learn of human factors and related issues?

27. Like most of the author’s colleagues and contemporaries, hislittle knowledge of human beings was gleaned at a person-to-person level and by day-to-day contact with working associates inaviation. Much was learned over the years by observing andtalking to other more experienced instructors, both good andbad. Regretfully, learning also came by making mistakes.

28. During my early days as a flying instructor and examiner, thecorrect decisions may have been reached by erring on the hardside. Was ‘failing’ a pilot on those occasions due to notrecognising his needs or a silent cry for help? Would a wiser orolder instructor, indeed one who had been taught by moreenlightened mentors, have acted differently in the circumstances?It is clear that a happier teacher and assessor of performancewould have resulted earlier if good tutors in human factorsawareness had been available. Where does one then learn aboutHuman Factors?

29. The dearth of human factors information and guidance hasprompted much work since 1985, to fill a glaring gap on thesubject. May the thoughts offered herein add to now availableguidance, for both new and mature pilot instructors to consideras a possible (maybe even probable) reaction of one human beingtowards another in aviation, if nowhere else.

2.3 Airline pilot instruction

30. There is a need for simply written material specifically aimedat bringing into focus human emotions and the reaction of thehuman ‘animal’ to situations in general. This should be madefreely available to all, but in particular instructors, who shouldreceive it at a very early stage in their life as teachers. Others whohave to deal with people, such as managers, staff supervisors andpilots of course, must not be overlooked since such guidance isjust as important for them.

31. It is rare indeed to find teachers addressing this subject inopen class anywhere, when secondary education ignores it as asubject to be taught. These days, flying training organisations dotry harder to promote human factors awareness in instructors,beyond the content of student pilot Multi Crew Co-operation(MCC) or Crew Resource Management (CRM) courses.Notwithstanding, instructors, be they civilians or military, usuallyneed to find out and learn ‘the hard way’ about human feelingsand reactions, provided that they are sensitive enough to clearly‘see’ what is going on in the mind of those they have to deal with.Those with better honed levels of self-awareness soon find outthat emotions affect their students’ behaviour or decision-makingand how, then act accordingly to reduce stress and avoidconfrontational situations.

32. In the flying profession, there are some who have progressedto civil flying straight from school or university on the way tobecoming instructors, while others come from the Armed Forces

A student and his instructor.


S T U D E N T A N D I N S T R U C T O R S

with a vastly different world of discipline and motivation. It isprimarily for the former group that this paper has been written.Nonetheless, it is also for those who may well be qualified,mature military pilot instructors but who are now in civil aviation.May the former quickly become happy instructors, if only becauseof a heightened awareness of human emotion in the flyingtraining environment and may this first bite at human factors atthis person-to-person level encourage them to seek greatersuccess and understanding when dealing with others; and maythe latter find something useful to note, even if only to refresh amemory.

33. The thoughts that follow are in no way intended to re-inventthe flight instruction wheel that is an accepted part of the scene.This attempt at analysing different types of human beings andtheir feelings, just illustrates another facet of the product forthose who have not had a chance to see it with a human elementaura at grass roots level. Maybe unrecognised, human factorshave been about from time immemorial but the quest for a betterunderstanding of the human situation is comparatively new.

3.0 THE STUDENT AND HIS INSTRUCTORS

3.1 General

34. Three aspects require consideration in the student/instructorrelationship. First there is a need to study the type of student aninstructor may have to deal with. Then one needs to addressinstructor qualities, with guidance on how he should behave inthe role of the teacher. These two parts have been kept short andtheir style almost telegraphic, because contents are intended asflags to trigger thought. Finally, an attempt is made to bring intofocus the feelings of those undergoing instruction on an aircrafttype conversion course.

35. Before the instructor is offered help in recognising andresponding to the many subtle and not so subtle vibrations thatcome across from trainee to trainer, student and instructorfeelings are given a brief look prior to being readdressed later,when the theme is developed and the feelings of those giving orundergoing instruction in an airline are explored and studied inparallel.

3.2 Students

36. Throughout training, students display numerous feelings ofanxiety for a number of reasons. Anxiety may severely inhibitperformance and handicap the display of capability, indeed evenruin both. Some of the fears experienced might include worryover being graded below standard or the embarrassment at beingunable to adapt to new equipment, with the consequential effecton career. Sometimes fear of the instructor also inhibitsperformance, for various reasons.

37. At times it is difficult to establish whether anxiety is present.It is almost certainly present in some degree however when thestudent is seen to be confused. If training is to be successful, thewhole of the instruction package needs to aim at alleviatingemotional stress, or reducing it to a minimum.

38. The student needs a friendly constructive atmosphere with acomfortably relaxed environment to work in. He can then devotehimself wholeheartedly to the required task of learning in apositive frame of mind, inevitably a little tense at the disruptionof his normal well-assimilated operational routine. Theunderlying fear of failure to convert to the new type tends tomake him more tense than necessary, because it threatens areturn to ‘normality’, as he sees it.

3.3 The Instructor

39. A flying instructor can observe marked differences ofbehaviour throughout the various phases of training studentpilots. These may appear as recognisable behaviour patterns thatcall for varying approaches to teaching. Errors observed andindifferent progress could be due to the student’s attitude. Thismay vary according to the type of person that he is. On occasion,attitude may be further affected by short-term stresses broughtabout by day-to-day factors affecting his personal life. These mayencroach upon his ability to complete a task otherwise wellwithin his reach.

40. The instructor therefore needs to be especially aware of thebackground forces of disruption that could affect what shouldotherwise be a relaxed transition period. He must try to ease thetask of the student and not contribute to the development ofunnecessary stressful situations.

41. Encouragement is one key attitude, but beware of too muchpraise too soon. This may become counterproductive by lullingthe subject into believing that he does not need to work quite ashard as he otherwise would, with a consequential reduction inperformance. A small amount of stress is useful as a spur towardsbetter results, but it must be judiciously applied so as not tooverload the learning curve, otherwise the individual ceases toabsorb information and becomes demoralised. So beware ofusing stress as a tool to keep students “on their toes” sinceexcessive stress can promote a sense of failure and overwhelmstudents, to the point that they cease learning and becomedefensive.

4.0 THE AIRLINE TRAINING CAPTAIN

4.1 General Criteria

42. If the quality of training pilots is to be consistently high, threethings are necessary. Selection of the right people comes first.Teaching them how to instruct follows, after which ensuring thatthey know the operator’s training arrangements and their subjectmatter well, completes the picture. The training structure tobecome familiar with includes its organisation, the equipment to

An instructor and his students.

April 2003 11

A I R L I N E T R A I N I N G C A P T A I N

be used, company flight standards and training procedures. Newinstructors must also be taught to apply the type-syllabus andhow to administer all the required checks or tests, assessperformance, write clear concise reports, complete paperworkcorrectly and last but not least, make sound, impartial andhopefully objective recommendations.

4.2 Selection — Required attributes in a training pilot

4.2.1 Instructor specification

43. The teaching and learning tasks involved in training arerecognised to be inherently stressful, making it important toselect the right type of person to be an instructor and examiner.Specific qualities desired of a training pilot are virtually endless.Very few people are found to reflect a majority of these. Threemain attributes required are integrity, the ability to co-operatewith others in an operational flying training organisation andmoral courage; that is the guts to stand firm in the face ofdisapprobation from less principled colleagues regarding theethics that should apply when dealing with a situation. Generallyspeaking, the ability to instruct and a gregarious nature with anamiable and essentially friendly disposition are other desirablequalities. To these one should add a genuine liking of people andthe ability to communicate.

44. Motivation to give, not self-interest, should be sought byselectors who should look out for those clever enough to disguisetheir motives. Such ‘mavericks’ who crave power and authoritycan rise through the instructor ranks if allowed, creating maligninfluence (indeed mayhem) until forced out, only to show upelsewhere and repeat the performance. Because technicalattainment is easier to establish when selecting training staff, itmay dominate the selection process that ought to primarily assessdisposition (the person's natural qualities of character) afterwhich other traits can be considered.

45. The list should include appearance, personal bearing, thenecessary stamina required of training personnel, professionalability, a practical outlook, perseverance of achievement, tact,patience and an understanding nature. One very importantquality is the need to control stress rather than create it.

Sensitivity to situations and fair impartiality are also worthlooking out for. Seniority in an organisation must never be theprimary selection condition.

46. Instructors are often chosen from the ranks of seniorindividuals, due to their professional status and expertise ratherthan their teaching ability. How one identifies an individual as apotentially good teacher rather than indifferent instructorrequires human sensitivity on the part of the selectors, andsometimes the moral courage to identify less senior individualsfor instructor status over more experienced but less sensitivesuperiors in the hierarchy.

4.2.2 Individual acceptability

47.The instructor should be versed in technical knowledge and beable to explain the facts and the principles of his subject(s) andjustify conclusions about them ... the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of technicaltheory. He should be operationally competent, that is able tooperate the type efficiently and in addition be capable ofexplaining clearly how it is made to function and why eachprocedural step taught is needed. He will also be a pilot whoseeveryday skill level indicates that he has the added capacity toperform an instructing task and he must be widely experienced inpractical line operations, locally, nationally and/or internationally,as required. Furthermore, he will also be acceptable. The sensegiven to the notion of acceptability is concerned with therecognition, belief and even approval that a training pilot can hopefor from the pilot group within which he will have to function.

48. Instructors must remain alive to the importance of 'trainingsuccess' for a trainee because it affects his livelihood and personalstatus, thus causing understandable anxieties. With so much atstake it follows that trainees can be expected to be ruthless critics.They know at once if a training pilot is bluffing or pretending.Even if he is not, trainees are easily driven to anger by a style thatmay seem unduly authoritarian, aggressive, arrogant oremotional. To conclude, Credibility is another essential for aninstructor who will also show signs of practical generalreasonableness, bearing in mind his diverse responsibilities to thecompany, the trainees and the travelling public.

4.2.3 Advocated seven-point selection plan — Summary ofselection criteria, in no particular order

49.Physical Attributes: Health, physique, stamina, appearance,bearing and speech.Attainments: Education; vocational training and development;operational training and record; operational experience;technical knowledge; personal operating standards.General intelligence: Operational awareness and prudence;operating problem appreciation and analysis; quickness toappreciate changing operational needs; potential to impartknowledge and skill.Special aptitudes: Facility with words, figures or diagrams;technical or scientific qualifications; teaching or trainingqualifications; marked mechanical aptitude; marked manualdexterity; previous instructional experience.Interests: Intellectual, Practical and maybe also Sporting, if only tobroaden the choice spectrum. Disposition: Identification with Company style and standards inhigh professional terms, not influenced by any culture tending tocutting corners for profit. Integrity can still be influenced bycompany perspectives and loyalty may be ultimately be put to thetest. It needs to be unassailable. Candidates to be examples of dress and smartness; self-respectand self-reliance; dependability; willingness to acquire newknowledge and skills (specially in training); potential to persevereand lead; show understanding, patience and tact; analyse

Pre-flight checks.



individual performance problems and inspire confidence as anoperational exemplar.Circumstances: Appreciation of social effects of appointment(changes in working relationships); appreciation of and effects ofappointment (changes in work pattern); need for domesticharmony and approval.

50. With regard to Circumstances, prospective training staffshould be aware of the requirements demanded of the individualand of the resultant changes in operational life that anyappointment in the training role inevitably brings about. Theensuing effects on home life must be considered, understood andbe acceptable to spouses who must appreciate the possible timeand emotional demands that a move to the training role wouldhave on their partner. Pressures on the home front that couldaffect the necessary stress-free attitude of a prospective instructormay preclude any such move, however suitable the candidate.This is where an eighth point comes into play; namely honesty toarrive at a correct decision, the first of many yet to come as aninstructor and examiner. Honest self-assessment would have thelast say on whether to accept the appointment or not.

51. Because personality traits are generally established early in lifeand are difficult to eradicate, it would be a mistake to recruit asan instructor a senior pilot with a more authoritarian personalityfor whom CRM means “You do what I tell you to do”. This type ofperson may well become a successful pilot but, one feels, willnever make the best instructor. Such pilots may learn thelanguage and play the role in order to obtain advancement andstatus, but they can be identified by behaviour, past and present.It is therefore best not to allow them into the training fold, evenagainst an unfounded hope of turning them into empathetic andconsiderate instructors.

52. Selectors should take into account that there are instructorswho are naturally aware of human factors issues due to their basicpersonality structure, some who can learn about them, and otherswhose personalities will never allow them to accept human factorsissues as valid instructional techniques. Recognising the characterof individuals in the latter case requires human sensitivity andmoral courage from the part of the selectors. Both qualities are ofparamount necessity when deciding who will and who will not beselected to become an instructor. It should be noted that pilotsrated as having an ‘exceptional’ handling ability do not alwaysmake good instructors. Such 'exceptional pilots’ may be unable tounderstand why others cannot match their own skill levels.

53. As a codicil to the selection procedure and as a practical toolto its application, competence as an instructor can be looked forin part during the formal selection process by observing candidateinstructors in their capacity as instructors, both in the didacticsituation and in a cockpit setting.

4.2.4 CRM instructors

54. Specific attributes required of CRM instructors are set out inGuide to Performance Standards for Instructors of CRM Training inCommercial Aviation, published in 1998 as a joint product of theRAeS, the UK CAA and the Aviation Training Association (ATA). Itcomplements Required Attributes in a Training Pilot outlinedearlier. Details may be found in the Bibliography Appendix.

4.3 Necessary considerations

4.3.1 Practical training

55. In general terms, rules adopted in the world of teaching areapplicable in any environment. Just because aviation may requirethat a number of complementary disciplines be consideredtogether at any time, like navigation and meteorology, or air trafficcontrol and operating the aeroplane in a safe yet expeditious

manner, does not make teaching in this environment very specialor, in any way, particularly different. It is, however, a lot moredemanding and the price of failure may be catastrophic. A list ofrules applicable to the airline pilot instructor could read as follows:

4.3.2 DO56.n Know the subject to be taught well.n Show your enthusiasm for flying.n Remember that ‘telling’ does not always promote learning or

skill. On occasion, demonstrate.n Be patient.n Be clear in word and thought.n Maintain a friendly and pleasant manner.n Be neat in appearance, clean and appropriately dressed.n Be careful of personal hygiene. Cleanliness of body and

breath is of paramount importance in the close confines ofthe flight deck area.

n Remain relaxed and unhurried.n Develop a calm, thoughtful and disciplined, but not sombre

demeanour.n Be straightforward and honest.n Be constructive when criticising. Beware of direct criticism in

front of others.n Take an interest in your students as persons. Get on first

name terms.n Be courteous at all times. Strong language can be most

offensive to some people. This could be detrimental to theirlearning. Avoid it.

n Stay ahead of your class. Prepare your lessons and plan thesession.

n Give 60 minutes of instruction in every hour by carefulpreparation.

n Be a good listener when the occasion demands, such as whenpersonal matters arise.

n Practise ‘Active Listening’ during lessons to really understandwhat is being said and react accordingly.

n Always maintain an untarnished image of professionalism.n Let your pilot trainees make mistakes. They will learn from

them. It is clear, however, that this must be a selectivedecision that will not endanger the aircraft or the crew.

n Look out for student discomfort, confusion, disinterest,distraction or boredom, all of which are counterproductive inlesson assimilation terms. See to it that they ‘resumereception’, that is return to listening attentively in order tohear and understand what you are saying.

n Remain honestly self-critical. Constantly look for ways ofmaking you a better teacher.

Boeing 777 flightdeck.

April 2003 13


4.3.3 How to handle errors

57. One of the most difficult tasks an instructor has to face is howto handle a trainee’s errors. It does no good whatever to castigatehim for making a mistake, or even just to tell him that he iswrong. The whole purpose of the job is to see why he is wrongand then to explain it to him in such a way that he is not only ableto eliminate the error, but he is pleased to have been told. SoWHEN and HOW does one respond? The now defunct IndustrialTraining Research Unit gave guidance as follows, on when tointervene, not to intervene, or to delay intervention until later.Most certainly when training on an aircraft in flight (andsometimes also to foster ‘realism’ when on a simulator?), if theanswer is YES:

A. Is the error potentially dangerous? IMMEDIATE REACTIONB. Is it faulty manipulation IMMEDIATE REACTION

or perception?Is it faulty recall of a fact IMMEDIATE REACTIONor procedure?

C. Will increasing experience and NO REACTIONpractice probably eliminate it?

D. Will the consequences, provided DELAYED REACTIONthat they will be SAFE, help the trainee to learn a principle?

58. Now consider the factors that affect HOW an instructor shoulddeal with a mistake when it is appropriate to do so. Looking at A,B, C and D above:

A. Where safety is concerned, an error must be correctedimmediately; so DO INTERVENE IMMEDIATELY to stop thetrainee in his tracks before a disaster actually occurs. Inevitablythe word or action will be sharp and will give the learningtrainee a shock. Split seconds do not allow for gentle soothingwarnings. The short sharp shock can be a powerful modifier ofbehaviour. Once danger is avoided, then the message can bereinforced calmly by questioning. It may seem easier to tell atrainee what he has done and why it is dangerous but he ismore likely to remember if he has thought it out alone. Theanswer to WHY these questions should be asked is twofold.They should be asked to:a. See if the trainee knows what he has done wrong. If he

does not, lead him to understand by further questions,what he has or has not done; and

b. Establish if the trainee understands the implication of whathe did or did not do.

B. When errors in manual skill or memorising a fact of procedureoccur, they should be dealt with IMMEDIATELY, but care mustbe taken not to disrupt ‘flow’ as flying is a dynamic exercise.The phase should be completed and THEN analysed. Within thisconstraint, first ask yourself WHY? Then, AS SOON AS POSSIBLE(or PRACTICABLE), try to establish if the trainee knows:a. He is at fault.b. What the fault is.c. Why it has occurred.d. How to overcome it.

59. By doing this the risk of trainees becoming too dependent canbe avoided. It also encourages them to take responsibility fordiagnosing their own errors and deciding how they need tochange their behaviour. Sometimes they do not know whatchange of behaviour is required or how to achieve it and this iswhen the instructor can help and advise.

C. When first attempts fall short of correct standards because oflack of practice it is best to take NO ACTION, so long as thetrainee knows what is wanted. Too much comment mayoverload and be construed as nit picking.

D. When experience of consequence could help to teach aprinciple which is to be understood and provided the situationremains safe both in the air and in a simulator used as if itwere an aeroplane, DELAY any input and allow the student tounderstand how and why to avoid the error by learning fromhis mistake. Beware of damaging his self-esteem or confidenceby a wrongly timed or unnecessarily harsh intervention, or inusing ANY talk/action. The subtle balance in how and when todo any talk(act)ing must be individually sensed.

4.3.4 Errors and their causes

60. To appreciate why errors occur one must learn to diagnosecauses. There are many options and one must avoid jumping toconclusions. Some possible causes of error in performance are:n The trainee HAS NOT BEEN TAUGHT the proceduren He was taught the procedure but WAS NOT ATTENDINGn He was taught the procedure, was attending but

MISUNDERSTOOD itn He understood it but has FORGOTTENn He has had INSUFFICIENT PRACTICE in the relevant manual

and perceptual skilln He LACKS some specific perceptual or motor ABILITY to do

the job.

