Human Geography

FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMANGEOGRAPHY

Textbook for Class XII

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First EditionFebruary 2007 Magha 1928

ReprintedDecember 2007 Pausa 1929

December 2008 Pausa 1930

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The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends thatchildren’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. Thisprinciple marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning whichcontinues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, homeand community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCFsignify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt todiscourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries betweendifferent subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantlyfurther in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined inthe National Policy on Education (1986).

The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principalsand teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learningand to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that,given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge byengaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating theprescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasonswhy other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativityand initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participantsin learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.

These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode offunctioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour inimplementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teachingdays are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching andevaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for makingchildren’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stressor boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem ofcurricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at differentstages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time availablefor teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by givinghigher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering,discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committeeresponsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisorycommittee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher secondary level,Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book, ProfessorM.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teacherscontributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to theirprincipals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions andorganisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon theirresources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the membersof the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department ofSecondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Developmentunder the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisationcommitted to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the qualityof its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which willenable us to undertake further revision and refinement.

DirectorNew Delhi National Council of Educational20 November 2006 Research and Training

Foreword

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Textbook Development CommitteeCHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT

THE HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,Kolkata

CHIEF ADVISOR

M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi

MEMBERS

Anindita Datta, Lecturer, Delhi School of Economics, Delhi University, Delhi

Anup Saikia, Reader, Gauhati University, Guwahati

Ashok Diwakar, Lecturer, Government P.G. College, Sector-9, Gurgaon

N. Kar, Reader , Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar

N. Nagabhushanam, Professor, S.V. Univeristy, Tirupati

N. R. Dash, Reader, M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara

Odilia Coutinho, Reader, R.P.D. College, Belgaum

Ranjana Jasuja, PGT, Army Public School, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi

S. Zaheen Alam, Lecturer, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi

Swgata Basu, Lecturer, SSV (PG) College, Hapur

MEMBER-COORDINATOR

Tannu Malik, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi© NCERT

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AcknowledgementsThe National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)acknowledges the contribution of Rupa Das, PGT, DPS, R.K. Puram in thedevelopment of this textbook. Special thanks are due to Savita Sinha,Professor and Head, Department of Education in Social Sciences andHumanities for her valuable support at every stage of preparation of thistextbook.

The Council is thankful to the Survey of India for certification of mapsgiven in the textbook. It also gratefully acknowledges the support ofindividuals and organisations as listed below for providing variousphotographs and illustrations used in this textbook.

M.H. Qureshi, Professor, CSRD, JNU for Fig. 8.2 and 10.8; Seema Mathur,Reader, Sri Aurobindo College (Evening), New Delhi for a photograph on page1, Fig. 5.15(a) and 7.5; Krishan Sheoran from Austria for Fig. 5.13, 8.1, 8.4,8.15, 10.1 and 10.2; Arjun Singh, Student, Hindu College, University of Delhifor a photograph on page 90 and Fig. 7.3; Nityanand Sharma, Professor andHead, Medical College, Rohtak for a photograph on page 55; Swagata Basu,Lecturer, SSV (PG) College, Hapur for Fig. 8.17, 9.2 and 10.9; Odilia Countinho,Reader, R.P.D. College, Belgaum for Fig. 7.4; Abhimanyu Abrol for Fig. 5.10;Samiran Baruah for Fig. 9.1; Shveta Uppal, NCERT for Fig. 6.2(b), 6.3, 8.12and 10.4; Kalyan Banerjee, NCERT for Fig. 10.3, 10.5 and 10.6; Y.K. Guptaand R.C. Das, CIET, NCERT for a photograph on page 65 and Fig. 5.17(a),5.17(b) and 10.10; NCERT’s old collection of photographs for Fig. 5.5, 5.9,5.11, 5.15(b), 5.18, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 8.8, 8.13, 9.5, 9.6 and photographs on pages1, 31, 46 and 81; Times of India, New Delhi for news items on pages 12, 63and 69, ITDC/Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India for Fig. 5.1 and 6.2(a);National Highway Authority of India for Fig. 8.3; Business Standard for a newsitem on pages 28 and 75; Practical Work in Geography, Part I, Class XI, NCERT(2006) for photographs on page 23; Directorate of Extension, Ministry ofAgriculture for Fig. 5.3 and 7.2; The Hindu for a news item on page 75 andwebsite: www.africa.upenn.edu for Fig. 10.7

The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contribution ofAnil Sharma, DTP Operator; Ajay Singh, Copy Editor; K.C. Patra, Proof Readerand Dinesh Kumar, Computer Incharge who have helped in giving a finalshape to this book. The contribution of the Publication Department, NCERTis also duly acknowledged.

The following are applicable to all the maps of India used inthis textbook

1. © Government of India, Copyright 20062. The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.3. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical

miles measured from the appropriate base line.4. The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at

Chandigarh.5. The interstate boundaries amongst Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya

shown on this map are as interpreted from the “North-Eastern Areas(Reorganisation) Act.1971,” but have yet to be verified.

6. The external boundaries and coastlines of India agree with the Record/MasterCopy certified by Survey of India.

7. The state boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar andJharkhand and Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh have not been verified by theGovernments concerned.