61. The latter two reasons may be seen as underlying causes oferror. The following five points are also worth rememberingwhen analysing problems: n Find out all the facts about a problem before making up your

mindn Develop a hypothesis or idea as to its possible causen Decide whether the idea is on the right linesn Act on this idean Check that efforts made to help the trainee to overcome a

fault are effective

(Also read Human Error by Professor James Reason, seeBibliography appendix for details)

4.3.5.DO NOT 62.n Do not be impatient if a trainee is slow to grasp a point or

concept.n Do not lose your temper... EVER.n Do not be sarcastic in public or in private.n Do not degrade the student however tempted you may be...

EVER.

Flight Safety Boeing.


T H E T R A I N E E P I L O T

n Do not talk DOWN TO, or AT your classes.n Do not be rude.n Do not smoke if it may distress your students.n Do not cram too much instruction in too short a time.n Do not ‘check to chop’. More simply, DO NOT just ‘fail’ a pilot

who does not perform faultlessly at a first attempt. Repeatthe exercise and train him to proficiency.

n Do not show fear or favour. Always be fair.n Do not volunteer answers too readily. That defeats the object

of the exercise. Ask questions until the trainee gives thecorrect answer.

n Do not be afraid to admit your own errors in the past, toillustrate a point to a student.

n Do not waste time relating your aviation experiences, unlessrelevant to a teaching point. Such epics do not enhance yourcredibility as an instructor and might be irritating to some.

n Do not hide any inadequacy behind a word smokescreen.Admit that you don’t know and find out what the answer is.No one is omniscient.

n Do not feel ashamed or reluctant to hand over to anotherinstructor a trainee who is not progressing with you, as youwould like.

4.3.6 Attitude and image

63. Acceptance rather than ridicule, support rather than reproof.Give help, and understanding and you will encourage the studentto learn. Show by example through habitual observance ofregulations, standard operating procedures and safetyprecautions. Remember that precepts of courtesy will enhance aninstructor’s image of professionalism. Of greater importance, suchhabits will make the instructor more effective in that he willdevelop the same habits in his students

4.3.7 In conclusion of this part about airline training pilots

64. Not everyone is cut out to be an instructor. Like every otherdiscipline or trade, it is one that CAN be learned. However,selection criteria should always be very carefully applied, to makesure that patently unsuitable types and temperaments are notbrought into the team and given the power to make or break.That would be unfair to their charges if nothing else.

5.0 THE TRAINEE PILOT

5.1 Obstacles to learning

65. An awareness of adult learning styles is of importance to theinstructor, if he is to get the best out of those in his care. Withthat in mind, let us now consider impediments to learning, typesof students, their behaviour and how to deal with certainteaching situations. Obstacles to learning are numerous andvaried. They may range from lack of interest and distractions, tocomplete mental blocks. These may originate from manydifferent sources, which can range from family problems to beingunder certain misconceptions that stem from poor previousinstruction. Among obstacles common to flight instruction are:a. A student’s feeling of unfair treatment

Any impression that instruction is perfunctory or that hisefforts are not recognised, conscientiously considered andfairly evaluated will damage a student’s motivation. The urgeto learn will also decline if it is felt that the tutor appears tomake unreasonable demands for progress, so the assignmentof impossible goals discourages, diminishes effort and slowsdown learning.

b. Impatience to proceed to more interesting operationsThis is a great deterrent to learning. Impatient students fail tograsp the need for basic training, only looking for the final

objective without considering the necessary means to reach it.Impatience can be corrected by only presenting preliminarytraining one step at a time, with clearly set goals for eachstage; and clear de-briefings which explain how an exercisedepends on the previous one in the learning sequence.

c. Worry, or lack of interestWorried or emotionally upset students do not learn well.Worry can be caused by concern about progress on the courseor it can be due to other matters that are totally unrelated tothe instruction; for example, personal problems, psychiatricdisturbances, a dislike for the instructor or maybe the wish notto be on the course at all.

d. Physical discomfort, illness or fatigueA student not completely at ease and whose attention isdiverted by such discomforts as extremes of temperature, abad seat, noise, confusion, poor ventilation or dim lighting willnot learn at a normal rate. Illness could well be the cause ofdistraction and inability to concentrate if all other factors arenormal. As for fatigue, its detection in students is importantfor effective flight instruction. Once fatigue occurs, take abreak. Be on a constant look out for its tell-tale symptoms …indications that mental shutters are down … revealed by totalloss of attention, a blank look, sweating, a multiplicity of errorscropping up, or maybe the best clue of all ...confusion!

e. Apathy fostered by poor instructionA well-prepared lesson is of the essence. Presentation must beadjusted to be meaningful to the person(s) receivinginstruction. To be effective, each instructor must teach to thelevel of all members of the class, not just the bright. Similarly,a single student needs treatment tailored to his need. Poorinstruction is not necessarily caused by poor preparation alone.The presentation of lesson material is not all that matters.Undue mannerisms, personal untidiness, signs of impatience, alack of interest or appearing to be irritated at the students,could lose their attention and confidence in the instructor.

f. Fear anxiety or timidityAvoid alarming situations, allay fears if they are perceived,encourage an anxious pupil, and be sure that he is not afraidof you, his instructor.

66. Similar emotions affect pilots undergoing command trainingor recurrent testing for annual JAR FCL licence renewals and bi-annual JAR OPS Proficiency Checks. What follows traces the pathof a pilot during training, when he is converting to a new aircrafttype. It describes the feelings generated in circumstances similarto those engendered by recurrent tests and the necessaryrefresher training discussed elsewhere.

5.2 Progress

67. It is important that instructors should try to find the reasons forany apparent lack of progress on the part of a trainee. Past recordsmay indicate that this is uncharacteristic of the pilot concerned,thus making his apparent difficulty in absorbing new materialeven more puzzling. To find reasons that may be hidden by aninability to communicate by any one of the parties involved maybe difficult. If the student is not to be further upset than he isalready at finding himself in an alien situation, such as beingunable to keep up with the course, very careful handling of directquestioning is needed, as are any behind-the-scene investigations.

5.3 Summary of learning difficulties and their possible underlyingcauses

5.3.1 Difficulties68.a. Inability of the student to understand and/or absorb informationb. Inability to retain information that had been apparently

absorbed and understood

April 2003 15

THE TRAINEE PILOT

c. Mental saturation, that is the inability to cope with i. More than one thing at a time.ii. Handling the abnormal or unexpected.

d. Lack of basic practical pilot handling ability (includingproblems with judgement and lack of consistency).

e. A combination of the above.

5.3.2 Underlying causes 69.a. Overload: Too many NEW things to do at once and too many

stimuli to rationalise. Even an incorrectly adjusted seat causingthe body to operate from an unaccustomed relative positioncan distract. Concentrate on major items/drills while trying toeliminate peripheral annoyances or distractions.

b. Competition of habits: While in an overload situation or ifconcentration is relaxed, the pilot reverts to old proceduresapplicable to an aircraft type previously flown, in oppositionto new procedures taught and required at the time ofreversion.

5.3.3 Main causes underlying failure to progress in pilottraining

70.a. Inadequate rapport with the instructor.b. Poor instructional technique.c. Inadequate basic training/knowledge.d. Under-confidence, nervousness or anxiety.e. Overconfidence.f. Age effect.g. Medical. h. Preoccupation with

i. Stress factors or problems other than the pilot’s training.ii. Obsessions.

i. Lack of mental capacity (for whatever reason, e.g. age, illness,worry).

j. Is at the upper limit of his intellectual and personal skill ability. k. May be of sub-standard intelligence (for an airline pilot).

71. The last three causes may be difficult to establish, but need tobe mentioned because they are a real possibility.

72. Potential distractions to learning that an instructor canintroduce, if he is not careful or aware of them, have beendiscussed in Sections 3.3 The Instructor and in 4.0 The AirlineTraining Captain.

5.4 Student types

73. In his life as an airline instructor, a pilot may encounterdifferent sorts of trainee. Most, if not all ‘technical’ flight crewunder training normally reflect a focused desire to learn. Thisrequires fostering by the teacher who also needs to manageattentively another prevalent characteristic, the underlying desireto please. Student types he might meet are now discussed inbroad terms and suggested means of communicating or dealingwith individuals depending on their personality, are also offeredhowever briefly. The first group of student is discussed in detail at5.4.1. Though each kind of student should be treated in equallyexpanded terms, the types listed thereafter are discussed in lesserdetail, because of space limitations.

74. In the name of brevity, only short outlines of student typesidentified by the author are offered, with a suggested method fordealing with each one. They are meant to trigger thought undereach key word. The characters might seem over-simplified and afacile approach to dealing with particular types implied, but thisis not so. Suggested methods for treating students of differenttypes may sound easy, but they can require extreme sensitivityand tact to deal with effectively. Professional educators willconfirm alternative approaches for use in such cases and, with thetheir help, training manual guidance for instructors could wellexpand advice given herein to advantage.

5.4.1 Recognisable student types

1. The generally anxious and sensitive

75. This student’s attention may be additionally distracted bystress that is induced because of having to carry out a number ofNEW tasks at the same time. Should he make an error, he maybecome so overwhelmed by it, that confusion sets in and the restof the training session may well be wasted. This could happen,however insignificant the error might have been in the overallcontext of the required task. In such a case, the layered cakeprinciple may be worth applying. Teach one thing at a time.Establish that it has been well assimilated by the student, thenpractice it until it` is demonstrated faultlessly and it is clearly wellunderstood.

76. Do not confuse the issue by mentioning errors made in otherareas of the flight profile. These will be cleared later, one at atime but in a similar manner. Subsequent flights could then beplanned to include one or more of the previously understood andnow correctly flown exercises plus one new to the trainee’srepertoire ... building the cake layer by layer ... but starting at thebottom every time. This ensures operation within a new butknown area of RELATIVE COMFORT, before new exercises areintroduced and then consolidated in a similar manner.Assimilation of instruction is thus ensured but with minimumstress.

77. Summarising the layered cake: A way of giving more than thenormally required practice to ensure that later on, the traineeDOES NOT GET IT WRONG when alone and away from theinstructional environment. It is suggested that this techniquemight not be acceptable other than with the older slower pilotbut do consider its use with younger pilots too.

5.4.2 The person being trained is a precious commodity

78. It may be argued that time is money and that it cannot bewasted in such extended repetition. Notwithstanding, theinvestment an organisation has in a pilot (both as an employeeand as a human being) is very precious. He is not a facelessnumber but is a person with feelings and, usually, intense loyalty.

A340-600.


THE TRAINEE PILOT

Long loyal service alone is worth investing in, both financially andin other terms. The reciprocal human investment of both partiesmust remain important and must never simply be discounted.

79. Consideration of the layered cake principle as a teachingmethod can be of practical value with some slower thinkers, thelate developer or an older pilot who is slowing down. If the endproduct is in view, it is worth aiming for if only in the name of wise,considerate and caring training precepts handed down byenlightened management. In the event, it may well be that certainproblem areas could be cleared during the line-flying phase ofconversion training. The additional costs connotation wouldtherefore not apply. In the end however, it is accepted that thecriterion on whether to go on with the person's training or not,must be the answer to the simple question: Has the student got theOVERALL CAPACITY to complete the course successfully, or not?

80. It is recognised that termination of training is the onlysolution in certain cases. If one looks back however, noting pastdemonstrated ability to which is usually added that normalhuman trait termed loyalty, it becomes clear that decisions basedon purely monetary grounds need to be tempered with humanity.The loyalty of a long time servant needs some recognition. Whereadditional training on new equipment is clearly pointless, anacceptable compromise without shame can usually be worked outin most cases, to the mutual benefit of all parties involved. Whatbecomes of the pilot concerned who could continue to beproductive on his previous fleet, safely flying an aircraft that heknows well, becomes a management problem. Though seldomencountered, this situation occurs and needs to be considered.

5.5 Breakdown by recognisable type of student

81. Some of the types of student discussed may need similarhandling by the instructor. Guidance on how to deal with eachcase should be prepared and similar learner types groupedtogether so that closely related handling needs can clearly beseen as belonging to a particular group. A scale of studenthandling techniques could be produced to help instructordealings with the quiet introvert, the normal personality, thebouncing extrovert who too may hide a problem, or theunfriendly and aggressive trainee. Note that the approachsuggested at a different ‘level’ can also be useful.

82. The student types as listed, have been loosely groupedaccording to their character image. This list is by no meansexhaustive or comprehensive. A number of additionalrecognisable types could probably be identified and included inany further exercise of trainee type classification.

5.5.1 Group 1

Student Type How to handle1. The generally anxious & sensitive * See 5.4.12. Shy and retiring * Direct questions at him

* Ensure that he is‘brought out’ and in allconversations

* Praise occasionallybefore others

3. Meek and apologetic * Needs encouragement* Give situations that

develop confidence4. Extremely worried, or * Find reasons tactfully and

generally nervous * Develop his confidence5. Quiet and passive * May be lacking in

confidence6. Silent and churlish * May have a ‘chip on his

shoulder’ (see type 16)

* Find reasons7. Preoccupied * Find reason by tactful

questioning8. The “Yes I understand”, who * May feel insecure, and

unable to admit he did not really * Could need the ‘layeredunderstand cake principle’ to

demonstrate each pointwell

5.5.2 Group 2

Student Type How to handle9. The jokes artist * Useful to have around as

Or is he the ROGUE one … a safety valve… who knowingly disguises that * Rein-in so that he doeshe is mischievous, troublesome, not take-over using hisunruly and falls short of the entertainer’s mantle,required standard? instead of allowing the

lesson to continue* Be aware that he may be

hiding a sense ofinsecurity or someinadequacy under a bluffexterior. Treataccordingly

10. The AVERAGE PILOT * HE is one of theMAJORITY of peoplearound

* Accept gratefully* Enjoy training him !

11. Active and self confident * Merely an extension of‘Mr Average’

* Encourage, but provideobject lessons to deteroverconfidence

5.5.3 Group 3

Student Type How to handle12. The ‘Questions’ man. (Dissects * Try object lesson to bring

a pump instead of learning how home the need forto use it) application of relevant

knowledge. (LineOriented Flight Trainingprinciples may be useful)

Aircraft of Oxford Aviation Training.

April 2003 17

P H A S E S O F C O N V E R S I O N

13. He who answers all the questions * Will allow little or noinput from otherstudents if not sloweddown

* Encourage but provideobject lessons to deteroverconfidence

* Restrain, and make sureothers are given equalchances to reply

* Treat gently as this mayhide a possible state ofUNDERCONFIDENCE

14. The impatient student (Thinks * Only present theof what is yet to come instead necessary training oneof listening) step at a time, with

clearly set goals for eachstage

* Explain how every stageunderpins each thatfollows

* Accelerate through aparticular stage if it isclearly understood andwell flown

* If necessary, separate theslow learner from aquick partner if theslower pace appears tocause impatience on theone hand, and inevitablefrustration for the slowercolleague on the other

15. Bombastic (Pompous with a * Needs to be educated ingrandiose attitude and an person-to-personinflated ego?) relationships

* Avoid confrontations* Must be taught to

control over-confidence16. Aggressive * May have “chip on his

shoulder”; or in otherwords, having a bitterand defiant manner,ready to take offenceusually about aperceived unfairness tohim.May possibly havean openly un-admittedweakness in personalityand/or background.

* Find reasons* Deal as you would the

‘bombastic’.

83. In conclusion, no two students will react in the same mannerin any given situation. It is therefore up to the instructor to get toknow his material and how best to sell it. The audience is captiveand very willing to buy... but the sale is never a foregoneconclusion. The salesman must WORK for it!

6.0 PHASES OF CONVERSION TRAINING TO A NEW AIRCRAFTTYPE (With apologies for the alliterative treatment used tohelp the recall of key points)

6.1 Phase One — Technical instruction

Ground school CONSTRUCTION periodThe student * LEARNS the technicalities

of a new aeroplane

* LAYS the foundation ofnew found knowledge

Student behaviour * Is prepared to learn* Wishes to please* Wants something from

the instructor* Will become tense near

technical exam timeThe instructor * Will see to it that the

use of any teaching aidsor equipment studentmay need is clear,appropriate andobjectively focused

* Requires patience* Must reflect a relaxed

attitude to the learningcurve of the trainee

* Should show a quietcompetent approach toteaching

* May need to explaintechnicalities at length

* Must remember to befriendly ... and SMILE

6.2 Phase Two — (Normally inter-phased with and within theGround School syllabus)

Systems trainer CONFIRMATION periodThe student: * ESTABLISHES that ground

school information iscorrect

* EXPLORES drills co-incidentally

* EXPERIMENTS with newprocedures

* EYEBALLS new equipmentStudent behaviour * Still wishes to please

* Is still prepared to learn* Still wants something

from the instructor* Wishes to show that he

IS learning* May show signs of

impatience with himselfshould he make mistakesduring systems trainersessions or if he forgetsdrills

* Will get tense andnervous prior to theFIRST HURDLE (Thetechnical examination)

The instructor * Needs patience and anunderstanding manner

* Will still have a lot oftalking to do

* Must let student makemistakes withoutbecoming irritated

* Should try to eliminatesuch mistakes from thestudent’s repertoirebefore the simulatorstage

* Must never talk DOWNTO or talk AT the student



* Needs to give time andattention to weak areasof knowledge or drills

* Should stay friendly,attentive to the student’squestions and alwaysremember theencouraging smile

6.2.1 First hurdle — The Type Technical Examination(Prior to the simulator training phase)

6.3 Phase Three — Flight Simulation

Simulator training CONFIRMATION periodextension leading toCOMPETENCY (It is alsoan ADJUSTMENT andADAPTATION period)

The student * COMPARES with knownprocedures

* CONFORMS to new drills* COMBINES new flight

procedures with newtechnical knowledge toachieve: a. Requiredmanual dexterity b.Necessary handlingCOMPETENCY

(Amplifying) — Modifies knownhandling skills toachieve the necessarychange of inputs andresponses so as toobtain the desired effect.

— Adapts responses & afterpractice made theseperfect, adopts them

Student behaviour * Still needs somethingfrom the instructor. Thiswill be the COMPETENCYaccolade

* Accepts what theinstructor says withoutarguing

* Will start to comparewith similar drills knownfrom other aircraft flown

* Will now look forreasons whendifferences are met

* Tries to show that he hasABILITY

* May be anxious and notrelaxed

* Probably reflects tensionin some form or other

* Is beginning to resentthe need to besubservient. Yet heknows that he is still onthe receiving end

* Knows that he thereforeneeds to keep on theright side of hisinstructors for a whilelonger

* May show traces ofirritation, but will try tocontrol any outbursts

* In contrast, may beapologetic in hisapproach to handling, orwhile he is flying,however good (or bad) itmay be

The instructor * Must continue to briefIN FULL prior to everyexercise period

* Initially may need torefresh the student onaircraft systemsgeography

* Will interfere less andless with performance ofthe student

* Should let the pilot makemistakes to learn from

* Will remember to:— keep sessions friendly

and relaxed— debrief fully after each

period— encourage discussion-

remain calm andunhurried (even if repeatexercises take moretime than planned)

— be clear in the spokenword at all times

* Should maintain aninterest in his students aspersons

* Will never abandon thepleasant manner

6.3.1 Second hurdle — Base Training and Flying ProficiancyTests

Aircraft Handling, take-off and landing practice(leading to flying licence type rating endorsement)

THIS SECTION MAY BE CARRIED OUT ON A SUITABLY APPROVEDSIMULATOR

6.4 Phase Four — Base Training and Flying Proficiency Tests

6.4.1 Circuit work

84. Be pleased to see the result of your instructional efforts alliedto the teachings of your fellow instructors come together, butnow in the aeroplane during the training sortie. Do not rush it.Continue to address your student’s physical well being to ensurethat peripheral discomfort does not affect learning orperformance. See to the student’s immediate comfort,particularly regarding the use of his seat and its controls that maywell differ, however marginally, from those in the simulator. Leadthe trainee to achieve the correct eye and seat position,preferably with armrests down as a method of limiting armmovement when an input is needed, to curb over-controllingparticularly on a modern jet aircraft with power assisted controlsand high rates of roll similar to military fighters.

85. Make sure that the required number of UNAIDED circuits andlandings are honestly carried out. Do not accept messyapproaches or poor arrivals, whether on touch-and-go or full stoplandings. Make sure that the trainee remembers to deliberately‘land the nose-wheel’ without unnecessary de-rotation, for bothairframe protection and passenger ‘comfort’.

April 2003 19


86. If more than the minimum number of circuits is required, thenso be it. Think of it as short sighted to release a pilot for routeflying under supervision without having satisfactorily completedtake-offs, approaches and landings to the demanded standard, tosave tyres or flying hours. Then again, when on a ‘zero flight time’conversion course that is wholly carried out on a suitably‘Approved’ flight simulator before a first supervised landing on-the-route during a normal public transport flight, may he makeyou feel proud of how well he was taught.

6.5 Phase Five — Route (or Line) flying

Route Training Describedeuphemistically as lineflying under supervision.This phase is aCONSOLIDATION periodto develop familiarity,without ...COMPLACENCY

The student * The Student progressestowards:

— Lateral transfer ofbackground skillsachieved previously

— Transposal of routineoperational thinkinginto the newenvironment

— Application of newlyacquired skills, albeit alittle timidly at first

— Demonstration ofincreased ability andconfidence with time

— Achievement ofacceptable level ofproficiency to allowoperation withoutsupervision

Student behaviour * He is back in the familiarsituation although forthe moment he is in anenvironment that mayseem rather strange tohim

* As he slowly gets used tothis new environment hisconfidence envelopeslowly broadens

* Wants to achieve thesame COMFORT level inthe new aircraftoperation as he hadachieved when flying onhis previous equipment

* Still needs somethingfrom the instructor:Clearance to fly as partof a normal crewwithout a supervisinginstructor/examinerobserving.

* Shows increasedindependence from theinstructor; with thepassage of time, takesthe initiative inoperational decisionsmore often

* Tensions may begin tobuild up because of theunderlying feeling thathe still needs to defer tothe instructor’s ideas

* An increasing need forthe return to a ‘normal’operation is nowexperienced. Deeplonging for a rapidreturn to the old feelingof COMFORT is nowgetting stronger, albeiton new route(s) maybeand on the new aircraft.

* Hides thoughts andcannot wait to beallowed to operateNORMALLY

The instructor * Stands back more andmore

* Increasingly encouragessituational awareness inthe new role

* Intervenes as little aspossible and only if it isabsolutely necessary

* Plays the part of thesecond crewman fully

* Must encourage bothcaptains and co-pilots ina similar manner

* Should beware ofpersonality clashes as thestudent emerges fromthe passive role howeverslowly. Be aware of this

* Remembers TACT andremembers PATIENCE

* Slowly slips into thebackground givingtrainee all the reinpossible

* Will not hustle or hurryprocedures even if itmeans a late arrival or alate departure. Speedcomes with practice

* Is never sarcastic.Sarcasm is notunderstood as a form ofhumour by some andcan be offensive toothers. It is counterproductive by creatingstrained relations andthus introducing stress

* Rarely if ever does aninstructor need to becutting or harsh,particularly while onflying operations

* If criticism is to belevelled, then it must bedone in asCONSTRUCTIVE amanner as possible

* Never forgets thepleasant manner or the


T H E F A I L E D S T U D E N T

essential friendlyapproach

* Enjoys seeing the pilotdeveloping into a goodStandard Operator

6.5.1 The Third and Last Hurdle — The Final Route Check

6.5.2 87. With the trainee’s final route (or line) check behind him,look forward to the next group of pilots who will be entrusted toyour care as an instructor. Keep maintaining standards duringrecurrent training and testing periods, while looking to helpthose with problems that need ironing out. Remain sensitive tothe feelings of those who are placed in your care.

6.6 Return to normal unsupervised operations

Student behaviour * Relief* Antagonism may begin

to develop towards theinstructor(s), now thatnothing more is wantedfrom him (them)Gratitude felt at thetime when all traininghas been completedsuccessfully may be ofshort duration.

* Thereafter the instructorbecomes more remote asa friendly person andturns into the tester orchecker of airmen. He istherefore a ‘trapper’ andis now a symbolic threatto the continuedoperational life of thepilot fraternity.

* With all the conversionto a new aircraft typetraining hurdles behindthe trainee and onlyrecurring annual checksto tackle from then on,the threat can best bedealt with by removingIT or ONESELF from thescene. The student’sattitude can now beexpected to COOL.

* Notwithstanding theabove, the instructor isoften remembered longafter training is over. Heis usually thought of notas an enemy but as afriend who madepossible continued life asa pilot.

88. From here on, the students’ behavioural patterns may vary.Often, the instructor will have become one of those who live onthe other side of the fence in the mind of the persons concerned.He will have joined the ranks of the supervisory staff and istherefore no longer “one of the boys”. This should notdiscourage the instructor. It goes with the job though it does attimes make recurrent semi-annual or annual refresher trainingand testing periods less pleasant than they could be.

89. More often than not this is not a problem and life as aninstructor remains a fulfilling task however tiring it is in reality. Beit as it may, there really is no glamour attached to being aninstructor and examiner. The responsibilities are heavy and thereward intangible, other than seeing one’s eaglets turning intosoaring (bald?) eagles. Regardless of the threat to income,HONESTY and CREDIBILITY must remain paramount or there is noINTEGRITY. If not, the system disintegrates.

6.7 The next six months

90. This is the beginning of the MATURATION period. Eventuallythe fully relaxed operation that had been normal in the oldenvironment is re-achieved, but now in the new. At last the warmmantle of COMFORT is there once again with the return ofcomplete CONFIDENCE.

7.0 THE FAILED STUDENT

7.1 Degree of Failure

TOTAL * The trainee is totallyunable to cope with thenew environment atwhatever the stage. Thisis a rare occurrence.

PARTIAL * Where the repeat of anexercise is neededbecause the necessarystandard required by atest has not been met.An eventual ‘pass’ is wellin sight.

PASS, but with qualification * May be used as a tool toslow down otherwisevery bright, quick andexcellent performers whoshow a tendency to rush.

* This is a ‘brake’ to makea point.

MARGINAL PASS * To encourage, ... butwith a verbalexplanation of errors andmethod of improvementthat must be made bythe next check

7.1.1 Student behaviour

Passive * Withdraws into silenceand introspection

* Loss of self-confidencemay be reflected

* May refuse to talk aboutthe situation

* Might show signs ofconfusion (stress?)

* Probably considers thathe has “lost face” withrespect to his colleagues

* Wants to get away fromit all and far from theinstructor

* His world has ground toa stop. He may well notquite know how to reactto this unfamiliar andembarrassing situationfor him

April 2003 21


Active (aggressive?) * Becomes vociferous andargumentative

* Blames all and sundryaround, except himself

* The “nobody told me”syndrome emerges (aboutwhat made him fail)

* Threatens: appeal tohigher authority or evenlegal action

* Abuses the instructor,hopefully only verbally

* Berates the course

7.1.2 Instructor reaction

When dealing with the PASSIVE * Encourage gentlediscussion on theexercise

* Try to make the traineetell you what his failpoints were. Askquestions to assist recall

* Go over the drills at faultor the incorrect flightprofile, to establishwhether they wereoriginally correctlyunderstood. Get traineesto describe the requiredaction(s). There and thencompare with publishedprocedure, thus makinga point

* Sound caring andunderstanding

* Speak words ofencouragement on theway to a next attempt

* Take additional time onsubsequent pre-flightbriefing

When dealing with the ACTIVE * Stand your ground firmly* Do not get drawn into

an argument* Restate the facts as you

have noted them at thetime

* Remain equable

* Cool the situation aswell as you can

* Try if possible to makethe trainee go over theflight by recall and helphim to see his errors.

* Never lose your temper,however unreasonable itseems that the angrytrainee has become

* However infuriating hemay be, never ever closeany argument with a“You have failed becauseI say so and that is final”

* Do disengage GENTLYbut FIRMLY

7.1.3 Summarising Student behaviour

91. The above examples of student behaviour are extremes thatare sometimes encountered. The average failed pilot knowsexactly where he went wrong so a normal de-brief in aconstructive manner is all that is needed. Before failing a pilot ona minor procedural point however, if by asking questions itbecomes clear that the procedure is otherwise known and thediversion from it was due to a simple momentary lapse (a smallfailure of the human being ...) and provided that the rest of theflight was acceptable, then do by all means award a pass.

7.2 The FAILED situation

92. It is worth discussing the possible background factors and theoverall anatomy of the failed situation under three generalheadings:a. The training programme in general may be at fault whether in

content, in equipment availability or in its failure.b. The instructor may have failed to communicate effectively in

the time that was available.c. For some reason, the pilot concerned was unable to attain the

desired result because of an inability to retain some or all ofthe information provided, then act upon it as required.

93. In fairness to students, it should be possible for a trainee torequest a change of instructor in cases where he is not makingreasonable progress, maybe due to a personality clash with histutor. There should also be a student grievance procedure thateither allows starting the course again when completion of thesyllabus in the allocated time scale is a problem for the trainee, orwhich permits the mutually agreed removal of the individualfrom the aircraft type conversion programme, if insurmountabledifficulties occur during the training process. A return to theprevious type of aircraft could then be considered.

94. It would however be lamentable if a misguided instructorultimately ‘failed’ a student due to personal animosity or (in thebelief that there was a conscious management decision to onlyemploy a certain kind of individual), because of a feeling that thetrainee was not developing into the particular type of personwanted as aircrew. Discarding otherwise competent pilotsbecause they do not meet such a sometimes unstated andunadmitted selection criterion, would be patently unjust to aperfectly adequate trainee and would most certainly be difficultto justify honestly.

7.2.1 The School

95. A self-critical review of the training organisation on acontinuous basis is an essential part of any good system. A post-

Schweitzer C/CB training helicopter.



course analysis of poor results will often identify probablereasons. It could be that need-to-know information is buried in amass of generally irrelevant detail or that not enoughinformation has been programmed for inclusion in the lectures.An honest review of the curriculum and available teachingfacilities may lead to one or more changes in the lesson material,as part of the continuing search for the perfect conversion course.It may be apposite to remark at this point, that observationsmade at the time of the Regulator’s initial course approval andany subsequent audit comments should never be ignored. Pointsraised by Regulatory Authority auditors must always be addressedand should only be turned down for good reason, but only aftercareful constructive consideration and due discussion with theinspector(s) concerned.

96. Changes could range from the contents of some (or all) partsof the syllabus and the methods used in teaching, to the timeallocated for completing the course. The manner used by personsinvolved to deal with each other may also need looking into. Arethe instructors themselves free from stresses, even those possiblygenerated by their head of section? How well do instructors as awhole communicate with their students and among themselves?These typical questions may need to be asked and requiresatisfactory answers. Regular audits of training activities wouldgive an insight into on-going individual teaching methods and ofthe way students react to the teaching process, by evaluatingtheir level of learning through regular progress tests and finalresults.

97. During an audit, the ‘open-minded’ auditor should beimmersed in the teaching process so that it can be evaluatedthoroughly. Sitting with students during lessons and attendingbriefings and de-briefings for simulator or aircraft training andskill-test flights (observed from a jump seat), would continue thefiltering process and add to the overall picture gained during theaudit of most, if not all, instructors and examiners during any oneaudit. Analysis of comments and suggestions made by the auditorto the hierarchy would then establish any necessary action forimproved teaching techniques and/or needed changes to lessonmodules.

98. Teachers and examiners could then be brought up-to-dateaccordingly, by way of ‘Notes to training staff’ and atstandardisation meetings. Regularly arranged seminars wouldalso allow amenable training managers and staff to get to knowone another better, while exchanging thoughts aimed atimproving the overall quality of the product and also allowingviews and new proposals to be freely and helpfully discussed byall.

99. It is essential that inquisitive thinking and equably disposedtraining managers who know how to delegate and supervise inan efficient non-confrontational manner, adopt an approach thatshows a high level of empathy towards those who have newthoughts to communicate. An open-door policy and a receptiveattitude to new ideas offered for consideration are essential, ifthe best is to be obtained from the hands-on experience acquiredby staff in their day-to-day work.

100. What’s more, it is essential that instructors and examinerscommunicate effectively with each other in their every dayencounters so that a high level of understanding between themdevelops and is also conveyed to their students.

7.2.2 Instruction standards

101. Different instructors may offer contradictory and thereforeconfusing information because of poor standardisation. Althoughindividuals cannot be programmed to speak the same words all

the time and should not be turned into automatons of action andword, the same broad party line is an essential prerequisite for allinstructors to follow. Even if they only differed on minor matters,confusion could easily be fostered in students’ minds howeverinadvertently and unintentionally.

102. It has been known for instructors to say: “Although themanual sets out this procedure in the way it does ... what Inormally do is ...”. This puts the trainee in a quandary. He wishesto please, so he flies the procedure exactly as he believes histeacher prefers it to be flown ... TO PLEASE that instructor. Thencomes the next day. What should that student do when the next‘teacher’ asks him for a demonstration of what he believes wastaught and expects it flown according to the training manual?Would the student not feel aggrieved if he were to be failed fordoing exactly as he had been told to do the day before?

103. Use of prepared instructional audio-visual packages helps toensure the overall standardisation of content for students, withthe instructor as supervisor, ‘clarifier’ or demonstrator to helptrainees who are not clear about what it is that they have seen orheard. Standardisation is encouraged and pre-prepared lessonmaterial is complemented by a regular ‘continuation’ trainingprogramme for instructors, when maybe an instructor is recordedon video tape as he lectures a class of fellow instructors on aparticular subject. Replay of the video tape and self-critique,together with general group discussion led by the session leader,then goes a long way towards instructor awareness of points towatch out for and improved teaching cum lecturing standards. Astrong sense of team spirit and the sure knowledge that the teamis at work to improve the product, are essential ingredients ofsuch a programme. There must never be any feeling that a witch-hunt is in progress.

104. As a corollary, it is clear that ‘Examiners’ also need a standardapproach to their discipline, exactly like instructors, if fair even-handedness is to prevail when they test for proficiency.Standardisation programmes similar to those for instructorstherefore need to address the manner of achieving suchimpartiality.

7.2.3 The despondent student

105. Total failure for whatever the reason is difficult to justify. Itmay be hard to explain, particularly when dealing with anotherwise experienced pilot who will have demonstrated hisability in the past. In such a case, one is not dealing with an abinitio pilot who has yet to satisfy all his masters with his ability tofly, let alone operate the aircraft and manage its flight deck. Itmay be necessary to look searchingly for a reason when facedwith such a situation.

7.3 The deteriorating performance

106. Poor or deteriorating performances from the part of a pilotmay become particularly evident when he is on a new aircrafttype conversion course, or they may occur over a longish periodduring periodic recurrent checks. This negative trend should bequestioned. It may be that lack of handling practice on modernautomated flight decks is the root cause of such deterioration inmanual dexterity. Attention must therefore be given to ‘positivevalue training’ before and during the mandatory semi annualhandling proficiency test sessions, to halt and reverse suchnegative trends in a pilot's ability to handle the aircraft accuratelywhen flying manually. On the other hand, a sudden failure maybring to light an ongoing situation that should not have beenallowed but which could have developed because of manyreasons. Two in particular, need to be explored in the quest for apossible explanation.

April 2003 23

T H O U G H T T O P O N D E R

7.3.1 Training department responsibility

107. Insufficient positive action on the part of the instructor(s) atsome time, may have permitted continued operation while thesubject was below known acceptable standards. In this context, afew possibilities come to mind.a. Little or no criticism of the correct nature and at the right time

may have lulled the trainee into believing that he couldcontinue to let his operation slip, without fear of beingbrought to task by the training team.

b. Outside influences might have been brought to bear on theinstructor and the pilot then cleared to continue on operationswhen he was not up to the mark.

c. Misguided loyalty, or the call of friendship, allowing anotherwise totally unacceptable performance to count as a pass.

108. In all cases the integrity of the training machine and its staffwould be open to question.

7.3.2 Special situations

109. The choice of candidate for training could be at fault. Anumber of possible reasons come to mind.a. The young pilot: Assigning a person who has insufficient

experience or with a low number of flying hours straight fromflying school, might be a reason why he cannot cope at firstwith the handling of a large airliner.

b. The older man: A possible scenario is that of an older pilotmoved from, say, a three crew turbo-prop environment to a twocrew state-of-the-art jet operation. The move from an aircrafthe is very familiar with and operates quite acceptably in thethree-crew role on a route network he knows well, could be justthat little bit too much. Though a safe and competent operatoron the aircraft that he knows well, his ‘capacity bucket’, that ishis ability to assimilate information, might be such thatconverting to the new environment might prove difficult. A jetaircraft may be too much to handle if never flown before andadaptation to a ‘glass cockpit’ two-crew operation not easybecause of more demanding standard operating proceduresand fewer hands to share the required duties. Such a situationmight force discontinuation of training and mean the return toa previous fleet, if possible. In such circumstances, it might havebeen better to avoid fleet transfer from the start, particularlywith a mature pilot of limited ability.

110. The alternative to an aircraft type conversion course in sucha case, would be to find good reason for continued operation onthe pilot’s current aircraft fleet, to avoid wasting time and moneyspent on training and, most importantly, preventing hurt feelingsshould the older candidate fail to make the grade.

111. An individual approaching retirement, or indeed (at any othertime), might be considered by training staff as being at the edge ofhis comfort envelope and a marginal learner, though a competentpilot in his present operational circle. If necessary, to make the offermore palatable and with the pilot’s agreement, specialarrangements may be proposed, possibly including an additionalpay factor for not going on the new aircraft type conversion course.Some form of added responsibility within his/her present fleetmight also be suggested as a reason for not offering a move. For avariety of personal reasons, such an option could be particularlyattractive to a pilot who is looking for an acceptable alternative toa move away from his/her present level of operational zonecomfort, with dignity and without humiliation.