8. The spellings of names in this map have been taken from various sources.

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FOREWORD iii

UUUUUNITNITNITNITNIT I I I I I 1-71-71-71-71-7

1. Human GeographyNature and Scope 1

UUUUUNITNITNITNITNIT II II II II II 8-308-308-308-308-30

2. The World PopulationDistribution, Density and Growth 8

3. Population Composition 17

4. Human Development 22

UUUUUNITNITNITNITNIT III III III III III 31-9031-9031-9031-9031-90

5. Primary Activities 31

6. Secondary Activities 45

7. Tertiary and Quaternary Activities 55

8. Transport and Communication 65

9. International Trade 81

UUUUUNITNITNITNITNIT IV IV IV IV IV 91-10291-10291-10291-10291-102

10. Human Settlements 90

APPENDIX I 103

APPENDIX II 107

GLOSSARY 110

Contents

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Unit-IChapter-1

Human GeographyNature and Scope

You have already studied ‘Geography as aDiscipline’ in Chapter I of the book,Fundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT,2006). Do you recall the contents? This chapterhas broadly covered and introduced you to thenature of geography. You are also acquaintedwith the important branches that sprout fromthe body of geography. If you re-read thechapter you will be able to recall the link ofhuman geography with the mother disciplinei.e. geography. As you know geography as afield of study is integrative, empirical, andpractical. Thus, the reach of geography isextensive and each and every event orphenomenon which varies over space and timecan be studied geographically. How do you seethe earth’s surface? Do you realise that the earthcomprises two major components: nature(physical environment) and life forms includinghuman beings? Make a list of physical andhuman components of your surroundings.Physical geography studies physicalenvironment and human geography studies“the relationship between the physical/naturaland the human worlds, the spatial distributionsof human phenomena and how they comeabout, the social and economic differencesbetween different parts of the world”.1

You are already aware of the fact that thecore concern of geography as a discipline is tounderstand the earth as home of human beingsand to study all those elements which havesustained them. Thus, emphasis is on study ofnature and human beings. You will realise thatgeography got subjected to dualism and thewide-ranging debates started whethergeography as a discipline should be a lawmaking/theorising (nomothetic) ordescriptive (idiographic). Whether its subjectmatter should be organised and approach ofthe study should be regional or systematic?Whether geographical phenomena beinterpreted theoretically or through historic-institutional approach? These have been issuesfor intellectual exercise but finally you willappreciate that the dichotomy between physicaland human is not a very valid one becausenature and human are inseparable elementsand should be seen holistically. It is interestingto note that both physical and human

1 Agnew J. Livingstone, David N. and Rogers, A.; (1996) BlackwellPublishing Limited, Malden, U.S.A. p. 1 and 2.

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2 Fundamentals of Human Geography

phenomena are described in metaphors usingsymbols from the human anatomy.

We often talk of the ‘face’ of the earth, ‘eye’of the storm, ‘mouth’ of the river, ‘snout’ (nose)of the glacier, ‘neck’ of the isthmus and ‘profile’of the soil. Similarly regions, villages, townshave been described as ‘organisms’. Germangeographers describe the ‘state/country’ as a‘living organism’. Networks of road, railwaysand water ways have often been described as“arteries of circulation”. Can you collect suchterms and expressions from your ownlanguage? The basic questions now arises, canwe separate nature and human when they areso intricately intertwined?

Human Geography Defined

• “Human geography is the synthetic studyof relationship between human societies andearth’s surface”. Ratzel

Synthesis has been emphasised in theabove definition.

• “Human geography is the study of “thechanging relationship between the unrestingman and the unstable earth.”

Ellen C. Semple

Dynamism in the relationship is the keywordin Semple’s definition.

• “Conception resulting from a moresynthetic knowledge of thephysical lawsgoverning our earth and of the relationsbetween the living beings which inhabit it”.

Paul Vidal de la Blache

Human geography offers a new conceptionof the interrelationships between earth andhuman beings.

NATURE OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

Human geography studies the inter-relationshipbetween the physical environment and socio-cultural environment created by human beingsthrough mutual interaction with each other. You

have already studied the elements of physicalenvironment in class XI in the book entitledFundamentals of Physical Geography (NCERT2006). You know that these elements arelandforms, soils, climate, water, natural vegetationand diverse flora and fauna. Can you make a listof elements which human beings have createdthrough their activities on the stage provided bythe physical environment? Houses, villages, cities,road-rail networks, industries, farms, ports, itemsof our daily use and all other elements of materialculture have been created by human beingsusing the resources provided by the physicalenvironment. While physical environment hasbeen greatly modified by human beings, it hasalso, in turn, impacted human lives.

Naturalisation of Humans andHumanisation of Nature

Human beings interact with their physicalenvironment with the help of technology. It isnot important what human beings produce andcreate but it is extremely important ‘with thehelp of what tools and techniques do theyproduce and create’.

Technology indicates the level of culturaldevelopment of society. Human beings wereable to develop technology after they developedbetter understanding of natural laws. Forexample, the understanding of concepts offriction and heat helped us discover fire.Similarly, understanding of the secrets of DNAand genetics enabled us to conquer manydiseases. We use the laws of aerodynamics todevelop faster planes. You can see thatknowledge about Nature is extremely importantto develop technology and technology loosensthe shackles of environment on human beings.In the early stages of their interaction with theirnatural environment humans were greatlyinfluenced by it. They adapted to the dictatesof Nature. This is so because the level oftechnology was very low and the stage ofhuman social development was also primitive.This type of interaction between primitivehuman society and strong forces of nature wastermed as environmental determinism. Atthat stage of very low technological developmentwe can imagine the presence of a naturalisedhuman, who listened to Nature, was afraid ofits fury and worshipped it.

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Human Geography: Nature and Scope 3

The Naturalisation of Humans

Benda lives in the wilds of the Abujh Maadarea of central India. His village consists ofthree huts deep in the wilds. Not even birdsor stray dogs that usually crowd villages canbe seen in these areas. Wearing a smallloin cloth and armed with his axe he slowlysurveys the penda (forest) where his tribepractices a primitive form of agriculture calledshifting cultivation. Benda and his friendsburn small patches of forest to clear themfor cultivation. The ash is used for makingthe soil fertile. Benda is happy that theMahua trees around him are in bloom. Howlucky I am to be a part of this beautifuluniverse, he thinks as he looks up to seethe Mahua, Palash and Sal trees that havesheltered him since childhood. Crossing thependa in a gliding motion, Benda makeshis way to a stream. As he bends down toscoop up a palmful of water, he remembersto thank Loi-Lugi, the spirit of the forest forallowing him to quench his thirst. Movingon with his friends, Benda chews onsucculent leaves and roots. The boys havebeen trying to collect Gajjhara and Kuchla,from the forest. These are special plantsthat Benda and his people use. He hopesthe spirits of the forest will be kind and leadhim to these herbs. These are needed tobarter in the madhai or tribal fair coming upthe next full moon. He closes his eyes andtries hard to recall what the elders had taughthim about these herbs and the places theyare found in. He wishes he had listened morecarefully. Suddenly there is a rustling ofleaves. Benda and his friends know it is theoutsiders who have come searching for themin the wilds. In a single fluid motion Bendaand his friends disappear behind the thickcanopy of trees and become one with thespirit of the forest.

The story in the box represents the directrelationship of a household belonging to aneconomically primitive society with nature. Readabout other primitive societies which live incomplete harmony with their naturalenvironment. You will realise that in all such casesnature is a powerful force, worshipped, reveredand conserved. There is direct dependence of

human beings on nature for resources whichsustain them. The physical environment for suchsocieties becomes the “Mother Nature”.

The people begin to understand theirenvironment and the forces of nature with thepassage of time. With social and culturaldevelopment, humans develop better and moreefficient technology. They move from a state ofnecessity to a state of freedom. They createpossibilities with the resources obtained fromthe environment. The human activities createcultural landscape. The imprints of humanactivities are created everywhere; health resortson highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields,orchards and pastures in plains and rollinghills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on theoceanic surface and satellites in the space. Theearlier scholars termed this as possibilism.Nature provides opportunities and humanbeing make use of these and slowly nature getshumanised and starts bearing the imprints ofhuman endeavour.

Humanisation of Nature

Winters in the town of Trondheim mean fiercewinds and heavy snow. The skies are darkfor months. Kari drives to work in the dark at8 am. She has special tyres for the winterand keeps the headlights of her powerful carswitched on. Her office is artificially heatedat a comfortable 23 degrees Celsius. Thecampus of the university she works in is builtunder a huge glass dome. This dome keepsthe snow out in winter and lets in the sunshinein the summer. The temperature is controlledcarefully and there is adequate lighting. Eventhough fresh vegetables and plants don’t growin such harsh weather, Kari keeps an orchidon her desk and enjoys eating tropical fruitslike banana and kiwi. These are flown in fromwarmer areas regularly. With a click of themouse, Kari can network with colleagues inNew Delhi. She frequently takes a morningflight to London and returns in the evening intime to watch her favourite television serial.Though Kari is fifty-eight years old, she isfitter and looks younger than many thirty-year- olds in other parts of the world.

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Can you imagine what has made such alife style possible? It is technology that hasallowed the people of Trondheim and others toovercome the constraints imposed by nature. Doyou know about some other such instances?Such examples are not difficult to find.

A geographer, Griffith Taylor introducedanother concept which reflects a middle path(Madhyam Marg) between the two ideas ofenvironmental determinism and possibilism.He termed it as Neodeterminism or stop andgo determinism. Those of you who live in citiesand those who have visited a city, might haveseen that traffic is regulated by lights on thecross-roads. Red light means ‘stop’, amber lightprovides a gap between red and green lights ‘toget set’ and green light means ‘go’. The conceptshows that neither is there a situation ofabsolute necessity (environmental determinism)nor is there a condition of absolute freedom(possibilism). It means that human beings canconquer nature by obeying it. They have torespond to the red signals and can proceed intheir pursuits of development when naturepermits the modifications. It means thatpossibilities can be created within the limitswhich do not damage the environment and thereis no free run without accidents. The free runwhich the developed economies attempted totake has already resulted in the green houseeffect, ozone layer depletion, global warming,receding glaciers and degrading lands. Theneo-determinism conceptually attempts tobring a balance nullifying the ‘either’ ‘or’dichotomy.

Human Geography throughthe Corridors of Time

The process of adaptation, adjustment with andmodification of the environment started with theappearance of human beings over the surfaceof the earth in different ecological niches. Thus,if we imagine the beginning of humangeography with the interaction of environmentand human beings, it has its roots deep inhistory. Thus, the concerns of humangeography have a long temporal continuumthough the approaches to articulate them havechanged over time. This dynamism in

approaches and thrusts shows the vibrantnature of the discipline. Earlier there was littleinteraction between different societies and theknowledge about each other was limited.Travellers and explorers used to disseminateinformation about the areas of their visits.Navigational skills were not developed andvoyages were fraught with dangers. The latefifteenth century witnessed attempts ofexplorations in Europe and slowly the mythsand mysteries about countries and peoplestarted to open up. The colonial period providedimpetus to further explorations in order toaccess the resources of the regions and to obtaininventorised information. The intention here isnot to present an in-depth historical accountbut to make you aware of the processes of steadydevelopment of human geography. Thesummarised Table 1.1 will introduce you to thebroad stages and the thrust of humangeography as a sub-field of geography.

• Welfare or humanistic school of thoughtin human geography was mainly concernedwith the different aspects of social well-beingof the people. These included aspects suchas housing, health and education.Geographers have already introduced apaper as Geography of Social well-being inthe Post Graduate curriculum’.

• Radical school of thought employedMarxian theory to explain the basic causeof poverty, deprivation and social inequality.Contemporary social problems were relatedto the development of capitalism.