112. If a personal family situation is not a reason to stay put, it isalways possible that however desirable the move to a new aircrafttype is, be it in monetary and/or personal ego terms, the pilotconcerned could be secretly feeling (indeed admitting, but not toothers) that the possibility of such a change was a bridge too far

that it would be best not to cross. Such (but tacit) acceptance ofdoubt about his ability to make the grade on a new aircraft mightmake him a grateful (though not openly) non-candidate fortransfer. Provided that the reason for not moving carried no lossof self-esteem or status in the eye of others, a deliberate side-stepcould well be the best ‘way ahead’.

113. In such cases, suitable arrangements for leapfroggingotherwise assignable pilots may need to be made, with no visibleloss of self-respect for the individuals concerned who wouldsimply carry on quite safely and efficiently in their now continuedenvironmental situation. Only the biblical wisdom of a KingSolomon can resolve certain human factors situations. Let honestgood judgment and fair play prevail when arriving at the bestsolution in such emotionally difficult cases. To thine own self betrue ... always ... and stay guided to do unto others as you wouldhave others do unto you.

c. The difficult to teach pilot: As instructors, we must adapt,compromise and be flexible, for we too must possess the desireto broaden our sphere of professional knowledge and improveour teaching skills. One becomes better at getting tounderstand others in time, but for many imponderable reasonsthat are not yet understood, some people just cannot relate toone another. Not everybody necessarily gets on with everybodyelse. Instructors must remember that on occasions a change oftutor works wonders, if they themselves cannot achieve thedesired result with a certain person. This could be vital for thesuccess of a student and would be ESSENTIAL for the peace ofmind of his instructor. A change of scene (instructor?) maysometimes become necessary for the good of all concerned.

114. That being said, one must however accept that, on occasion,a pilot may need to be withdrawn from flying duties whether onpersonal grounds, because of illness or due to professionalreasons, until the matter of his suspension has been resolved in asatisfactory manner for all concerned.

8.0 THOUGHT TO PONDER

8.1 Nobody is perfect

115. Each one of us is a mixture of good and some perhaps not-so-good qualities. When considering our fellow man we shouldremember his good qualities and realise that his faults only provethat he is, after all, a human being. We should refrain from harshjudgement just because he happens to be a dirty ... low-down ...rotten ... no-good ... two-faced son of a bitch

… To conclude, this could be said to be part of what‘human factors’ are all about.

9.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

116. Those who offered constructive criticism and comments whenthe first draft of the original article was circulated in 1984 beforepublication in Aerospace, the Royal Aeronautical Society’s monthlymagazine, are thanked. They are too many to mention by namebut the author must thank in particular, Monsieur Pierre Mantelthen of “Aeroformation” at Airbus Industrie in Toulouse, for anidea that developed into the original paper. Captain P.A.F. Hoggewho was the Flight Training Manager of the British Airways B747fleet at that time, must also be mentioned for his invaluableassistance in refining the identification of student types.

Credits for other constructive comments received during theproduction of this updated Guidance Document will be found inthe last Appendix.


A p p e n d i x A

APPENDIX A

LOOKING AT TRAINING IN EUROPE UNDER JAA REGULATIONS

1.0 Raison d’être of training

While instructors now have to address the theory of teaching andlearning for their instructor rating, many are dismissive of inputsfrom the ‘outside’ world of teaching and principles of the relatedpsychology.

This document for instructors (and examiners) mainly focuses ontraining for licence type ratings, as opposed to recurrent airlinetraining and checking, although reference is made in variousparts to the continued need for training during operators’proficiency checks, even under the new JAA regulations. Thefeelings of those involved in both scenes are essentially the samealthough the product is subtly different. On the one hand, a pilotis taught how to operate a new aeroplane. On the other, the pilotwho was taught how to fly and operate the aircraft, now needsrefresher training to ‘remember’ and recover proficiency to dealwith rarely used emergency and abnormal procedures, during hisroutine day-to-day normal operations. When so doing, the focusof Airline pilot training should address the needs of both theoperator and the pilots. That focus should be on updating, as wellas maintaining, the competences required of the pilotthroughout his/her career. If this is not regularly done duringrecurrent training sessions, when and how will it ever beachieved?

The scope widens to include not only conversion training, but alsopre-command training and the operator’s recurrent training andchecking required by JAR-OPS as compared to JAR FCL rules. JAR-OPS require the operator’s proficiency check (OPC) to beundertaken twice as often as a licence type rating renewal for FCLpurposes. It must also be remembered that an airline pilot canspend five, ten or more than even 20 years on a single type. It isin this context that recurrent training is as vitally important tocontinued safe operation as were the original licence and typerating courses.

An early plea is made for recurrent testing to be an integral partof the training process and a call is also made for the concept ofcontinuous assessment. However, it is the bureaucratic andinflexible approach to the JAR FCL type rating renewal test thatdrives the process in the opposite direction and promotes theaggressive testing to induce failure approach (or check to chop).

It also encourages some senior management to see theProficiency Check (PC) as the regulatory imperative and onlyobligation of ‘recurrent training’.

Some airlines complete the PC first, followed by recurrent andrefresher training in a resultant environment more conducive totraining objectives. The level of “Checkitis” which senior (older)pilots develop is surprising. However on reflection, one canrecognise similar tendencies in the context of one’s own checks inthe past. Such psychological constraints, that certainly do inhibittraining returns of the ‘recurrent training’ variety, should beavoided.

2.0 JAR OPS requirement

JAR OPS require “specific modular CRM training” and elements ofCRM to be integrated into all appropriate phases of recurrenttraining and checking, to be conducted by personnel that issuitably qualified or “Trained in CRM concepts and the assessmentof CRM skills.” While such CRM is focused on operating, some ofthe concepts read across to the instruction function. The conceptof LOFT and its proper conduct requires the application of humanfactors principles. Specifically, in accordance with JAR-OPS, theCRM trainer qualification builds on the theoretical humanperformance limitations (HPL) content of the licence andadditionally requires trainers to have received education in thefields of group management, group dynamics and personalawareness.”

3.0 Human factors pertinent to training

A lot of pilots only have a limited understanding of human factorsand cockpit or crew resource management. The meanings are notexplicit in the words used as a panacea for failures in humanintercommunication skills. Is there a need for new words to saywhat is really intended by human factors, as applied to thevarious aspects of the aviation scene? ICAO has produced somedocumentation in the form of Digests on the subject of humanfactor concepts including some material relevant to training andevaluation and also on selection processes which may not bequite relevant to instructor selection, but could be of help ingeneral terms. Information about these documents may be foundin the appendix on bibliography.

CRM and LOFT concepts were also addressed in one of the earlyICAO digests, with some references to the role of the instructorduring these training exercises that could be useful to new andnot-so-new instructors. As things stand even now, there still seemsto be a certain lack of comprehensive ‘human factors’ materialthat addresses the evaluation function and the inter-relationshipbetween instructor and trainee. It is however recognised that, toan extent, training in Human Factors matters is now betterserved, in that much has been written on the subject by specialistsat large and by Regulatory Authorities such as the CAA in itsGuide to Performance Standards for Instructors of CRM Trainingin Commercial Aviation. Reference to Bibliography will illustratethe scope of information presently available to the compiler ofguidance material for the use of airline instructors who work atthe flight operations ‘coal face’.

4.0 Licensing — Consequence of lack of statement of purpose

Reference was made earlier, to the perceived focus of thisdocument (The human element in airline training) on licensingaspects overall as opposed to the recurrent airline training andchecking scene, although training is also addressed albeit not inthe same depth.

Flying training in Spain.

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Personnel Licensing Department staff of some State RegulatoryAuthorities, seem to consider themselves as a group apart that isworking to their own regulatory imperative. JAR-FCL backs-upthis perception. They (the personnel licensing departmentpeople) need to answer the questions “Licensed for what?” …and … “training for what?”… when dealing with aircrew matters,while retaining a pragmatic approach to the application ofpublished rules.

There is also a need for an in-depth description to better justifythe licensing concept. Words like “licensed to fly aeroplanes” (orwhatever), are unclear in the context of explaining their intent inany detail. JAR-FCL does not identify the purpose and scope ofthe licensing system. In parallel, JAR-FCL makes virtually noreference to safety, with the only exception being the MCC coursewhere the aim is “to become proficient in multi-crew co-operation (MCC) in order to operate safely multi-crew multi-engine aeroplanes” (AMC FCL 1.261(d)).

JAR FCL has extended a State’s obligation for the oversight oflicence privileges and ratings into maintenance of competency inaccordance with ICAO Annex 1, (at 1.2.5.1), by assuming directlythe oversight of the competency function, whereas Note 1 thereinindicates an acceptable means of compliance in accordance withAnnex 6. There now is considerable overlap between Annex 1(1.2.5.1) and Annex 6 (9.4.4), with the pertinent exception thatthe State does not assume the Operator’s responsibility.Essentially, the State has authority over competence but does notcarry responsibility, which could be described as an undesirablestate of affairs.

While there is a high degree of commonality between JAR-FCLand JAR-OPS, how can the trend not be towards the doctrinaireapplication of the letter of the Regulation without any mitigationof purpose or aim, when every Proficiency Check is treated as aJAR-FCL test by ‘training captains’, formally designated asTRIs/TREs.

5.0 Round up

Human factors need to be part of a coherent process. They mustbe accounted for in the design of the aircraft, in the operatingprocedures, in the operational environment, in trainingprocedures to achieve operational objectives and in the assuranceof competence to achieve the objectives of safety and accidentprevention.

Long before MCC, the question of crew integration in three-crewprocedures arose and was addressed in ‘The Sixties’. There was anIATA technical conference dedicated to Human Factors in flightoperations in ‘The Seventies’. Human factors were raised andsupported in ICAO in ‘The Eighties’ when LOFT and CRM wereintroduced to address operational problems and needs. JAR OPShas provided for advanced qualification programmes to allow forwhat looked like innovative training measures in ‘The Nineties’,with varying levels of effectiveness. Progress is still slow as weenter the next century because “Licensing Human Factors” havebarely crossed the threshold of perception in a time scale of overquarter of a century, which is far too long to still be in such abarren wilderness in human factors education terms.

APPENDIX B

CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

UK CAA CAP 737 APPENDIX — FACILITATION SKILLS

Courtesy of UK CAA, this CAP 737 extract is offered as a usefulreference and handy introduction to the subject of 'facilitation'skills, which are explained in the text.

1.0 Introduction to facilitation skills

The following aims to explain why there is a need for facilitation,what facilitation is and some of the skills required to use thistraining technique, plus some general guidelines.

To be competent in any job a person requires a certain amount ofknowledge, an adequate level of skills, and the right set ofattitudes. This is true for doctors, hotel receptionists, lawyers,footballers, soldiers, artists and of course flight crew. The role ofa trainer in any discipline is to help people develop theirknowledge, their skills and their attitudes so that they are able todo their jobs well. In many of the professions the formal trainingemphasis is often on developing knowledge and skills, with theexamination of competence almost exclusively concerned withmeasuring knowledge and skills against a set of standards.

In aviation it is no different. The vast majority of trainingresources and all formal examination have been aimed atensuring people have the appropriate knowledge and skills,rather than the right attitudes. The fact that attitudes arefundamental to competence has not been officially recognised,even though incorrect attitudes are suspected to havecontributed to many of the major accidents — the ultimateconsequence of a lack of competence. The reason for thisomission is uncertain, but a reasonable assumption may bebecause training and examining ‘attitudes’ have been less preciseand more difficult to carry out successfully.

CRM training has attempted, with variable success, to try andredress the imbalance. Most experts and practitioners are inagreement that the variability in the effectiveness of CRMtraining is largely linked to the quality of the delivery and not thecontent, and that training with a high degree of facilitation hasbeen more successful.

This can be explained by exploring the two main techniques thatare available to trainers, namely instruction and facilitation.Instruction can be described as being primarily a telling activity,where knowledge and skills are developed in trainees througheither direct communication or demonstration, with questioningprimarily used to check understanding or reinforce key messages.Facilitation on the other hand, can be described as a techniquethat helps trainees to discover for themselves what is appropriateand effective, in the context of their own experience andcircumstances.

Both techniques are useful and have their place. In order totransfer knowledge and many skills, instruction is the mostefficient technique to employ; it would be laborious andunnecessary to teach a straightforward and precise subject such asan electrical system using facilitation. Furthermore, instructioncan be used to train larger numbers of people, and is particularlyuseful if only certain answers are acceptable.

On the other hand, trying to change people’s attitudes usinginstruction as the technique, normally has limited success. People,particularly adults, do not like being told how to behave and


A p p e n d i x B

what to think. There are rare occasions when a sharp ‘kick up thebackside’ delivered by the right person at the right time has thedesired effect, but in general, telling people to change theirattitude is not usually effective. This is particularly so if the persondoing the telling does not have the respect of the recipient, orrepresents an authority that lacks credibility. Ironically, this is alsoconsistent with the instruction of positive behaviour, such as‘keep up the good work’ which has been known to produce anadverse reaction.

The reason for this is that a person’s behaviour is based on pastexperiences, values and beliefs which will be different from thoseof others. Therefore, telling people to behave differently carriesthe implication that their values and beliefs are wrong, and this isnot convincing. People generally behave in a way that they thinkis rational, and often find it easy to justify their behaviour tothemselves and others. However, what they may not be aware ofis the effects of their behaviour on other people or the operation;and that an alternative behaviour, which does not question theirvalues but has a more positive effect, may be something theymight wish to consider.

The technique of facilitation allows this process to occur,although it is not just for the poor performer nor for thedevelopment of attitudes. Facilitation can be equally used toreinforce effective behaviour because it gives people anunderstanding of why they are good which encourages theircontinued development. Furthermore it can be used in thedevelopment of skills and even knowledge, because it is aneffective tool for allowing self-analysis and in depth thought,which is an easier way for people to learn, as there is less recourseto memory techniques. The skills of self-analysis are not just to getthe most from the training session, but can also be continuallyused for self-development on the line.

Table 1. Differences between instruction and facilitation

INSTRUCTING FACILITATING1. What do the words imply? Telling, showing Making easy,

enabling2. What is the aim? Transfer Gain insight/self-

knowledge and analysis to develop skills enable an

attitude change3. Who knows the subject? Instructor Both4. Who has the experience Instructor Both5. What is the relationship? Top down Equal6. Who sets the agenda Instructor Both7. Who talks the most? Instructor Student8. What is the timescale? Finite Infinite9. Where is the focus? Instructor/task Student/attitudes

/behaviour10. What is the workload? Medium/high Intense11. What are trainers Judgemental Non-judgemental

thoughts?12. How is progress evaluated? Test Observation/Self-assessment

Dr Guy Smith, NWANotes on Table 1

1. Although instructors have used facilitation techniquesnaturally for many years; in its purest sense instructing has alot to do with telling, demonstrating and checking that thetask is being done in accordance with a standard. Whereasfacilitation means that students are given the opportunity todiscover what they are doing and the effect it has on othersand the task, so that they can make the decision themselves toalter their behaviour or even reinforce any positive behaviour.This process should be made as easy as possible.

2. The principle purpose of instructing is to transfer knowledgeand skills efficiently, whereas with facilitation the principlepurpose is to encourage a change in attitude or behaviour bythe student gaining insight or becoming aware of what theyare doing, and being motivated to change. People tend toonly do things that they want to do; so telling people thatthey are wrong and need to change is rarely effective. Peoplegenerally do not behave in a way that they think is wrong.They are aware that others might disapprove, but they willrationalise their behaviour as being appropriate under thecircumstances. Telling them that you think they are wronggives them no new information and often motivates them tocontinue their current behaviour. The key is for them tounderstand why others disapprove and the consequences ofcontinuing as they are.

3 & 4. When instructing, the trainer knows the subject and hasthe experience, otherwise it would be a pointless exercise.When facilitating both parties know the subject and havethe experience, particularly when discussing behaviour. Infact, very competent facilitators are quite capable of beingeffective without knowing the subject or having anyexperience of it. In many respects this can be a usefulpointer to know when to change hats from being aninstructor to a facilitator. If you are certain that only youhave the relevant knowledge, and the student would findit difficult to work it out for themselves in the timeavailable, then instructing is probably the most appropriatetechnique to employ.

5. The relationship when instructing can be perceived as beingtop down in that the instructor knows more than the student,whereas when facilitating it must be apparently equal. Acommon mistake by inexperienced trainers when facilitatingis to create the impression that they are in some way superior,by implying they know more or have a better attitude.

6. The agenda when facilitating must be set by both parties ifthe process of buy-in is to get the right start. Agreeing whatyou are going to talk about and how you will go about it is animportant first step. A trainer can greatly assist the learning ofthe session by summarising and giving meaning to thestudents' discussions. It is still the instructor's responsibility toensure that all the training requirements are included in thefacilitative session.

7. One of the best measures of identifying which technique youare using, whether it is instructing or facilitating, is to notewho is doing most of the talking. When facilitating studentsneed to be clear in their own minds and be able to self assesswhat they are doing and the benefits of changing, it isdifficult to do this while trying to listen to a trainer passingmultiple messages.

8. The time taken to cover a subject when instructing tends to befinite and consistent; whereas with facilitation the timescale isindefinite. This does not mean that it takes forever, but thatthe process of facilitation must be given sufficient time toachieve its aim. The CRMI should not be worried about longerdebrief or exercise times, because the student’s concentrationperiod is much longer when they are actively involved in thethinking and discussion rather than passively listening. In alimited time period, such as a debrief, the process may need tocontinue afterwards, while students try out new options backat work. Conversely, if the aim is achieved in a few minutes,the job is done and there is no point dragging out thediscussion.

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9. The focus when instructing is often on the task and theinstructor — how well they are doing, did they get things inorder, are they being clear, is the equipment working, are theyon time. With facilitation the focus must be solely on thestudent, their attitudes and behaviour, and whether they arelearning and are comfortable with the process that is beingused. The focus should also be on the student demonstratingan understanding and willingness to change.

10. Because each student is different and it is difficult to readpeople’s minds, the workload while facilitating is intense, andmore so in a group. The facilitator in this respect is havingseveral conversations simultaneously, both verbally and nonverbally, and having to think on their feet in reaction to whatis being said. With instructing the workload is high inpreparation and initial delivery, but then reduces over time asthe instructor becomes more familiar with the material.

11. Although the trainer’s observations and training objectivesare inevitably judgemental, in order to prompt a student’s selfanalysis; the attitude of the trainer when facilitating a debriefshould be non-judgemental. In other words, he or she must beprepared to accept that the opinion of the student is valid andnot necessarily wrong, even though the trainer’s ownexperience dictates otherwise. This attitude is the mostdifficult to achieve genuinely, particularly for trainers whohave spent many years instructing and ensuring things areright.

12. The evaluation of an instructing session is relatively simpleand measured by test, where a judgement is made whetherthe standard has been achieved. When facilitating evaluationis made by observation only and the student’s self-assessment.

2.0 Facilitation skills

The skills required to use facilitation as a technique are as follows:

2.1 Questioning

Asking the right questions at the right time is a fundamental skillof facilitation and these are the type of questions that can beused.

Type Purpose Response ExampleOpen To get a more Unknown but ‘What, when,

accurate and they will say why, where, fuller more than a who, how…’response. few words.

Closed To check Can be ‘Yes’, ‘Did you, were understanding ‘No’ or specific you, had and to control data. you’…the discussion.