• Behavioural school of thought laid greatemphasis on lived experience and also onthe perception of space by social categoriesbased on ethnicity, race and religion, etc.

Fields and Sub-fields of Human Geography

Human geography, as you have seen, attemptsto explain the relationship between all elementsof human life and the space they occur over.Thus, human geography assumes a highlyinter-disciplinary nature. It develops close

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Table 1.1: Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geography

interface with other sister disciplines in socialsciences in order to understand and explainhuman elements on the surface of the earth.With the expansion of knowledge, new sub-fields emerge and it has also happened tohuman geography. Let us examine these fieldsand sub-fields of Human Geography (Table 1.2).

You would have noticed that the list islarge and comprehensive. It reflects the

expanding realm of human geography. Theboundaries between sub-fields often overlap.What follows in this book in the form ofchapters will provide you a fairly widespreadcoverage of different aspects of humangeography. The exercises, the activities and thecase studies will provide you with someempirical instances so as to have a betterunderstanding of its subject matter.

Broad Features

Imperial and trade interests prompted the discovery andexploration of new areas. An encyclopaedic description ofthe area formed an important aspect of the geographer’saccount.

Elaborate description of all aspects of a region wereundertaken. The idea was that all the regions were part ofa whole, i.e. (the earth); so, understanding the parts intotality would lead to an understanding of the whole.

The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of any regionand understanding how and why it was different fromothers.

Marked by the use of computers and sophisticatedstatistical tools. Laws of physics were often applied tomap and analyse human phenomena. This phase wascalled the quantitative revolution. The main objective wasto identify mappable patterns for different humanactivities.

Discontentment with the quantitative revolution and itsdehumanised manner of doing geography led to theemergence of three new schools of thought of humangeography in the 1970s. Human geography was made morerelevant to the socio-political reality by the emergence ofthese schools of thought. Consult the box below to knowa little bit more about these schools of thought.

The grand generalisations and the applicability of universaltheories to explain the human conditions were questioned.The importance of understanding each local context inits own right was emphasised.

Approaches

Exploration anddescription

Regional analysis

Areal differentiation

Spatial organisation

Emergence ofhumanistic, radicaland behaviouralschools

Post-modernism ingeography

Period

Early Colonialperiod

Later Colonialperiod

1930s through theinter-War period

Late 1950s to thelate 1960s

1970s

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Table 1.2: Human Geography and Sister Disciplines of Social Sciences

EXERCISES

1 . Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following statements does not describe geography?

(a) an integrative discipline

(b) study of the inter-relationship between humans and environment

Fields of Sub-fields Interface with SisterHuman Disciplines of Social Sciences

Geography

Social — Social Sciences – Sociology

Geography Behavioural Geography Psychology

Geography of Social Welfare Economics

Well-being

Geography of Leisure Sociology

Cultural Geography Anthropology

Gender Geography Sociology, Anthropology, Women’s Studies

Historical Geography History

Medical Geography Epidemology

Urban — Urban Studies and Planning

Geography

Political — Political Science

Geography Electoral Geography Psephology

Military Geography Military Science

Population — Demography

Geography

Settlement — Urban/Rural Planning

Geography

Economic — Economics

Geography Geography of Resources Resource Economics

Geography of Agriculture Agricultural Sciences

Geography of Industries Industrial Economics

Geography of Marketing Business Studies, Economics, Commerce

Geography of Tourism Tourism and Travel Management

Geography of International International Trade

Trade

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(c) subjected to dualism

(d) not relevant in the present time due to the development of technology.

(ii) Which one of the following is not a source of geographical information?

(a) traveller’s accounts

(b) old maps

(c) samples of rock materials from the moon

(d) ancient epics

(iii) Which one of the following is the most important factor in the interactionbetween people and environment?

(a) human intelligence (c) technology

(b) people’s perception (d) human brotherhood

(iv) Which one of the following is not an approach in human geography?

(a) Areal differentiation (c) Quantitative revolution

(b) Spatial organisation (d) Exploration and description2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Define human geography.

(ii) Name some sub-fields of human geography.

(iii) How is human geography related to other social sciences?3 . Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.

(i) Explain naturalisation of humans.

(ii) Write a note on the scope of human geography.

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Unit-IIUnit-IIUnit-IIUnit-IIUnit-IIChapter-2

The World Population

Distribution, Density andGrowth

The people of a country are its real wealth. Itis they who make use of the country’s resourcesand decide its policies. Ultimately a country isknown by its people.

It is important to know how many womenand men a country has, how many children areborn each year, how many people die and how?Whether they live in cities or villages, can theyread or write and what work do they do? Theseare what you will study about in this unit.

The world at the beginning of 21st centuryrecorded the presence of over 6 billionpopulation. We shall discuss the patterns oftheir distribution and density here.

Why do people prefer to live in certainregions and not in others?

The population of the world is unevenlydistributed. The remark of George B. Cresseyabout the population of Asia that “Asia has manyplaces where people are few and few place wherepeople are very many” is true about the patternof population distribution of the world also.

PATTERNS OF POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD

Patterns of population distribution and densityhelp us to understand the demographiccharacteristics of any area. The term populationdistribution refers to the way people are spacedover the earth’s surface. Broadly, 90 per cent ofthe world population lives in about 10 per centof its land area.

The 10 most populous countries of theworld contribute about 60 per cent of the world’spopulation. Of these 10 countries, 6 are locatedin Asia. Identify these six countries of Asia.

102.7

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Fig. 2.1: Most Populous Countries

Not gold but only (Wo)men can makea people great and strong.