Probing/building To obtain More in ‘Tell me more, further depth why was that, information. response. explain…’

Summarising To confirm Yes ‘Is what you agreement mean, have

you agreed …’

Avoid:

a. Leading: ‘You did do that didn’t you, wouldn’t you agreethat…’

b. Multiple.c. Rhetorical: ‘Who cares?’d. Ambiguous

2.2 Listening

It has often been said that hearing is done with your ears whereaslistening is done with your mind. In this respect the term activelistening means that a person is concentrating carefully on whatis being said, so that they can really understand the other person.This mnemonic helps to capture some key points:-

L Look interestedI Inquire with questionsS Stay on targetT Test understandingE Evaluate the messageN Neutralise your thoughts, feelings and opinions

2.3 Body language

Reading body language and managing your own are essentialwhen facilitating. A trainer should be able to know when astudent is uncomfortable, confused, interested, distracted orbored. Furthermore it is important that a trainer is able tomanage their own body language so that the messages they aregiving are accurate and consistent.

2.4 Observation of behaviour

The ability to observe and discuss behaviour and attitudes ratherthan technical issues is an important skill that trainers need todevelop to become effective at facilitation. Also trainers shouldhave the ability to observe behaviour objectively againstestablished standards.

2.5 Role modelling

As attitude is an imprecise part of competency, there is no betterway of demonstrating appropriate behaviour than rolemodelling. This is because the student can observe at first handwhat this behaviour is and experience the positive effects onthemselves. Furthermore, in order to maintain credibility as atrainer in human factors, it is important that you behave to thehighest level of CRM standards.

2.6 Giving and receiving criticism

A trainer should be able to receive criticism well in order todevelop and be approachable. Furthermore, there may beoccasions when it is appropriate and constructive to give studentsdirect criticism and this must be carefully handled.

3.0 Continuous development

In order to ensure that you are able to continuously improve yourfacilitation skills, the recommended method is to seek feedbackfrom those you are training. This must be done regularly andgenuinely, otherwise you may not be given anything useful - anda measure of whether you are doing this well is whether you doin fact get any criticism. If you find that people are not giving youany criticism then the following may be occurring:-

a. You are perfect.b. You have developed a reputation as someone who has

difficulty receiving criticism.c. You are not respected enough to deserve being told.


A P P E N D I X C

APPENDIX C

1.0 JAA/JAR LICENCES, TRAINING AND TESTING

1.1 Overview of pilot training under JAR-FCL rules

The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAR) represent the Civil AviationDepartments of a group of European States who havecollaborated to set common safety standards called Joint AviationRequirements (JAR) in the areas of airworthiness, flightoperations and aircrew licensing. The JAR relating to Flight CrewLicensing for aeroplanes (JAR-FCL1) and helicopters (JAR FCL2),have now been formally adopted and implemented in the UK andall future UK pilots will be issued with JAR-FCL licences by the UKCivil Aviation Authority (CAA). Advantages of licences issued inaccordance with JAR-FCL is that they enable a holder to work asa pilot in any JAA State that is also a member of the EuropeanUnion (EU) and where the EU freedom of employment legislationapplies, without the need for formal acceptance of the holder’slicence by the State concerned. However, some European Airlinesimpose entry requirements that are additional to the need for anappropriate JAA flying licence and call for a National Certificateof Education to a particular local standard and/or fluency in thelanguage of the State of the prospective employer airline.

1.2 Pilot licences and ratings requirements under EU JAR-FCL Rules

Under the present European JAR system, there are three types of‘aeroplane’ or ‘helicopter’ flying licences that can be obtainedafter formal tuition at an approved flying training centre. Thelicences are the Private Pilot Licence (PPL), the Commercial PilotLicence (CPL) and the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL).Details of qualifications and training required to obtain a fixedwing aircraft (Aeroplanes) pilot licence may be found in JAR-FCL1and in JAR-FCL2 for Helicopters.

Pilots undergo rigorous and extensive training at RegulatoryAuthority approved flying schools, leading to the issue of aPrivate or Professional JAA licence. Professional pilot licencetraining may either be on an ‘Integrated’ full time basis fromlearning to fly until licence issue, or ‘Modular’ in concept whereattendance at a school is not continuous but phased. The UK CAA,as the designated Regulatory Authority, approves UK flyingschool courses, authorises instructors and examiners and issues allJAA licences and the UK NPPL. Full details of courses can beobtained directly from Flying Training Schools. A full listing ofcurrently JAA approved training centres (UK based or overseas)may be obtained from the UK CAA Personnel LicensingDepartment (PLD) at Aviation House, Gatwick Airport (Southarea) and on the UK CAA FCL Internet website.

1.2.1 Private Pilot Licences

The Private Pilot Licence (Aeroplanes) (PPL (A)) is restricted torecreational pilots and does not allow the holder to receiveremuneration for piloting other than for instructing or testing onmicrolight aircraft or Self-launching Gliders. In addition to theJAA PPL, the UK CAA has now introduced a National Private PilotLicence (NPPL) for recreational pilots who only wish to fly simpleaircraft types within the UK airspace. To exercise the privileges ofa private pilot licence, the holder must at least have a valid JAR-FCL3 / Class 3 medical certificate and a current Class or Type ratingfor the aircraft to be flown.

1.2.2 Professional Pilot Licences

The Commercial Pilot Licence and the Airline Transport PilotLicence are for professional pilots who seek remuneration in

commercial aviation. Holders of a CPL may act as pilot incommand of single-pilot aeroplanes (SPA) for commercial airtransport and as co-pilot generally. They may also act as pilot incommand (PIC) or co-pilot in any aeroplane engaged inoperations other than commercial air transport. An InstrumentRating is necessary if operations under Instrument Flight Rules orat night are contemplated.

An ATPL, of which the Instrument Rating is an integral part, ismandatory for public transport airline flying. Provided thetheoretical knowledge elements of the ATPL exams are passed, aCPL/IR licence that is issued after completion of an ATPL course isknown as a ‘frozen’ ATPL and will allow the holder to fly as co-pilot in an airline. When at least 1,500 hours have been flown aspilot, subject to various stipulations as to how the hours areachieved, the holder is then issued with an unrestricted ATPL.

1.2.3 Aircraft Ratings

To exercise the privileges of a pilot licence, a valid JAR-FCL3medical as applicable and a current Class or Type rating for theaircraft to be flown are required. In general terms, Class ratingsapply to small piston engine or single engine turbopropaeroplanes or helicopters, while a Type rating applies to mostother aircraft. The few exceptions can be found by reference toJAR-FCL1, but this general rule, as expanded hereunder, willsuffice for the purpose of this guide. Applicants for a first single-pilot, multi-engine, Class or Type rating shall have completed atleast 70 hours as pilot in command of aeroplanes.

Pilot licences include Aircraft Ratings that show what aeroplanesthe licence holder is allowed to fly, subject to the necessaryproficiency test(s) validity and flying currency. JAR-FCL1 Ratingsdifferentiate between Single Pilot Aeroplanes (SPA) that may besingle engine or multi engine aircraft and Multi pilot aeroplanes.Single pilot aircraft ratings are either Type specific or theyindicate the CLASS of aircraft the holder is permitted to fly. Classratings established for single pilot aeroplanes that do not requirea type rating are:

Class (Single pilot) Description Test Examinervalidity

SE (land) Single-engine 24 months FE or CREpiston (land)

SE (sea) Single-engine 24 months FE or CREpiston (sea)

TMG Touring 24 months FE or CREMotor Glider

ME (land) Multi-engine 12 months CRE/TRE/FSEpiston (land)

ME (sea) Multi-engine 12 months CRE/TRE/FSEpiston (sea)

SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine 24 months CRE/TRE/FSEturboprop (land)

SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine 24 months CRE/TRE/FSEturboprop (sea)

n A full list of aeroplane Class Ratings is contained in JAR-FCL 1,Sub Part F, AMC FCL 1.215

n Single pilot aeroplanes and multi pilot aeroplanes thatrequire Type Ratings are listed in JAR FCL 1, Sub Part F, AMCFCL 1.220

n Except for SE piston (land) and TMG Class ratings, all otherclasses are mutually exclusive of each other and must berevalidated individually according to JAR FCL requirements.

For aeroplanes other than those included in JAR-FCL1, TypeRatings are individually established (by assessment) if theaeroplane has:

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a. A separate Airworthiness type certificate, and/orb. Different minimum flight crew complements, and/or.c. Handing characteristics that require additional flying or

simulator training.

1.2.4 Aircraft ratings for aeroplanes not covered by JAR FCLrequirements

Aircraft ratings not covered by the requirements of JAR-FCL1include Self-launching motor gliders, Microlights, Poweredparachutes, Gyroplanes, Balloons, Airships, Helicopter typeratings, or Flight Engineer.

The instructor and examiner structure for training and testingpilots towards the issue and revalidation of these ratings is similarto the JAR FCL system, if not the same.

1.2.5 Class and Type Rating Training centres

a. A Single engine Class Rating can be obtained at an Aero Club,a Flying School or at a Flying Training Organisation (FTO) centre.

b. A Multi-engine Class Rating can only be obtained at anapproved Flying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type RatingTraining Organisation (TRTO).

c. An ‘Approved Type Rating’ Rating must be obtained at aFlying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type Rating TrainingOrganisation (TRTO), if not at an approved airline in-housetraining school.

1.2.6 Instrument Rating (IR) and Instrument MeteorologicalConditions (IMC) Rating

The Instrument Rating is probably the most daunting part ofobtaining a professional licence. The Initial Instrument Rating isnormally conducted by a Regulating Authority Instrument RatingExaminer (Aeroplane or Helicopters), on the aircraft and in theairspace of the State issuing the licence (respectively the UK CAAin UK airspace for British licence holders, unless otherwisearranged). Thereafter, Instrument Rating revalidations may becarried out on an aeroplane by an Instrument rating examiner, asuitably qualified Type rating examiner or a Class rating examiner.Alternatively, a Synthetic Flight examiner may renew the IR on aFlight Simulator certificated for the purpose. Note that a multi-engine IR is valid for single-engine aeroplanes but a multi-pilot IRis not valid for single-pilot operations (and vice versa). In somecases, the IR may be type-specific.

The Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating for JAR-FCL Private Pilot licence holders allows them to fly in Class D andE airspace in circumstances that require compliance withInstrument Flight Rules (IFR) but not on special VFR flights inControl Zones when the flight visibility is less than 3km, or to takeoff and land at any place if the flight visibility below cloud is lessthan 1,800 metres. This rating may be revalidated by a suitablyqualified Authorised Examiner.

1.2.7 Class and Type Rating renewals

a. The renewal of a Class or Type rating is by way of aproficiency test with an Authorised Class or Type RatingExaminer or a Synthetic Flight Examiner if conducted in aflight simulator. In the case of a single pilot class rating, theexaminer can be a Flight Examiner. A minimum number offlying hours need to have been flown between proficiencytests as part of the renewal procedure.

b. For Touring Motor Gliders (TMG) and Single Engine Pilots(SEP), any CAA or JAA Authorised Examiner can sign therevalidation on the basis of experience in the periodpreceding the application for renewal.

1.2.8 Aircraft Ratings Period of Test Validity and AuthorisedExaminers

Although some aircraft Class and Type Ratings are valid for 24months, all Multi Pilot aeroplanes and a few specified single pilotaeroplanes, such as the Piper Malibu and some Pilatus C seriesturboprops, are subject to individual type ratings that are onlyvalid for 12 months.

1.3 Class and Type Rating instructors

In the UK, as from 1 January 2000, all training towards the issueof a Type or Class rating on a National licence (or JAR FCL licence)must be conducted by a Multi Pilot Aeroplane Type RatingInstructor TRI (MPA) or a Single Pilot Aeroplane Class RatingInstructor CRI (SPA), in accordance with JAR FCL1 (or JAR FCL2 asthe case may be).

2.0 JAA JAR FLIGHT INSTRUCTION & EXAMINING

2.1 The JAR-FCL Instructor and Examiner group structure

The JAA structure (for both fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft)distinguishes between instructors and examiners. Instructorsteach how to fly and qualify for the issue of a licence and Class orType ratings, whether for single pilot or multi crew operation onsingle-engine or multi-engine aircraft according to the terms oftheir rating or authority. Examiners administer skill tests for theissue and revalidation of flying licences and Class or Type andother ratings, for Aeroplane or Helicopters. Licence Ratings thatrequire periodic renewal include the Instrument rating (IR), theInstrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating, theMicrolight Class rating, the Self-launching motorised Glider(SLMG), rating, the Night Qualification for PPL holders and otherratings such as for towing and the Instructor/Examiner ratings orauthorisations described in the paragraphs that follow.

The current JAA JAR-FCL training and examining structurerequires that before becoming an examiner, a pilot must spendtime as an instructor. Prior to attending the required formativecourse(s), instructors and examiners-to-be must have thenecessary flying experience and hold a valid pilot licence at leastequal to the licence with a current the rating(s) for the aircraftwhich authority is sought to instruct or conduct skill andproficiency checks.

To avoid duplication, only the Aeroplane (A) instructor andexaminer structure is covered in this appendix. In consequenceand for simplicity, the (A) suffix may be omitted from thedescriptive nomenclature of each rating. For example, FlightInstructor (FI (A)) is shown as FI and the Class Rating Instructor(CRI (A)) reads CRI. Helicopters have similar appointments albeitnot discussed.

2.1.1 Instructors

JAR FCL requires that all instructors undergo formal training. Arating or authority is granted at the end of the instructor course,after the aspirant is observed ‘in the instructor role’ by theRegulatory Authority or an examiner approved by the Authority.The various instructor ratings are:

a. Flight Instructor FIb. Flight Instructor — Restricted) FI(R)c. Class Rating Instructor CRId. Type Rating Instructor TREe. Instrument Rating Instructor IRIf. Synthetic Flight Instructor SFI (Authorisation)


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2.1.2 Examiners

Once a period has been served as an Instructor and the necessaryexperience obtained, appointment as Authorised Examiner maybe sought to carry out Pilot Licence Class, Type and other ratingsskill tests or revalidations. In the UK, Instructor pilots must firstattend the CAA Standardisation ‘Core’ course and then pass apractical test observed by a Regulatory Authority examiner beforebeing given an Examiner Authority. Examiner Authorities arevalid for not more than three years. Examiner Authorityrevalidations are carried out by Regulatory Authority examiners. Five roles of Authorised Examiner (AE) are recognised:

a. Flight Examiner FEb. Type Rating Examiner TRE (aircraft) and/or

Synthetic Flight Examiner SFEc. Class Rating Examiner CREd. Instrument Rating Examiner IREe. Flight Instructor Examiner FIE

2.1.3 Flight instruction versus Class and Type rating instruction

A first group of instructors and examiners relate to the aero cluband flying school world where single-pilot training is offered fora first licence with (usually) a single-engine Class Rating. TheFlight Examiners (FE) in this group, conduct the necessary skilltests for the issue of the licence with its rating(s) and thesubsequent proficiency checks for their revalidation. This firstgroup includes the Flying Instructor (FI), the Restricted FlyingInstructor (FI(R)), the Flying Examiner for Private Pilot Licence skilltests (FE (PPL)), the Flight Examiner for an initial Commercial PilotLicence and its recurrent skill tests (FE (CPL)), the Class RatingInstructor (CRI), the Class Rating Examiner (CRE) and the ClassRating and Instrument Rating Examiner (CRE/IR). Single-pilotmulti-engine training is generally given by a FI or suitably rated

CRI, and/or by instructors in the second group, who also teachmulti crew operations and crew resources management (CRM).

The second group is essentially oriented to multi engine flying.Instructors and examiners in this group, teach the technicalities ofan aircraft, then train pilots to fly it on a flight simulator or on anaircraft. Private Pilot Licence holders wanting to operate single-pilot multi-engine aircraft and professional pilots on multi-enginesingle-pilot or multi-crew operations, must train at an ‘approved’Flying Training Organisation (FTO), a Type Rating TrainingOrganisation (TRTO) or an Airline (in-house) training sectionwhere Synthetic Flight Instructors (SFI), Synthetic Flight Examiners(SFE), Type Rating Instructors (TRI) and Type Rating Examiners(TRE) who are also Instrument Rating Examiners (IRE) provide, asa group, the necessary training input leading to the Skill Test forpilots converting to a multi engine type and, thereafter, therequired recurrent revalidation of ratings.

This latter group of instructors and examiners belongs to theairline environment. They provide conversion and continuationtraining and proficiency checks for licence and ratingsrevalidations as well as the periodic Operators Proficiency Check(OPC) for Public Transport Operations. It is not necessary forinstructors-to-be in the ‘second group’ to hold the qualificationsof those in the ‘first group’ or to have any training and testingexperience, but such exposure may be considered a plus factorwhen an airline selects suitably experienced pilots to join thecompany training unit.

2.1.5 Summary of instructor and examiner group activities

Group 1FI (R) Restricted Flying Instructor (PPL curriculum)FI Flying Instructor (PPL and/or CPL curriculum)FE (PPL) Flying Examiner Private Pilot Licence

2.1.4 Aeroplane Instructor and Examiner activity spheres

Instruction Initial Recurrent IR or IMC REMARKSSkill test Proficiency Revalidation

LICENCEPPL & CPL FI (R) FE (PPL) FE (PPL) IRE Aero Club and/or

FI & IRI FE (CPL) FE (CPL) Flying School

CLASS RATINGS1. SPA — single engine FI (R) FE (PPL) At flying school, or

FI FE (CPL) Aero clubCRI CRE CRE CRE/IRIRI CRE/IR IRE CRE/IR IREFI or CRI CRE or TRE CRE or TRE Specified Types

SPA — multi engine CRI FE FE IRE At TRO or TRTOSFI SFE SFE CRE/IR or in-houseTRI CRE or TRE CRE TRE/IR (Airline)

TYPE RATINGS2. MPA — single engine SFI SFE SFE At TRO or TRTOMPA — multi engine SFI/IRI SFE/IRE SFE/IRE SFE/IRE or in-house

TRI TRE TRE (Airline)TRI/IRI TRE/IRE TRE/IRE TRE/IRE

TYPE RATINGS & OPERATORS PROFICENCY CHECKS2a. MPA - Airline SFI SFE SFE Airline in-house

TRI SFE/IRE SFE/IRE SFE/IRE or at TRO/TRTOTRE TRE (if approved TRE/IRE TRE/IRE TRE/IRE suitable

arrangements exist)

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The FE (PPL): Conducts the first type/class ratingskill test for the issue of a PPL

FE (CPL) Flying Examiner Commercial Pilot LicenceThe FE (CPL): Conducts the first type/class ratingskill test for the issue of a CPL

IRI Instrument Rating InstructorIRE Instrument Rating Examiner (FI or CRE)CRI (SPA) Class Rating Instructor -Single-pilot, single-

engine or multi engine instructorCRE (SPA) Class Rating ExaminerFIE Flight Instructor Examiner (teaches those

instructors-to-be, checks them out andrevalidates the FI (A) rating of qualifiedinstructors).