(Wo)men who for truth andhonour’s sake, stand fast and sufferlong (Wo)men who toil while otherssleep – who dare while others flee –they build a nation’s pillars deep andlift it to the sky.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

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DENSITY OF POPULATIONDENSITY OF POPULATIONDENSITY OF POPULATIONDENSITY OF POPULATIONDENSITY OF POPULATION

Each unit of land has limited capacity tosupport people living on it. Hence, it isnecessary to understand the ratio between thenumbers of people to the size of land. This ratiois the density of population. It is usuallymeasured in persons per sq km

Population Density of Population =

AreaFor example, area of Region X is 100 sq

km and the population is 1,50,000 persons.The density of population is calculated as:

1,50,000Density

100=

= 1,500 person/sq kmWhat does this tell you about Region X?Look at the map given below:Do you observe that some areas are really

crowded? These are the densely populatedparts of the world with more than 200 persons

on every sq km. These are the North -Easternpart of U.S.A., North-Western part of Europe,South, South-East and East Asia.

Other areas like those near the North andSouth Poles, the hot and the cold deserts andhigh rainfall zones near the Equator have verylow density of population. These are thesparsely populated regions of the world withless than 01 person per sq km.

In between these two types are the areasof medium density. There are 11 to 50 personsper sq km in these areas. Western China,Southern India in Asia, Norway, Sweden inEurope are some examples. Look at the Fig. 2.2and identify some other areas.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THEFACTORS INFLUENCING THEFACTORS INFLUENCING THEFACTORS INFLUENCING THEFACTORS INFLUENCING THEDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

I. Geographical Factors

(i) Availability of water: It is the mostimportant factor for life. So, people prefer

Fig. 2.2: World Density of Population, 2001

The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth 9

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Fundamentals of Human Geography10

to live in areas where fresh water is easilyavailable. Water is used for drinking,bathing and cooking – and also for cattle,crops, industries and navigation. It isbecause of this that river valleys are amongthe most densely populated areas of theworld.

(ii) Landforms: People prefer living on flatplains and gentle slopes. This is becausesuch areas are favourable for theproduction of crops and to build roads andindustries. The mountainous and hillyareas hinder the development of transportnetwork and hence initially do not favouragricultural and industrial development.So, these areas tend to be less populated.The Ganga plains are among the mostdensely populated areas of the world whilethe mountains zones in the Himalayas arescarcely populated.

(iii) Climate: An extreme climate such as veryhot or cold deserts are uncomfortable forhuman habitation. Areas with acomfortable climate, where there is notmuch seasonal variation attract morepeople. Areas with very heavy rainfall orextreme and harsh climates have lowpopulation. Mediterranean regions wereinhabited from early periods in history dueto their pleasant climate.

(iv) Soils: Fertile soils are important foragricultural and allied activities. Therefore,areas which have fertile loamy soils havemore people living on them as these cansupport intensive agriculture. Can youname some areas in India which are thinlypopulated due to poor soils?

II. Economic Factors

(i) Minerals: Areas with mineral depositsattract industries. Mining and industrialactivities generate employment. So, skilledand semi–skilled workers move to theseareas and make them densely populated.Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa isone such good example.

(ii) Urbanisation: Cities offer betteremployment opportunities, educationaland medical facilities, better means oftransport and communication. Good civic

amenities and the attraction of city life drawpeople to the cities. It leads to rural tourban migration and cities grow in size.Mega cities of the world continue to attractlarge number of migrants every year.

Yet city life can be very taxing…. thinkof some of the unpleasant aspects of citylife.

(iii) Industrialisation: Industrial belts providejob opportunities and attract largenumbers of people. These include not justfactory workers but also transportoperators, shopkeepers, bank employees,doctors, teachers and other serviceproviders. The Kobe-Osaka region ofJapan is thickly populated because of thepresence of a number of industries.

III. Social and Cultural Factors

Some places attract more people because theyhave religious or cultural significance. In thesame way – people tend to move away fromplaces where there is social and politicalunrest. Many a times governments offerincentives to people to live in sparselypopulated areas or move away fromovercrowded places. Can you think of someexamples from your region?

POPULATION GROWTHPOPULATION GROWTHPOPULATION GROWTHPOPULATION GROWTHPOPULATION GROWTH

The population growth or population changerefers to the change in number of inhabitants ofa territory during a specific period of time. Thischange may be positive as well as negative. Itcan be expressed either in terms of absolutenumbers or in terms of percentage. Populationchange in an area is an important indicator ofeconomic development, social upliftment andhistorical and cultural background of the region.

Some Basic Concepts of

Population Geography

Growth of Population : Change ofpopulation in particular area between twopoints of time is known as growth of

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population. For example, if we deduct thepopulation of India 1991 (84.63 crore) frompopulation of 2001 (102.70 crore) then weshall get the growth of population (18.07crores) in actual numbers.

Growth Rate of Population : This is thechange of population expressed inpercentage.

Natural Growth of Population: This is thepopulation increased by difference betweenbirths and deaths in a particular regionbetween two points of time.

Natural Growth = Births – Deaths

Actual Growth of Population : This is

Births – Deaths + In Migration – OutMigration

Positive Growth of Population: Thishappens when the birth rate is more thanthe death rate between two points of timeor when people from other countries migratepermanently to a region.

Negative Growth of Population: If thepopulation decreases between two pointsof time it is known as negative growth ofpopulation. It occurs when the birth rate fallsbelow the death rate or people migrate toother countries.

Components of Population Change

There are three components of populationchange – births, deaths and migration.

The crude birth rate (CBR) is expressed asnumber of live births in a year per thousand ofpopulation. It is calculated as:

BiCBR 1000

P= ¥

Here, CBR = Crude Birth Rate; Bi = livebirths during the year; P=Mid year populationof the area.

Death rate plays an active role inpopulation change. Population growth occursnot only by increasing births rate but also dueto decreasing death rate. Crude Death Rate(CDR) is a simple method of measuringmortality of any area. CDR is expressed in termsof number of deaths in a particular year per

thousand of population in a particular region.CDR is calculated as:

DCDR 1000

P= ¥

Here, CDR=Crude Death Rate; D= Numberof deaths; P=Estimated mid-year population ofthat year.

By and large mortality rates are affectedby the region’s demographic structure, socialadvancement and levels of its economicdevelopment.

Migration

Apart from birth and death there is another wayby which the population size changes.

When people move from one place toanother, the place they move from is called thePlace of Origin and the place they move to iscalled the Place of Destination. The place oforigin shows a decrease in population while thepopulation increases in the place of destination.Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneouseffort to achieve a better balance betweenpopulation and resources.

Migration may be permanent, temporaryor seasonal. It may take place from rural torural areas, rural to urban areas, urban tourban areas and urban to rural areas.

Do you realise that the same person is bothan immigrant and an emigrant?

Immigration: Migrants who move into a newplace are called Immigrants.

Emigration: Migrants who move out of aplace are called Emigrants.

Can you think of reasons why peoplemigrate?

People migrate for a better economic andsocial life. There are two sets of factors thatinfluence migration.

The Push factors make the place of originseem less attractive for reasons likeunemployment, poor living conditions, politicalturmoil, unpleasant climate, natural disasters,epidemics and socio-economic backwardness.

The Pull factors make the place ofdestination seem more attractive than the place

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Technological revolutions1650 to present

Information and computers

Biotechnology

Sanitation and Medical

Transportation

Industrial

Development andspread of agriculture

(0.25 billion)(0.5 billion)

12000 yearsbeforepresent

Birth ofChrist

1600 1700 1800 1900 2000Present

Time

Worldpopulationin billions

Number of years for worldpopulation to increaseby 1 billion

6 billion5 billion

4 billion

3 billion

2 billion

19991987

1975

1960

1930

(12 years)

(12 years)

(15 years)

(30 years)

1 billion 1830

(100 years)

Age of European exploration,colonisation and settlement

Fig. 2.3: Resource, Technology and Population Growth

of origin for reasons like better job opportunitiesand living conditions, peace and stability,security of life and property and pleasant climate.

TRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTHTRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTHTRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTHTRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTHTRENDS IN POPULATION GROWTH

The population on the earth is more than sixbillion. It has grown to this size over centuries.In the early periods population of the world

grew very slowly. It is only during the last fewhundred years that population has increasedat an alarming rate.

Fig. 2.3 tells the story of populationgrowth. After the evolution and introductionof agriculture about 8,000 to 12,000 yearsago, the size of population was small – roughly8 million. In the first century A.D. it was below

Observe the news items and think of some reasons why certain countries become attractive destinations for migrants.

Migration to cities are traditionally age and sex selective i.e. more men of working age groups move to cities.Can you think of some reason why 22 per cent of migrants to Mumbai are kids?

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300 million. The expanding world trade duringthe sixteenth and seventeenth century, set thestage for rapid population growth. Around1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution,the world population was 550 million. Worldpopulation exploded in the eighteenth centuryafter the Industrial Revolution. Technologicaladvancement achieved so far helped in thereduction of birth rate and provided a stage foraccelerated population growth.

How Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and TechnologyHow Science and Technology

helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?helped Population Growth?

The steam engine replaced human andanimal energy and also providedmechanised energy of water and wind. Thisincreased agricultural and industrialproduction.

Inoculation against epidemics and othercommunicable diseases, improvement inmedical facilities and sanitation contributedto a rapid decline in death rates throughoutthe world.

Human population increased more than ten times inthe past 500 hundred years.

In the twentieth century itself the population hasincreased four times.

Nearly 80 million people are added each year.

DOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATIONDOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATIONDOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATIONDOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATIONDOUBLING TIME OF WORLD POPULATION

It took more than a million years for the humanpopulation to attain the one billion mark. But

Table 2.1: Doubling Time of World Population

Period Population Time in whichPopulation Doubles

10,000 B.C. 5 million1650 A.D. 500 million 1,500 years1850 A.D. 1,000 million 200 years1930 A.D. 2,000 million 80 years1975 A.D. 4,000 million 45 years2012 A.D. 8,000 million projected figure 37 years

it took only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billionto 6 billion. See the Table 2.1 carefully whichshows that doubling time of world populationis reducing fast.

There is a great variation among regionsin doubling their population. Table 2.2 showsthat developed countries are taking more timeto double their population as compared todeveloping countries. Most of the populationgrowth is taking place in the developing world,where population is exploding. Why is this so?

Table 2.2: Population Growth Rates (%) 1995-2000

High Low

Liberia 8.2 Latvia –1.5Somalia 4.2 Estonia –1.2Yemen 3.7 Russia, Ukraine –0.6Saudi Arabia 3.4 Albania, BulgariaOman 3.3 Croatia

Slovania, Czech RepublicGermany, Portugal –0.1Spain, Italy

Denmark 0

SPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGESPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGESPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGESPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGESPATIAL PATTERN OF POPULATION CHANGE

Population growth in different parts of the worldcan be compared. The growth of population islow in developed countries as compared todeveloping countries. There is negativecorrelation between economic development andpopulation growth.

Although the annual rate of populationchange (1.4 per cent) seems to be low (Table2.3), it is actually not so. This is because:• When a small annual rate is applied to a

very large population, it will lead to a largepopulation change.

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• Even if the growth rate continues to decline,the total population grows each year. Theinfant mortality rate may have increasedas has the death rate during childbirth.