Group 2 (& 2a) SFI Synthetic Flight (Simulator) InstructorSFE Synthetic Flight (Simulator) ExaminerTRI (MPA) or FI Multi engine multi- crew instructor (also for

single pilot multi engine training)TRE (MPA) Multi engine multi- crew examiner (also for

single pilot multi engine testing)IRI Instrument Rating InstructorIRE Instrument Rating Examiner

In the UK, CAA Authorised Examiners are classified as beingqualified for ‘Simulator only’, ‘Aeroplane only’ or ‘Aeroplane andSimulator’. An aeroplane authorisation is further qualified as‘permitting’ (or ‘not permitting) asymmetric testing in an aircraftin flight’.

Note 1: A ‘Skill’ test is a demonstration of knowledge and skilland includes an oral aeroplane technical examination forinitial single-engine aeroplane class ratings whereasinitial single-pilot multi engine Type ratings are thesubject of a written examination.

Note 2: A ‘Proficiency check’ is a demonstration of continuingknowledge and skill to revalidate or renew a rating andincludes an oral aeroplane technical examination bothfor single engine or multi engine aeroplanes ratingrenewals.

3.0 INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ANDPRIVILEGES

3.1 General

Training towards the issue of a JAR-FCL pilot licence must beconducted by authorised Flight Instructors. Class RatingInstructors (CRI (SPA)) or Type Rating Instructors (TRI (MPA)) mustconduct training for the issue of a Class or Type rating on a JAR-FCL licence (or National licence), to satisfy JAR-FCL. Furthermore,training for Single Pilot Aircraft (SPA) Class ratings and otheraircraft Type ratings may also be conducted by a suitablyQualified Flight Instructor (FI (A)).

3.1.1 Minimum Age

An applicant for a Flight Instructor rating shall be at least 18 yearsof age. It follows that examiners will also be not less than 18 yearsold under JAA/JAR-FCL rules.

3.1.2 Validity

Instructor ratings, like Examiner Authorisations, are valid forthree years.

3.1.3 Prerequisites and appointment arrangements

All instructors shall hold at least the licence, rating andqualifications for which instruction is to be given (unless specifiedotherwise) and shall be entitled to act as pilot-in-command of theaircraft during such training or examining.

Provided that they meet the qualifications and experiencerequirements set out in JAR-FCL 1 (or JAR-FCL 2 for helicopters)for each role undertaken, instructors are not confined to a singlerole as Flight Instructors (FI), Type rating instructors (TRI), Classrating instructors (CRI) or Instrument rating instructors (IRI).Applicants for further instructor ratings may be credited with theteaching and learning skills already demonstrated for theinstructor rating held.

Holders of a National Flight Instructor rating obtained prior tothe introduction of the JAR-FCL requirements must demonstratetheir knowledge of JAR-FCL and JAR-OPS as part of the re-appointment procedure.

The Initial experience and course requirements for the variousratings and authorities, with privileges are:

3.2 Flight Instructor Aeroplanes — FI (A)

3.2.1 Experience and qualification requirements

An applicant for the initial issue of a Flight Instructor rating shallhave at least a CPL (A) or completed at least 200 hours flight timeof which at least 150 hours shall be as pilot-in-command (PIC) ifholding a PPL (A). In addition, the applicant must:a. Meet the knowledge requirements for a CPL as set out in JAR

FCL1.b. Have completed at least 30 hours on single engine piston

powered aeroplanes of which at least 5 hours shall have beencompleted in the six months preceding the pre entry flighttest.

c. Receive at least 10 hours instrument flight instruction of whichnot more than 5 hours may be instrument ground time in aflight procedures trainer or a flight simulator.

d. Complete at least 20 hours of cross country flights as PICincluding a flight totalling not less than 540km (300nm) in thecourse of which a full stop landing at two differentaerodromes shall be made; and

e. Pass a specific pre-entry flight test based upon the appropriateJAR-FCL 1 proficiency test, with a Flight Instructor qualified asin JAR-FCL1, within the six months preceding the start of thecourse. The flight shall assess the ability of the applicant toundertake the course.

3.2.2 FI (A) Course

Before being issued with a FI rating, an applicant for that ratingshall have completed an approved course of theoreticalknowledge, instruction and flight training at an approved flyingtraining organisation.

The course is intended to train the applicant to give instruction onsingle-engine aeroplanes up to PPL standard. Flight instructionshall comprise at least 30 hours of flight training of which 25hours shall be dual flight instruction. The remaining 5 hours maybe mutual flying, that is, two applicants flying together topractise flight demonstrations. Of the 25 hours, not more than 5hours may be conducted in a flight simulator (FNPT II) approvedfor the purpose by the Regulatory Authority. The skill test isadditional to the course training time.

Finally, an applicant shall demonstrate to an examiner notified by


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the Authority for this purpose, the ability to instruct a studentpilot to the level required for the issue of a PPL, including pre-flight, post-flight and theoretical knowledge instruction.

3.2.3 Privileges and provisos

The privileges of the holder of an unrestricted FI (A) rating are toconduct flight instruction for:a. The issue of a PPL (A) and class and type ratings for single

engine aeroplanes, provided that for type ratings the FI(A) hascompleted not less than 15 hours on the relevant type in thepreceding 12 months.

b. The issue of a CPL (A); provided that the FI(A) has completedat least 500 hours of flight time as pilot of aeroplanes,including at least 200 hours of flight instruction.

c. Night flying.d. The issue of an Instrument Rating, provided that the instructor

has:i . At least 200 hours of flight time in accordance with

Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), of which up to 50 hours may beinstrument ground time in a flight simulator; and

i i. Completed as a student an approved course comprising atleast 5 hours of flight instruction in an aeroplane, flightsimulator or other approved device and has passed theappropriate FI(A) Skill Test.

e. The issue of a single pilot multi engine type or class ratingprovided that the instructor meets the requirements for CRI(SPA)

f. The issue of a FI (A) rating provided that the instructor:i . Has completed 500 hours of instruction in aeroplanes.i i. Has demonstrated to a FI(A) examiner the ability to instruct

a student FI(A) during an appropriate skill test.iii. Is authorised by the Regulatory Authority for this purpose.

3.2.4 Limitations

Certain limitations apply until the necessary experience has beenobtained while acting as a Restricted Flight Instructor FI(R) underthe supervision of a fully qualified FI(A), before the restrictionclause is removed from the holder's Instructor rating by theRegulatory Authority.

After the initial issue of a FI (A), restricted privileges apply untilthe completion of at least 100 hours flight instruction plus thesupervision of at least 25 student solo flights. To conduct flighttraining for the issue of professional pilots licences, the FI isrequired to have completed a minimum of 500 hours flying ofwhich not less than 200 hours must have been spent carrying-outflight instruction.

3.2.5 Broadening the scope of the initial Flight Instructor Rating

Further ratings are required in respect of night flying instruction,IR instruction, single-pilot multi-engine instruction andinstruction for the FI rating itself. Finally there is the FlightInstructor Examiner (Aeroplanes) who conducts skill tests andproficiency checks for the issue or revalidation of the FI (A).He/she is required to have at least 2,000 flying hours in aeroplanesand not less than 100 hours of flight time instructing potential FIs.

3.2.6 Revalidation and renewal

To revalidate a FI(A), the holder shall fulfil two of the followingthree requirements:a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the

period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours offlight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry dateof the FI rating. Of the 30 hours, 10 hours shall be instructionfor an Instrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR areto be revalidated.

b. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the FIrating, attend a FI refresher seminar approved by theRegulatory Authority.

c. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the FIrating, pass the appropriate skill test set out in JAR-FCL1 (or 2),as a ‘proficiency check’.

If the rating has lapsed for less than 5 years the applicant shallmeet the requirement under (b) and (c) within 12 monthspreceding renewal. Refer to CAA FCL if lapse is more than 5 years.

3.3 Class Rating Instructor — Single Pilot Aeroplanes — CRI (SPA)

To become a CRI (SPA) it is necessary to attend an approved courseconducted by a ‘Flying Instructor Course Approved instructor’ at aFlying Training organisation (FTO) that holds the necessaryapproval to conduct this course.

3.3.1 Experience and qualification requirements — Single engine aeroplanes

An applicant for the issue of a CRI (SPA) rating for single-engineaeroplanes shall have:a. Completed at least 300 hours flight time as a pilot of

aeroplanes.b. Completed at least 50 hours of flight time on the applicable

type or class of aeroplane within the 12 months preceding theapplication.

c. Completed an approved course of at least three hours flightinstruction on the aeroplane or a flight simulator given by aninstructor approved for this purpose; and

d. Passed the appropriate skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and2 to JAR-FCL 1.330 & 1.345.

Before the privileges of the rating are extended to another typeor class of aeroplane, the holder shall, within the past 12 months,have completed at least 50 hours flight time on aeroplanes of theapplicable class or type or similar type as agreed by the Authority.

3.3.2 Experience and qualification requirements — Multi-engine aeroplanes

An applicant for the issue of a CRI (SPA) rating for multi-engineaeroplanes shall have:a. Completed at least 500 hours flight time as a pilot of

aeroplanes;b. Completed at least 50 hours as pilot-in-command on the

applicable type or class of aeroplane within the 12 monthspreceding the application.

c. Completed an approved course including at least five hoursflight instruction on the aeroplane or a flight simulator, givenby an instructor approved for this purpose; and

d. Passed a skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and 2 to JAR-FCL1.330 & 1.345.


The privileges of the holder of a CRI (SPA) rating are to instructlicence holders for the issue of a type or class rating for single-pilot aeroplanes. The holder may instruct on single-engine ormulti- engine aeroplanes subject to being appropriately qualified.


For revalidation of a CRI (SPA) rating the applicant shall withinthe 12 months preceding the expiry date of the rating:a. Conduct at least 10 hours instructional time; orb. Conduct refresher training to the satisfaction of the Authority; orc. Receive ‘refresher’ training as a CRI (A).

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If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall have within the 12months preceding the application:a. Received refresher training as a CRI (A) to the satisfaction of

the Authority; andb. Passed as a proficiency check the relevant part (i.e. ME or SE)

of the skill test set out in Appendix 1 to JAR-FCL 1.330 & 1.345.

3.4 Type Rating Instructor — Multi Pilot Aeroplanes — TRI (MPA)

To become a TRI (MPA) it is necessary to attend a relevant courseat an Approved Training Organisation, or a Type Rating TrainingOrganisation, or to undergo an Operator in-house trainingprogramme.


An applicant for the initial issue of a TRI (MPA) rating shall have:a. Completed at least 1,500 hours flight time as a pilot of multi-

pilot aeroplanes;b. Completed within the 12 months preceding the application at

least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings aspilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplanetype, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which notmore than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator;and

c. Successfully completed an approved TRI course; andd. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one part

related to the duties of a TRI on the applicable type ofaeroplane under the supervision and to the satisfaction of aTRI notified by the Authority for this purpose.

Before the privileges are extended to further MPA types, theholder shall have:a. Completed, within the 12 months preceding the application, at

least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings aspilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplanetype, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which notmore than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator;

b. Satisfactorily completed the relevant technical trainingcontent of an approved TRI course (see AMC FCL 1.365); and

c. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one partrelated to the duties of a TRI(MPA) on the applicable type ofaeroplane under the supervision of a TRI notified by theAuthority for this purpose.


To instruct pilot licence holders for the issue of a multi (engine)type rating, including the instruction required for Multi Crew Co-operation (MCC).


For revalidation of a TRI (MPA) rating, the applicant shall withinthe last 12 months preceding the expiry date of the rating:a. Conduct one of the following parts of a complete type

rating/refresher/recurrent training course:i. One simulator session of at least 3 hours; orii . One air exercise of at least 1 hour comprising a minimum of

2 take-offs and 2 landings; orb. Receive refresher training as a TRI conducting simulated

training, acceptable to the Authority.

3.4.5 Lapsed ratings

If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall have:a. Completed within the 12 months preceding the application at

least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings as

pilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplanetype, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which notmore than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator.

b. Successfully completed the relevant parts of an approved TRI(MPA) course, agreed by the Authority, taking into account therecent experience of the applicant; and

c. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one partrelated to the duties of a TRI (MPA) on the applicable type ofaeroplane under the supervision of a TRI notified by theAuthority for this purpose.

3.5 Instrument Rating Instructor (Aeroplane) — (IRI (A))

3.5.1 Experience qualifications and requirement

An applicant for an IRI (A) rating shall have:a. Completed at least 800 hours flight time under IFR.b. Successfully completed an approved course comprising

theoretical knowledge instruction and at least ten hours offlight instruction on an aeroplane, flight simulator or FNPT II;and

c. Passed a skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and 2 to JAR-FCL1.330 & 1.345.

3.5.2 Privileges

The privileges of the bolder of an IRI (A) rating are limited toconduct flight instruction for the issue of an Instrument RatingIR(A).


To revalidate a IRI (A), the holder shall fulfil two of the followingthree requirements: a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the

period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours offlight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry dateof the FI rating, of which 10 hours shall be instruction for anInstrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR are to berevalidated.

b. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRIrating, attend a FI/IRI refresher seminar approved by theRegulatory Authority.

c. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRIrating, pass the appropriate skill test as a ‘proficiency check’.

If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall meet the requirementunder (b) and (c) above before the Regulatory Authority can lookto grant a renewal of the rating.

3.6 Synthetic Flight Instructor Aeroplanes (Authorisation)SFI (A)

3.6.1 Experience qualifications and requirements

An applicant for a SFI (A) authorisation shall hold or have held aprofessional pilot licence issued by a JAA Member State or a nonJAR-FCL licence acceptable to the Authority and:a. Have completed the simulator content of the applicable type-

rating course.b. Have at least 1,500 hours flying experience as pilot on multi-

pilot aeroplanes.c. Have completed an approved TRI (A) course (see AMC FCL

1.365).d. Have conducted on a complete type rating course at least one

part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type ofaeroplane under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by theAuthority for this purpose.

e. Within a period of 12 months, have completed a proficiency


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check on a flight simulator of the applicable type, as set out inJAR-FCL 1, and

f. Within a period of 12 months, have completed at least threeroute sectors as an observer on the flight deck of the applicabletype.

If the privileges are to be extended to further types of multi-pilotaeroplanes the holder shall have:a. Satisfactorily completed the simulator content of the relevant

type rating course; andb. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one

part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type ofaeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by theAuthority for this purpose.

3.6.2 Privileges

The privileges of the holder of a SFI (A) authorisation are to carryout synthetic flight instruction on a flight simulator for typeratings, including the instruction required for multi-crew co-operation.


For revalidation of a SFI (A) authorisation — The applicantshall within the last 12 months of the validity period of theauthorisation:a. Conduct one of the following parts of a complete type

rating/refresher/recurrent training course :i . One simulator session of at least 3 hours; ori i. One exercise of at least 1 hour comprising a minimum of 2

take-offs and 2 landings; orb. Receive refresher training as a TRI (A) conducting simulated

training acceptable to the Authority.

If the authorisation has lapsed — The applicant shall have:a. Completed the simulator content of the applicable type-rating

course;b. Successfully completed an approved TRI (A) course as agreed

by the Authority; and c. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one

part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type ofaeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by theAuthority for this purpose.

4.0 EXAMINER QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ANDPRIVILEGES

4.1 General

4.1.1 Period of validity

An examiner’s authorisation is valid for not more than threeyears. Examiners are re-authorised by and at the discretion of theAuthority.

4.1.2 Pre-requisites

a. Examiners shall hold a licence and rating at least equal to thelicence or rating for which they are authorised to conduct skilltests or proficiency checks and, unless specified otherwise, theprivilege to instruct for this licence or rating.

b. Examiners shall be qualified to act as pilot-in-command of theaircraft during a skill test or proficiency check and shall meetthe applicable experience requirements.

c. Where no qualified examiner is available and, at the discretionof the Authority, examiners/ inspectors may be authorisedwithout meeting the relevant instructor/type/class ratingrequirements mentioned above.

d. Examiners shall not test applicants to whom flight instructionhas been given by them for that licence or instrument rating,except with the expressed consent in writing of the Authority.

e. The applicant for an examiner authorisation shall haveconducted at least one skill test in the role of an examiner forwhich authorisation is sought, including briefing, conduct ofthe skill test, assessment of the applicant to whom the skill testis given, de-briefing and recording/documentation. This‘Examiner Authorisation Acceptance Test’ will be supervised byan inspector of the Authority or by a senior examinerspecifically authorised by the Authority for this purpose.

4.1.3 Multiple roles

Provided that they meet the qualification and experiencerequirements set out in the relevant JAR FCL document for eachrole undertaken, examiners are not confined to a single role as FE(A), TRE (A), CRE (A), IRE (A) or FIE (A).

4.1.4 Compliance with JARs

The examiner shall comply with appropriate examiners’standardisation arrangements made or approved by theAuthority.

4.1.5 Entries in the licence

In licences where revalidation entries may be made by theexaminer, the examiner will:a. Make the following entries: Rating(s), date of check, valid

until, authorisation number and signature; andb. Submit the original of the skill-test check-form to the issuing

Authority and hold one copy of the check form on a personal(to the examiner) file.

4.2 Flight Examiner Aeroplanes (FE (A))

4.2.1 Privileges

The privileges of a FE (A) are to conduct skill tests for the issue ofa pilot’s licence, including associated type/class ratings.


Applicants for a Flight Examiner Authority must have thefollowing experience:a. For the conduct of PPL (A) skill tests, applicants must have

completed not less than 1,000 hours flight time as a pilot ofaeroplanes, including not less than 250 hours of flight instruction.

b. For the conduct of CPL (A) skill tests, applicants must havecompleted not less than 2,000 hours flight time as a pilot ofaeroplanes, including not less than 250 hours of flightinstruction.

4.3 Type Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (TRE (A))

4.3.1 Privileges

The privileges of a TRE (A) are to conduct:a. Skill tests for the issue of type ratings for multi-pilot

aeroplanes.b. Proficiency checks for revalidation of multi-pilot type and

instrument ratings.c. Skill tests for ATPL issue.

To be eligible for appointment as a Type Rating Examiner (A) anapplicant must:a. Have completed not less than 1,500 hours of flight time as a

pilot of multi-pilot aeroplanes of which at least 500 hours shallbe as pilot-in-command; and

b. Hold or have held a TRI (A) authorisation.

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4.4 Class Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (CRE (A))

4.4.1 Privileges

The privileges of a CRE (A) are to conduct:a. Skill tests for the issue of class and type ratings for single-pilot

aeroplanes.b. Proficiency checks for revalidation of class and type ratings for

single-pilot aeroplanes and revalidation of instrument ratings;


To be eligible for appointment as a Class Rating Examiner(Aeroplanes), an applicant must:a. Hold a professional pilot licence; and b. Have completed not less than 500 hours as a pilot of

aeroplanes.

4.5 Instrument Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (IRE (A))

4.5.1 Privileges

The privileges of an IRE (A) are to conduct skill tests for the initialissue and proficiency checks for the revalidation of instrumentratings.


To be eligible for appointment as Instrument Rating Examiner(Aeroplanes), an applicant musta. Have completed not less than 2,000 hours of flight time as a

pilot of aeroplanes. b. Have, in that total, not less than 450 hours flight time under

IFR of which 250 hours shall be as a flight instructor.