Table 2.3: Growth of Population 2004-05 over 1990-95

Growth Rate

Region 1990-95 2004-05(Estimated)

World 1.6 1.4Africa 2.4 2.6Europe 0.2 0.0North & Central America 1.4 1.1South America 1.7 1.4Asia 1.6 1.4Oceania 1.5 1.3(Australia, New Zealand and Fiji)

IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGEIMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGEIMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGEIMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGEIMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE

A small increase in population is desirable in agrowing economy. However, population growthbeyond a certain level leads to problems. Of

Figure 2.4: Population Doubling Time

these the depletion of resources is the mostserious. Population decline is also a matter ofconcern. It indicates that resources that hadsupported a population earlier are nowinsufficient to maintain the population.

The deadly HIV/AIDS epidemics in Africa andsome parts of the Commonwealth of IndependentStates (CIS) and Asia have pushed up death ratesand reduced average life expectancy. This hasslowed down population growth.

The Doubling Story... It will

take 36 years

The annual population growth rate in Indiais 1.9 per cent. At this rate India’s populationof over 1 billion will double in 36 years.Some developed countries will take 318years to double their population whereassome countries still do not show symptomsof doubling their population.

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DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONDEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONDEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONDEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITIONDEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION

Demographic transition theory can be used todescribe and predict the future population ofany area. The theory tells us that population ofany region changes from high births and highdeaths to low births and low deaths as societyprogresses from rural agrarian and illiterate tourban industrial and literate society. Thesechanges occur in stages which are collectivelyknown as the demographic cycle.

Rural,Agrarian

Urban,Industrial

Demographic

Transition

The Fig. 2.5 explains the three-stagedmodel of Demographic Transition Theory:

35

15

High Fluctuating

StageI

StageII

StageIII

CB

R/C

DR

NaturalIncrease inPopulation

BR

DR

BangladeshRainforest

tribes

Peru Sri LankaKenya

CanadaJapanUSA

Time

PresentWorld

examples

Low Fluctuating

Expanding

Fig. 2.5: Demographic Transition Theory

The first stage has high fertility and highmortality because people reproduce more tocompensate for the deaths due to epidemicsand variable food supply. The populationgrowth is slow and most of the people are

engaged in agriculture where large families arean asset. Life expectancy is low, people aremostly illiterate and have low levels oftechnology. Two hundred years ago all thecountries of the world were in this stage.

Fertility remains high in the beginning ofsecond stage but it declines with time. This isaccompanied by reduced mortality rate.Improvements in sanitation and healthconditions lead to decline in mortality. Becauseof this gap the net addition to population ishigh.

In the last stage, both fertility and mortalitydecline considerably. The population is eitherstable or grows slowly. The population becomesurbanised, literate and has high technical know-how and deliberately controls the family size.

This shows that human beings areextremely flexible and are able to adjust theirfertility.

In the present day, different countries areat different stages of demographic transition.

POPULATION CONTROL MEASURESPOPULATION CONTROL MEASURESPOPULATION CONTROL MEASURESPOPULATION CONTROL MEASURESPOPULATION CONTROL MEASURES

Family planning is the spacing or preventingthe birth of children. Access to family planningservices is a significant factor in limitingpopulation growth and improving women’shealth. Propaganda, free availability ofcontraceptives and tax disincentives for largefamilies are some of the measures which canhelp population control.

Thomas Malthus in his theory (1793)stated that the number of people wouldincrease faster than the food supply. Anyfurther increase would result in a populationcrash caused by famine, disease and war. Thepreventive checks are better than the physicalchecks. For the sustainability of our resources,the world will have to control the rapidpopulation increase

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EXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISESEXERCISES

1 . Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Which one of the following continents has the highest growth of

population?(a) Africa (c) Asia(b) South America (d) North America

(ii) Which one of the following is not an area of sparse population?(a) The Atacama (c) Equatorial region(b) South-east Asia (d) Polar regions

(iii) Which one of the following is not a push factor ?(a) Water shortage (c) Unemployment(b) Medical/educational facilities (d) Epidemics

(iv) Which one of the following is not a fact ?(a) Human population increased more than ten times during the past

500 years.(b) Nearly 80 million people are added to the world population each year.(c) It took 100 years for the population to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.(d) Population growth is high in the first stage of demographic transition?

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.(i) Name three geographical factors that influence the distribution of

population.(ii) There are a number of areas with high population density in the world.

Why does this happen?(iii) What are the three components of population change?

3 . Distinguish between:(i) Birth rate and death rate.(ii) Push factors and pull factors of migration.

4 . Answer the following questions in about 150 words.(i) Discuss the factors influencing the distribution and density of population

in the world.(ii) Discuss the three stages of demographic transition.

Map SkillMap SkillMap SkillMap SkillMap Skill

On the outline map of the world, show and name the following.(i) Countries of Europe and Asia with negative growth rate of population.(ii) African countries with growth rate of population more than three per

cent. (You may refer to Appendix 1).

Project/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/ActivityProject/Activity

(i) Has someone in your family migrated? Write about her/his place ofdestination. What made her/him migrate?

(ii) Write a brief report on the distribution and density of population inyour state.

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People of any country are diverse in manyrespects. Each person is unique in her/his ownway. People can be distinguished by their age,sex and their place of residence. Some of theother distinguishing attributes of the populationare occupation, education and life expectancy.

SEX COMPOSITIONSEX COMPOSITIONSEX COMPOSITIONSEX COMPOSITIONSEX COMPOSITION

The number of women and men in a country isan important demographic characteristic. Theratio between the number of women and men inthe population is called the Sex Ratio. In somecountries it is calculated by using the formula:

Male Population × 1000

Female Population

or the number of males per thousandfemales.

In India, the sex ratio is worked out using theformula:

Female Population × 1000

Male Population

or the number of females per thousand males.

The sex ratio is an important informationabout the status of women in a country.