4.6 Synthetic Flight Examiner — Aeroplane (SFE (A))

4.6.1 Privileges

The privileges of an SFE (A) are to conduct type and instrumentrating proficiency checks for multi-pilot aeroplanes, in a flightsimulator.


To be eligible for appointment as Synthetic Flight Examiner(Aeroplanes), an applicant must:a. Hold a current ATPL (A) b. Have completed not less than 1500 hours of flight time as a

pilot of multi-pilot aeroplanes; andc. Be entitled to exercise the privileges of a Synthetic Flight

Instructor SFI (A); that is to carry out synthetic flight instructionon a flight simulator for type ratings, including the instructionfor multi-crew co-operations (MCC).

4.6.3 Attention is particularly drawn to 4.6.1 regarding SyntheticFlight Examiners’ qualification requirements. The fundamentaldifference between Synthetic Flight Instructors and SyntheticFlight Examiners is that Synthetic Flight Instructors may hold orhave held a professional pilot licence as part of the experienceand qualifications requirements for instructors (3.6.1 refers),whereas a Synthetic Flight Examiner shall hold a valid AirlineTransport Pilot Licence (ATPL).

4.7 Flight Instructor Examiner — Aeroplane (FIE (A)

4.7.1 Privileges

The privileges of an FIE (A) are to conduct skill tests andproficiency checks for the issue and revalidation of flightinstructor ratings.


To be eligible for appointment as a Flight Instructor Examiner, anapplicant must:a. Have completed not less than 2000 hours as a pilot of

aeroplanes; and b. Have in that total, not less than 100 hours flight-time

instructing applicants for a FI (A) rating.

4.8 Curtailment of privileges

The age limitation for public transport operations as pilot-in-command also applies to examiners. For all licensing purposes inUK, pilots beyond the age of 65 may no longer act as examiner toconduct skill tests or proficiency checks on aeroplanes orsimulators, although they may continue to act as instructors on asimulator.

APPENDIX D

1.0 REQUIRED READING FOR INSTRUCTORS ANDEXAMINERS (SUMMARY)

1.1 The United Kingdom Air Navigation Order and Regulations(CAP 393)

ANO Article 21 to 29ANO Article 34ANO Article 129 — DefinitionsANO Schedule 8 — Parts B & CANO Schedule 10 — Parts B & C

1.2 Rules of the Air Regulations (CAP 393 — Section VI)

1.3 JAR OPS and JAR FCL 1 (and FCL2 as appropriate) in general,but in particular

JAR OPS JAR OPS JAR FCL 1* JAR FCL 1*1.125 1.940 1.010 AMC 1.2201.130 1.945 1.015 1.3001.210 1.950+IEM 1.175 1.3601.225 1.965+AMC 1.180 1.3651.230 1.968 1.185 1.3701.290 1.970+AMC 1.215 1.4051.360 1.975 1.220 1.4101.400 1.980 1.225 1.4201.405 1.985+IEM 1.235 1.4251.410 App 1/1.965 1.240 1.4401.430 1.1040 1.245 AMC 1.4251.435 1.1045 1.250 IEM 1.4251.465 1.260App 1/1.430 1.261App 2/1.430 1.262App 1/1.465 App 1/1.240IEM app 1/1.430 App 3/1.240*and the equivalent paragraphs in JAR-FCL2, for helicopteroperations

1.4 ICAO PANS OPS Document 8168Part 3 Chapter 3 Approach segments

Chapter 4 CirclingPart 4 Chapter 1 In-flight Procedures

1.5 UK Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)Get to know the general layout, its sections and theircontent


A P P E N D I X D

1.6 UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (available on web sitehttp://www.ais.org.uk)

White 17/98 126/98 41/99 115/99 138/9965/02Pink 11/98 36/98 141/98 52/99 98/99 140/9936/02Yellow 35/98 71/98 14/9986/02

But in particular, asymmetric training and practise engine shut-downs in the air(AIC 52/1999 — Pink 193) as amended.

1.7 Flight Operations Communications FODCOM 10/99

1.8 The contents of CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or24 as appropriate to the Examiner Rating sought.

2.0 NEED-TO-KNOW FOR AUTHORISED EXAMINERS

2.1 The Air Navigation Order (ANO)

a. Definition of Terms (Article 129)b. Schedule 8 (In detail), to include

i . Privileges of Licences.i i. Initial licence ratings requirements.iii. Maintaining validity of Ratings according to intended use.iv. Certificates of Test/Check (C of T/C), Certificate of

Experience (C of E) or of Revalidation. (Establishapplicability for intended use)

v. Ratings Renewal Test Requirements.vi. Effective dates of tests and validity of C of T/C, C of E or

Revalidation.vii. The Instrument Rating Renewal; details of test content.viii . Type Rating Forms 1179/1180 details (with emphasis on

appended Notes).ix. General Exemptions relating to ANO Articles, such as the

one regarding the validity of tests, to satisfy JAR periodictest expiry (Now 12 months).

c. Schedule 10 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or24 to includei . Training and Tests for crews engaged in Public Transport

Operations.i i. General training and tests content requirements.iii. Effective dates for tests and validity of each Test.

2.2 CAP 360 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23,and 24.

a. Test requirements in detail, with particular emphasis on theOperators Proficiency Check (OPC).

b. Engine Failure at Take-off; maximum speed for initiationduring trainingi . On an aircraft; i i. In a simulator; andiii. VMCG corrections in a cross-wind (Source: CAA Flight Test

Department).

2.3 Combined Schedule 8 and 10 tests (with a training input tosatisfy Schedule 10) need to be discussed, to understand howPASS/FAIL becomes diffused by the training element.

2.4 National Aeronautical Information Publication (UK/AIP) —Consult the RAC section for the ‘Legal description’ of let-downs as the final arbiter of how correct is a let down chart.

2.5 Rules of ATC and State AIP requirementsa. Altimeter settings.b. Quadrantal heights and RVSM aspects affecting operations

above FL 290.

c. Transition Altitudes.d. Individual airfields Approach, Circling and Missed Approach

Procedures.e. NDB let downs; Noise considerations below 2,000 feet on final

approach.f. IFR / IFR and special VFR g. Transponder codes normal/emergencyh. Filing of ATC flight plans to include Alternate(s)i. Danger Areasj. Radio equipment and Failure proceduresk. General MNPS requirements and NAT proceduresl. Rules of Thumb: 1 in 60 rule, wind drift assessment, estimating

ground speed and time to a station (e.g. VOR with DME) usingindicated Mach Number et al.

2.6 Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM)

a. Definitions of OCL, OCA, and the calculation of DH/A, MDH/A.b. Self-calculations of AOMs.c. Approach Bans.d. Circling Minima.e. AOM requirements for operations that are not Public

Transport.f. Aircraft AOM Category depends upon Vat at maximum

certificated landing weight.

2.7 Simulator Approvals — Terms of Approval

a. All Initial and recurrent Training and Testing andi . Initial Line checks.i i. Low Visibility Operations.

b. Who can use the simulator as i . Trainee; i i. Instructor and/or examiner.

c. Conditions of use (of simulator).

2.8 Checking of Licences and Validity of Test(s) calculations

2.9 Assessing tests

a. Tolerances — (Accept performance or reject)b. Application of Tolerances.c. Legal interpretation of let down is in National AIP; not the let

down chart.

2.10 Specific Test Detail Aspects

a. The Holding pattern (as per ICAO Pans-Ops document 8168)i . Entrance to the Holding pattern; andi i. The Holding pattern itself; timing of leg and differences

from ICAOb. Procedure turns (as per ICAO Pans-Ops document 8168).c. Differences between similar entries to holding patterns and

procedure turns.d. Minimum Rates of Climb or of Descent.e. ILS beam widths vary according to runway length.f. Glide Path asymmetry; not equal above and below nominal

glide path.g. Other precision approach aids (MLS, GPS).h. Let downs are drawn and all times are given for still air

conditions.i. Care to ensure symmetry in fuel usage remains within limits

during training.j. DME defined Turning points for a SID

i . Co-located DME serving two ILS runway-ends, to be usedwith care.

i i. Use timing to turning point if DME is not available.

2.11 Examiner Technique. Establish proposed technique anddiscuss

April 2003 37

A P P E N D I X D

a. Briefingb. Recordingc. Assessingd. De-briefing

2.12 The Regulatory Authority must be satisfied that anAuthorised Examiner AE has the required standard ofknowledge. In addition, an inspector visiting to observe anAE for appointment or for the renewal of an Authority willpay particular attention to the following

a. Briefing preparation and general contents.i. Pre-briefing

Preparation: Conduct of preliminaries;Charts available.

ii . During briefingStyle Staying relaxed.Pace Speed of Briefings satisfactory.

Presentation of charts as necessaryPresentation Voice (clear)

Attitude (not aggressive).Pauses.

Participation Asking candidates questionsNOTE: The HARD MAN attitude is NOT ON

Examiners must be Firm but Fair; alsoExaminers must retain a Friendly approach.

b. Recording: The inspector will confirm that a suitable testprogress record form is used and that shorthand is clear.

c. Assessing: The inspector will expect assessing to be as perguidance in the relevant CAA Standards document.

Note that if a particular test item is not observed during a sortiefor whatever reason, proposals made by the candidate AE on howto deal with that item must satisfy the intent of the test as perpublished criteria. This will be ascertained at a suitable time afterthe flight, during a one-to-one interview at the end of the visit.

d. De-brief: Pass or Fail, the Test result should be given at theimmediate start of the de-brief. If the result is a Fail, thefollowing method could be usefully used i. One but not more than two FAIL points are to be offered

under each failed section; not necessarily chronologically,but in the order of importance, seriousness or severity ofthe fail point. This avoids further arguments.

ii . The re-test requirement should then be indicated.iii. After the Test result' is given (as the de-briefing opening

gambit) whether the pilot has Passed or Failed, arecapitulation of the flight should follow in all cases. In thecase of a fail or partial pass, use the technique in (i) and (ii)above, giving faults as they occurred, in detail and inchronological order, with constructive comments to helpthe candidate achieve the desired result if a re-test isnecessary. Praise where praise is due !

e. Post check-flight certification

Issue of a ‘test result’ form is not necessary if the pilot concernedworks for an Operator where the training department can raisethe necessary in-house paperwork to indicate any need for a re-test. In this case the system would also ensure that the personconcerned is not used for flight operations until such time as asuccessful re-test is completed.

Other casesi. A formal Notice of Failure must be given to a person who

fails a test, using the appropriate form; orii . A Partial Pass certificate will be issued and given to the

candidate for the attention of the re-test examiner; oriii. A Pass certificate will be issued for the attention of the

CAA Personnel Licensing Department (PLD)

f. The Regulatory Authority appointed examiner observing apilot for the renewal of an Instructor or Examiner Authority,will check the Authorised Examiner’s personal Record of Testsadministered by that AE, to establish that it is satisfactory.

g. Authorised Examiners must clearly understand that anAuthority becomes invalid immediately the Instructor and/orExaminer) ceases to be employed by the particular airline oroperator for whose staff the Authority to train and/or examinewas issued.

2.13 Generalities regarding assessment of piloting performanceand in post-flight debriefings.

a. The Primary concerns are SAFETY and to Maintain Standards.b. Honesty and credibility are most important, or there is no

integrity.c. Aim for the ideal, accept that sometimes this is not possible.d. Compare observed performance with (AEs) personal

‘guesstimate’ and accept error if both are the same. e. Remember that to be considerate is all-important.f. Be reasonable regarding the content of a Test, particularly

where the result may preclude the signing of a licence.g. When noting faults, be aware that what may be individually

acceptable may not be so when considered together (that is,when faults are ‘totted up’).

h. Faults noted need not be always itemised in the recapitulation,if a number can be lumped together so that the de-brief doesnot become a litany of errors.

i. Assess on the candidate’s instruments and make allowance forparallax. If unable to see clearly, ask questions e.g. what is yourheading, height etc.

j. The bottom line is:i. Was it Safe?ii. Was it Acceptable?iii . Was the flying balanced when in an asymmetric

configuration?k. When indicating a fault or a fail point, use words like:

i. You failed because ...ii. Had you flown thus (or done so and so) ... this would not

have happened ...iii . It would be have been preferable to ... (do so and so).

Note that in all cases, the onus is placed on the candidate forfailing by not achieving the required standard. At no time mustthe AE appear to have “FAILED” the person under test. There isno place for a Check to Chop mentality. Instead, constructivecriticism will be offered by the AE before re-iterating the failpoints, to conclude the de-briefing.

2.14 Summarising

This section is not intended to be exhaustively comprehensive. Itis an outline of important areas that candidates for appointmentor re-appointment as Authorised Examiners need to be aware ofand be comfortable with; to ensure as far as possible that boththe intent of current Legislation and its dependent guidance aresatisfied with some level of evenness. The notes on assessing andon how best to conduct de-briefings in the least confrontationalmanner, come from experience and are offered as an introductionto judging a performance and on how to say “You have passed”or “NO” in the gentlest of manners that should also stoparguments developing.

3.0 JAR-FCL1 — INSTRUCTOR & EXAMINER COURSES(TEACHING AND LEARNING)

(List of topics that should be covered during training as aninstructor and/or examiner)


A P P E N D I X D

3.1 THE LEARNING PROCESS

MotivationPerception and understanding Memory and its application Habits and transferObstacles to learningIncentives to learningLearning methodsRates of learning

3.2 THE TEACHING PROCESS

Elements of effective teachingPlanning of instructional activityReaching methodsTeaching from the “known” to the “unknown”Use of lesson plans

3.3 TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

Value of structured (approved) course of trainingImportance of a planned syllabusIntegration of theoretical knowledge and flight instruction

3.4 TECHNIQUES OF APPLIED INSTRUCTION

a. Theoretical knowledge — Classroom instruction techniquesUse of training aidsGroup lecturesIndividual briefingsStudent participation and discussion

b. FLIGHT — Airborne instruction techniquesThe flight and cockpit environmentTechniques of applied instructionPost flight and in flight judgement and decision making

3.5 STUDENT EVALUATION AND TESTING

a. Assessment of student performanceThe function of progress testsRecall of knowledgeTranslation of knowledge into understandingDevelopment of understanding into actionsThe need to evaluate rate of progress

b. Analysis of student errorsEstablish the reason for errorsTackle major faults first, minor faults secondAvoidance of over criticismThe need for clear concise communication

3.6 TRAINING PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

Lesson planningPreparationExplanation and demonstrationStudent participation and practiceEvaluation

3.7 HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS RELEVANT TOFLIGHT INSTRUCTION

Physiological factorsPsychological factorsHuman information processingBehavioural attitudesDevelopment of judgement and decision taking

3.8 HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING SYSTEMS FAILURESAND MALFUNCTIONS

In an aeroplane during flight: Selection of a safe altitudeImportance of “touch drills”Situational awarenessAdherence to correct procedures

3.9 TRAINING ADMINISTRATION

Flight theoretical knowledge instruction recordsPilot’s personal flying log-bookThe flight/ground curriculumStudy materialAircraft Flight and/or owner’s manuals or operating handbooksFlight authorisation papersAircraft documentsThe private pilot licence regulations

This list of human factors’ interest underpins the theoreticalknowledge, technical content and practical instruction syllabusapplicable to the various Instructor courses. (See JAR-FCL 1 Sub-Part H for details of individual courses).

APPENDIX E

BIBLIOGRAPHY

JAA Publications

JAR FCL 1Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement(Aeroplanes)

Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing ofAeroplane pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers allrequirements for the issue and renewal of private andprofessional aeroplane licenses and their ratings, including thosefor instructor and examiner qualifications.

JAR FCL 2Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement(Helicopters)

Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing ofHelicopter pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers allrequirements for the issue and renewal of private andprofessional helicopter licenses and their ratings, including thosefor instructor and examiner qualifications.

JAR FCL 3Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement(Medical)

Contains detailed Medical Standards required for flight crewlicensing within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers requirementsfor the issue and renewal of all medical certificates. Essentially forAuthorised Medical Examiners (AME) but useful information onrequired health and medical standards for pilots.

JAR OPS 1Joint Aviation Requirements — (Aeroplanes)Subpart N — Flight CrewSubpart O — Cabin Staff

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A P P E N D I X E

JAR OPS 1 Details requirements that apply to the operation ofaeroplanes for commercial air transportation. The subparts listeddeal with crew composition and all initial or recurrent trainingand checking matters for each class of aircrew mentioned,including CRM and LOFT requirements.

JAR OPS 3Joint Aviation Requirements — (Helicopters)

JAR OPS 3 details requirements that apply to the operation ofhelicopters for commercial air transportation. Specificrequirements for training crews and cabin staff are similar tothose for fixed wing aircraft in JAR-OPS 1.

UK CAA Publications

CAP 53UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication — The Private Pilot Licenceand Associated Ratings

The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements. Itprovides information relevant to all Private Pilots in four Parts.These deal with General and Medical requirements, Aeroplanes,Rotorcraft and Balloons and Airships, each dealing individuallywith a specific Licence and/or Rating, e.g. Syllabuses, MedicalCertificates, Revalidation of Ratings, etc.

CAP 54UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication — Professional PilotLicences

The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements includingthe Instrument Rating and the Flying Instructor’s rating, CPLBalloons requirements, clarification of hours countable towardslicence upgrade to ATPL and consolidated Navigationexamination details for military and ex military personnel.

LASORSLicensing, Administration and Standardisation, OperatingRequirements and Safety. LASORS is a new CAA advisorydocument for the pilots of single and multi-pilot aircraft, re-issued every January and updated either via the CAA PersonnelLicensing Department website (http://www.caa.co.uk/srg) or via e-mail to those individuals who register with the CAA PLD for theLASORS Free Update Service. It contains clear, accurate answers tofrequently asked questions on all aspects of flight crew licensingand comprises two parts:n LAS (Licensing, Administration and Standardisation)

supersedes the guidance material published previously in CAP53 and CAP 54 and in General Information Documents.

n ORS (Operating Requirements and Safety) is a digest ofpractical knowledge requirements and best practicesprocedures for the single pilot operator, consisting principallyof extracts from Safety Sense leaflets and Pink AeronauticalInformation Circulars.

LASORS is a ready source of information for those who arecommencing or engaged in flight training, upgrading flight crewlicences, revalidating or renewing their ratings or seeking to addratings to existing licences. It also puts essential safetyinformation into the pocket of those whose philosophy is “Don’tassume, check.”

Safety Regulation Group Instructor Course and other notes

CAA TRE Standardisation Core Course Joining instructions notes

CAA Standards document 14Guidance to Examiners Single Pilot Aeroplanes (SPA)

Type and Class rating skill & proficiency checks and InstrumentRating Revalidations

CAA Standards document 17Aide Mémoire for the guidance of Authorised Examiners Oralexaminationsfor the issue and revalidation of Class/Type ratings — Single PilotAeroplanes (SPA)

CAA Standards document 23Guidance to Examiners regarding aeroplane Certificates ofTest/Check or of Experience.For persons who are authorised by the CAA to sign Certificates oftest and Certificates of Experience in a pilot’s licence or log book,as required by JAR-FCL1 licensing. Also contains delegatedauthority revalidation requirements and details who is alsocleared to carry out UK AOC Operator Proficiency Checks (OPC)for pilots employed by a particular operator.

CAA Standards document 24Guidance to Examiners Multi Pilot Aeroplanes (MPA)Covering Type Rating skill tests and Proficiency checks

CAA Standards document 29Guide to performance standards for Instructors of CRM training inCommercial Aviation

The UK Air Pilot — UK Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)Covers all aspects of flight operations in UK Air space. Available asa three volume publication, in CD-ROM format and on the CAAwebsite (http://www.ais.org.uk). AIP Supplements, AIRACS and allAIC can also be found on the CAA website.

CAP 360 — Air Operators CertificateExplains the administrative procedure for the issue and variationof Air Operators’ Certificates (AOC) and to indicate therequirements to be met by applicants and certificate holders inrespect of equipment, organisation, staffing, training and othermatters affecting the operation of aircraft.

CAP 737 — Crew Resource Management (CRM)Explains the requirement for CRM training and how it can besatisfied using formally accredited CRM instructors. The selectionof CRM instructors is also discussed and a useful Bibliography isoffered, for readers who want to learn more about the subject orto prepare relevant in-house guidance for training staff.

CAA Flight Operations Department Notices (FODN)Guidance to operators and AOC holders in amplification of CAP360 requirements.

UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC)Supplementary information of current flight operational interest.It is distributed on White, Yellow, Pink, Purple or Green paper, todifferentiate readily between subject matter.

Refer to White AIC for changes in Flight Crew Licensingrequirements and read all Pink AIC as they are of flight safetyimport. Take particular note of their contents, but in particularabsorb the guidance held in the Pink AIC listed hereunder withtheir identification number (as amended)

GeneralControlled Flight into terrain (CFIT) 38/1999 Pink 191— Risk AvoidanceSimulation of engine failure on aeroplanes 52/1999 Pink 193Propeller feathering on twin 130/1997 Pink 153piston-engined aircraftRejected Take-off 141/1998 Pink 182


A P P E N D I X E

Inclement weather aspects Operations from runways affected 81/1999 Pink 195by snow, slush or waterFrost, ice and snow on aircraft 93/2000 Pink 8Ground de-icing of aircraft 81/2001 Pink 25— Holdover timesInduction system 145/1997 Pink 161(piston engine carburettor) icingIce induced stalls on turbo-propeller 98/1999 Pink 200& other propeller driven aircraft

Meteorological effectsFlight over and in the vicinity of 144/1997 Pink 160high groundLow altitude wind-shear 19/2002 Pink 28Effect of thunderstorms and associated 72/2002 Pink 22turbulence on aircraft

Aircraft induced turbulenceWake Turbulence 17/1999 Pink 188Vortex rings (helicopters) 147/1998 Pink 184

ApproachUse of ILS facilities in the UK 34/1977 Pink 141Absolute Minima 49/2002 Pink 32

PerformanceTake-off, climb and landing performance 67/2002 Pink 36 of light aeroplanesLanding performance of large 11/1998 Pink 164transport aeroplanes

ICAO Publications

ICAO PANS OPS Document 8168International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) DetailedStandards for flight operations

ICAO Human Factors DigestsDigest No 1 (Recently re-circulated in UK as CAA CAP 719) Addresses human factors concepts and includes some materialrelevant to training and evaluation.

Digest No 2Deals with CRM and LOFT concepts and makes some reference tothe instructor role in these exercises.

Digest No 4Refers to the use of Human Factors in Personnel Selection.

Other publications on instructor pilot selection

Training and Development of Public Transport Training PilotsA training guide in the Air Technology Series produced in 1982 bythe now defunct Air Transport and Travel Industry Board (ATTITB)of the UK. This guide is now out of print.

Publications of ‘human factors’ and CRM interest

FeedbackConfidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme(CHIRP) magazine

Focus on Commercial Aviation SafetyThe UK Flight Safety Committee Official Quarterly Publication

Human Error (By James Reason, 1990) Errors and their Causes. May be seen as complementary to theoutline on errors given in ‘The airline Training Captain’ section ofthis guide at 4.3.4 (ISBN 0-521-31419-4)

Human Factors and Aerospace Safety Published by theCranfield University, BedfordSpecialist Journal

Human Factors in Multi-crew operations (By Harry W. Orladyand Linda M. Orlady, 1999)A book specifically designed as a learning source, both forstudents and self-study. It provides a practical context for theappreciation of human factors, for those studying or engaged incurrent air transport operations.(ISBN 0-291-39838-3, hard back & 0-291-39839-1, paperback)

Human Factors for Pilots (By R.C. Green, H. Muir, M. James D.Gradwell, R.L. Green, 1991)Basic textbook introducing the world of human factors tostudents learning to fly professionally. (ISBN 1 85628 177 9)

There follows a more comprehensive list of CRM and HumanFactors related information and guidance. For the full list, see UKCAA CAP 737 Crew Resource Management (CRM) (Appendix).

CAP 737 APPENDIX (EXTRACT) — SOURCES OF FURTHERINFORMATION

There are many hundreds of references on CRM and humanfactors. A reasonably comprehensive list is given in CAP 737: CrewResource Management (CRM) (due to be published in early 2003;http://www.caa.co.uk/publications)

A short list of some of the key documents may be found below:

ICAO Human Factors Training Manual. 1998. Doc 9683-AN/950ICAO. Training of Operational Personnel in Human Factors. ICAOHuman Factors Digest No 3. ICAO Circular 227-AN/136. 1991ICAO. Flight Crew Training: Cockpit Resource Management(CRM) and Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT). ICAO Humanfactors Digest No. 2. ICAO Circular 217-AN/132. 1989. Alsopublished as CAP720Carver, T. Training and Maintaining Basic Airmanship Skills. FlightSafety Foundation. 10th EASS ‘Managing Aviation safety — Backto Basics’. Netherlands. March 1998Dédale. Briefings: A Human Factors Course for Pilots —Reference Manual and videos. 2000. Publishers Dédale, France.ISBN 2-9509979-0-2 http://www.dedale.net/page_bfgs.htmlCAA. Guidance Notes for Accreditation Standards for CRMInstructors & CRM Examiners: Standards Document 29, version 1.2001.Krey. Neil Krey’s CRM Developers Forumhttp://www.crm-devel.orghttp://www.crm-devel.org/resources/nasa/losdbrf/index.htmhttp://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/transcan/transcan1.htmhttp://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/raesperf/perfstan.htmhttp://www.crm-devel.org/resources/paper/raescrm.htm.RAeS. Crew Resource Management. Paper produced by RAeSHFG CRM standing group. http://www.raes-hfg.comRAeS. CRM Resource Listing (94 pages) — listing of videos,books, training material. (not updated since 1999).http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRM — resource listing)RAeS. Guide to Performance Standards for Instructors on CrewResource Management (CRM) Training in Commercial Aviation(1998). Download from http://www.raes-hfg.com/civil-av.pfdRAeS. Quality Crew Resource Management. Paper produced byRAeS HFG CRM standing group.http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/paper/raescrm.htm.RAeS. Royal Aeronautical Society Human Factors Grouphttp://www.raes-hfg.com (CRM pages)http://www.raes-hfg.com/reports/loft-debrief.htmhttp://www.raes-hfg.com /reports/crm_trng.pdf

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Transport Canada. Crew Resource Management Manual.http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/transcan/transcan1.htmWeiner, E., Kanki, B., Helmreich, R. Cockpit ResourceManagement. 1993 San Diego, Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-750026-XRAeS. CRM Standards for Single Pilot Operators.http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRMSG page)FAA website on safety training and research for general aviationpilots and instructors. http://FlySafe.faa.govDunlap, J., and Mangold, S. Leadership/ Followership; recurrenttraining. Instructor manual and student manual. February 1998.FAA.Endsley. Mica Endsley’s Situation Awareness Technologiessitewww.satechnologies.comReason, J. Human Error. 1990. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-31419-4GAIN. Operator’s Flight Safety Handbook . Issue 2. December2001.ICAO. Human Factors, Management and Organization. ICAOHuman Factors Digest No 10. ICAO Circular 247-AN/148Maurino, D., Reason, J., Johnston, N., Lee, R. Beyond AviationHuman Factors; Safety in High technology Systems . 1995.Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-948-5Reason, J. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. 1997.Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-105-0GIHRE. Enhancing Performance in High Risk Environments:recommendations for the use of Behavioural Markers. July 2001.http://www2.hu-berlin.de/GIHREHelmreich. University of Texas; Bob Helmreich’s CRM and LOSAsitehttp://www.psy.utexas.eduwww.psy.utexas.edu/psy/helmreich/nasaut.htmAIA/ AECMA. Propulsion System Malfunction and InappropriateCrew Response (PSM+ICR). Vols 1 and 2. November 1998. FAA. Turbofan Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.November 2000. Training video and notes. Also in CD form. For afree copy, write to FAA Engine and Propellor Directorate, ANE-110, 12 New England Executive Park, Burlington, MA 01803,USA.Text can be downloaded fromhttp://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft (click on ‘Special Topics— Safety Resource Page’ ) or fromhttp://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft/engine_malf_famil.docFAA. Turboprop Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.Training video and notes. In preparation — may be ready late2002 or early 2003.For further information, write to FAA Engineand Propellor Directorate, ANE-110, 12 New England ExecutivePark, Burlington, MA 01803, USAFSF. Approach and Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Toolkit.2000/2001. Flight Safety Foundation. CD. Free to FSF members.http://www.flightsafety.org/pdf/alar_flyer.pdfDismukes, K and Smith, G. Facilitation and Debriefing inAviation Training and Operations. Ashgate. October 2000. ISBN:0 7546 1164 7

APPENDIX F

USEFUL ADDRESSESInformation sources and providers of Publications

For calls from overseas, dial the local access code, then 44 (toaccess the UK network) followed by the required number withoutthe leading digit (0) shown in the following listings of numbers.

FLYING REGULATORS AND PROFESSIONAL BODIES

Civil Aviation Authority(UK National Regulatory Authority — Primary Information Source)Personnel Licensing Department (PLD)Aviation House Tel +44 (0)1293 57 3700Gatwick Airport South Fax +44 (0)1293 57 3996West Sussex e-mail (see website for particulars)RH6 0YR, UK Website http://www.caa.co.uk/srg

Medical Department Tel +44 (0)1293 57 3685(Address as above)

National Air Traffic Services (NATS)(Provider of en-route air traffic services in UK)Aeronautical Information Tel (Editorial) +44 (0)20 8745 3458

ServiceControl Tower Building Tel (Distribution) +44 (0)1242 283 100London Heathrow Airport Tel (Content) +44 (0)20 7453 6575Hounslow Fax +44 (0)20 8745 3453Middlesex Website http://www.ais.org.ukTW6 1JJ, UK

Royal Aeronautical Society(Provider of information and advice)4 Hamilton Place Tel +44 (0)20 7670 4300London Fax +44 (0)20 7670 4309W1J 7BQ, UK e-mail [email protected]

website http://www.aerosociety.com

The Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators(Provider of information and advice) Cobham House Tel +44 (0)20 7404 40329 Warwick Court Fax +44 (0)20 7404 4035Gray’s Inn e-mail [email protected] website http://www.gapan.orgWC1R 5DJ, UK

The Air League Educational Trust(Provider of general guidance for Non JAA JAR-OPS/FCL matters)Broadway House Tel +44 (0)20 7222 8463Tothill Street Fax +44 (0)20 8222 8462London e-mail [email protected] 9NS, UK Website http://www.airleague.co.uk

Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA-UK)(Provider of general guidance for Non JAA JAR-OPS/FCL matters)50a Cambridge Street Tel +44 (0)20 7834 5631London Fax +44 (0)20 7834 8623SW1V 4QQ, UK e-mail [email protected]

Website http://www.aopa.co.uk

British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA)(Pilot Representative Union — Information Source)81 New Road Tel +44 (0)20 8746 4000Harlington Fax +44 (0)20 8476 4077Hayes e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.balpa.org.ukUB3 5BG, UK


A P P E N D I X F

British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA) Gatwick Centre(Pilot Representative Union — Information Source)Little Orchards Tel +44 (0)1293 449 117Gatwick Road Fax +44 (0)1293 449 129Gatwick e-mail [email protected] Sussex Website http://www.balpa.orgUB3 5BG, UK

British Helicopter Advisory Board(Information Source)The Graham Suite Tel +44 (0)1276 856 100Fairoaks Airport Fax +44 (0)1276 856 126Chobham e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.bhab.orgSurrey GU24 8HX, UK

The Confidential Human Factors Incident ReportingProgramme (CHIRP)(UK Source of information and confidential advice on operationaloccurrence matters) Building Y20E, Room G15 Tel +44 (0)1272 395 013Cody Technology Park Fax +44 (0)1272 394 290Ively Road e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.chirp.co.ukHampshireGU24 8HX, UK

General Aviation Awareness Council(Information Source)50a Cambridge Street Tel +44 (0)20 7834 5631London Fax +44 (0)20 7834 8623SW1V 4QQ, UK e-mail [email protected]

Website http://www.gaac.co.uk

The United Kingdom Flight Safety Committee(Information Source)The Graham Suite Tel +44 (0)1276 855 193Fairoaks Airport Fax +44 (0)1276 855 195Chobham e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.ukfsc.co.ukSurreyGU24 8HX, UK

TRAINING ORGANISATIONS

Providers of Integrated Flying Training Courses, Modular andShort pilot training courses, also MCC and CRM courses andInstructor/Examiner courses tailored to suit as individuallyrequired; to prepare instructors for the CAA examiners corestandardisation course and beyond.

A full listing of flying training establishments providing UK CAAapproved Courses both in the UK and overseas, may be obtainedfrom the Civil Aviation Authority Personnel (Flight Crew)Licensing Department (PLD). Details may also be found on the UKCAA PLD Internet website.

Approved Flying Training Organisations (Alphabetically):

BAE Systems Flight Training (Europe)PPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCCFlying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &Helicopters (H)Antigua Base Militar Tel +34 956 317 806

La ParraAeropuerto de Jerez Fax +34 956 182 433Jerez de la Frontera e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.baesystems.esSpain

Cabair College of Air TrainingPPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCCFlying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &Helicopters (H)Cranfield Airport Tel +44 (0)1234 751 243Bedford Fax +44 (0)1234 751 363Bedfordshire e-mail [email protected] 0JR, UK Website http://www.ccat.org.uk

Oxford Aviation TrainingPPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCC, Flying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &Helicopters (H) Oxford Airport Tel +44 (0)1865 844 200Kidlington Fax +44 (0)1865 376 797Oxford, e-mail [email protected] Website http://www.oxfordaviation.netOX5 1RA, UK

PUBLICATIONS

All UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAP) Publications may beobtained from:

DOCUMEDIA (Cheltenham Ltd)37 Windsor Street Tel +44 (0)1242 235 151Cheltenham Tel +44 (0)1242 283 100Gloucestershire +44 (0)870 887 1410GL52 2DG, UK Fax +44 (0)1242 283 131

+44 (0)870 887 1411ISDN +44 (0)1242 283 140Website http://www.documedia.co.uk

All JAA Publications may be obtained from:

RAPIDOCWilloughby Road Tel +44 (0)1344 861 666Bracknell Fax +44 (0)1344 714 440Berkshire e-mail [email protected] 8DW, UK

April 2003 43

A P P E N D I X G

APPENDIX G

RATIONALE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This Guidance Document was prepared to supplement andreinforce what information is available for callers who contact theRoyal Aeronautical Society or the Guild of Air Pilots and AirNavigators, for advice on where to find guidance on humanfactors in airline training and on how to become an Instructor.The author wishes to acknowledge assistance and suggestions forinclusion offered by the Guidance Document Working Sub-Groupand other members of the Royal Aeronautical Society FlightOperations Group, The Society’s Human Factors Group and for theinformation supplied by the ‘outside’ organisations listedhereunder.

1.0 Flight Operations Group (FOG) Guidance Documentworking-group

Captain Ronald MACDONALD, FRAeSChairman, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSRetired airline pilot and qualified accident investigator

Captain David A.J. MARTIN, FRAeSChairman, Education and Training Committee, GAPANMember, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSRetired airline pilot training manager and aviation consultant

Captain Richard K.J. HADLOW, FRAeSImmediate Past Chairman & Member, Flight Operations GroupCommittee, RAeSRetired airline pilot, RAF flying instructor and helicopter pilot

Mr Peter MOXHAM, FRAeSMember, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSPilot and Flying Training School instructor/ administrator

Mr Peter G. RICHARDS, IEng, FRAeSMember, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSRetired Senior airline Flight Engineer

2.0 Members of Royal Aeronautical Society GroupCommittees

With particular thanks for help with the formulation of thecurrent JAA aviation scene and other matters, to (in alphabeticalorder):

Mr Pieter HEMSLEY, BA, FCIPD, MRAeSChairman, Human Factors Group, RAeSWing Commander, Royal Air Force (Retired) and AviationConsultant

Captain Simon J. LAWRENCE, MRAeSConsultant Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSUS Air, FOG/United States Air Line Pilots' Association (ALPA) link

Captain Seamus J.P. LYTTLE, BSc, CEng, FCIT, MRAeSMember, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSRetired Flight Operations Manager & Airline Pilot, CharteredEngineer and Aviation Consultant

Dr James David STEVENSON, MPH, FRAeSColonel, United States Air Force (Retired) RAF Centre of Aviation Medicine/AMTW, RAF HenlowFor the RAeS Aviation Medicine Group

Captain Paul WILSON, FRAeSMember, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeSRetired Airline pilot and Aviation Consultant

3.0 Other organisations

Help with information relating to this guidance document is alsogratefully acknowledged, with thanks to the UK Civil AviationAuthority Safety Regulation Group (SRG) for documents receivedfrom the Flight Operations Department, the Personnel LicensingDepartment (PLD) the Operating Standards Division (HF specialist)and the Gatwick Central Library.

IN CONCLUSION

May the thoughts offered in this publication, guide readers whoare, or intend to become, aviation instructors. Remain fair to yourfellow pilot and do your best to teach well all you know. Demandabsolute professionalism and stay firm in the maintenance ofStandards in your dealings with others. The dream of an accident-free world of flying remains in your hands to mould from lessonone. Demonstrate by example and make a start by teaching thebasics of flight safety, then look to see how well the fundamentalsafety precepts are absorbed by your pupils.

Encourage excellence and give praise where it is due. Rememberthat constant interest on how best to improve your teachingdemands a lot of homework and effort from your part. Remaincurious and look for better ways to ‘sell the goods’ throughimproved knowledge. In the final analysis, enjoy your work in theknowledge that you have helped to form a happy and safe pilot.

Captain Ralph KOHN, FRAeS & Liveryman of the Guild of AirPilots and Air NavigatorsAuthor and production co-ordinator Vice Chairman, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS Member Education and Training Committee, GAPANRetired airline pilot instructor/examiner & Regulatory AuthorityTraining/Flight Operations inspector

Royal Aeronautical Society4 Hamilton Place, London W1J 7BQ, UK

Tel +44 (0)20 7670 4300 Fax +44 (0)20 7670 4309 e-mail [email protected] Web http://www.aerosociety.com £25

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