In regions where gender discrimination isrampant, the sex ratio is bound to beunfavourable to women. Such areas are thosewhere the practice of female foeticide, femaleinfanticide and domestic violence against womenare prevalent. One of the reasons could be lowersocio-economic status of women in these areas.You must remember that more women in thepopulation does not mean they have a betterstatus. It could be that the men might havemigrated to other areas for employment.

Natural Advantage v/sSocial Disadvantage

Females have a biological advantage overmales as they tend to be more resilient thanmales yet this advantage is cancelled outby the social disadvantages anddiscriminations that they face.

PopulationComposition

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On an average, the world populationreflects a sex ratio of 990 females per 1000males. The highest sex ratio in the world hasbeen recorded in Latvia which is 1187 femalesper 1000 males. In contrast, the lowest sex ratiooccurs in U.A.E. which is 468 females per 1000males.

The world pattern of sex ratio does notexhibit variations in the developed regions ofthe world. The sex ratio is favourable for femalesin 139 countries of the world and unfavourablefor them in the remaining 72 countries listedby the United Nations.

In general, Asia has a low sex ratio.Countries like China, India, Saudi Arabia,Pakistan, Afghanistan have a lower sex ratio.

On the other extreme is greater part ofEurope (including Russia) where males are inminority. A deficit of males in the populationsof many European countries is attributed tobetter status of women, and an excessivelymale-dominated out-migration to differentparts of the world in the past.

Age Structure

Age structure represents the number of peopleof different age groups. This is an importantindicator of population composition, since alarge size of population in the age group of 15-59 indicates a large working population. Agreater proportion of population above 60 yearsrepresents an ageing population which requiresmore expenditure on health care facilities.Similarly high proportion of young populationwould mean that the region has a high birthrate and the population is youthful.

Age-Sex Pyramid

The age-sex structure of a population refersto the number of females and males indifferent age groups. A population pyramidis used to show the age-sex structure of thepopulation.

The shape of the population pyramidreflects the characteristics of the population.The left side shows the percentage of males whilethe right side shows the percentage of womenin each age group.

Fig. 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 show different typesof population pyramids.

Expanding Populations

The age-sex pyramid of Nigeria as you can seeis a triangular shaped pyramid with a widebase and is typical of less developed countries.These have larger populations in lower agegroups due to high birth rates. If you constructthe pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico, itwould look the same.

NIGERIA, 2003

Data source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division.Data refer to national projection

80+75-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

Age

Gro

ups

Yea

rs

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

MALE FEMALE

Per cent

Fig. 3.1: Expanding Population

Constant Population

Australia’s age-sex pyramid is bell shaped andtapered towards the top. This shows birth anddeath rates are almost equal leading to a nearconstant population.

Per centData source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division.

Age

Gro

ups

Yea

rs

AUSTRALIA, 2003

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

85+80-8475-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

FEMALEMALE

Fig. 3.2: Constant Population

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Population Composition 19

Declining Populations

The Japan pyramid has a narrow base and atapered top showing low birth and death rates.The population growth in developed countriesis usually zero or negative.

Data source: Demographic Year Book, 2003, United Nations Statistics Division.Excluding diplomatic personnel outside the country and foreign military andcivilian personnel and their dependants stationed in the area

JAPAN, 2003

Per cent

Age

Gro

ups

Year

s

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10

85+80-8475-7970-7465-6960-6455-5950-5445-4940-4435-3930-3425-2920-2415-1910-14

5-90-4

FEMALEMALE

Fig. 3.3: Declining Population

Draw a population pyramid of the children in your schooland describe its characteristics.

Ageing PopulationPopulation ageing is the process by whichthe share of the older population becomesproportionally larger. This is a newphenomenon of the twentieth century. In mostof the developed countries of the world,population in higher age groups has increaseddue to increased life expectancy. With areduction in birth rates, the proportion ofchildren in the population has declined.

RURAL URBAN COMPOSITIONRURAL URBAN COMPOSITIONRURAL URBAN COMPOSITIONRURAL URBAN COMPOSITIONRURAL URBAN COMPOSITION

The division of population into rural and urbanis based on the residence. This division isnecessary because rural and urban life stylesdiffer from each other in terms of their livelihoodand social conditions. The age-sex-occupationalstructure, density of population and level ofdevelopment vary between rural and urban areas.

The criteria for differentiating rural andurban population varies from country to country.In general terms rural areas are those wherepeople are engaged in primary activities and urbanareas are those when majority of the workingpopulation is engaged in non-primary activities.

Fig. 3.4 shows rural urban sex compositionof selected countries. The rural and urbandifferences in sex ratio in Canada and WestEuropean countries like Finland are just theopposite of those in African and Asian countrieslike Zimbabwe and Nepal respectively. InWestern countries, males outnumber femalesin rural areas and females outnumber the malesin urban areas. In countries like Nepal, Pakistanand India the case is reverse. The excess offemales in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada andEurope is the result of influx of females fromrural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities.Farming in these developed countries is alsohighly mechanised and remains largely a maleoccupation. By contrast the sex ratio in Asianurban areas remains male dominated due tothe predominance of male migration. It is alsoworth noting that in countries like India, femaleparticipation in farming activity in rural area isfairly high. Shortage of housing, high cost ofliving, paucity of job opportunities and lack ofsecurity in cities, discourage women to migratefrom rural to urban areas.

Literacy

Proportion of literate population of a countryin an indicator of its socio-economicdevelopment as it reveals the standard of living,social status of females, availability ofeducational facilities and policies ofgovernment. Level of economic development isboth a cause and consequence of literacy. InIndia – literacy rate denotes the percentage ofpopulation above 7 years of age, who is able toread, write and have the ability to do arithmeticcalculations with understanding.

Occupational Structure

The working population (i.e. women and menof the age group – 15 to 59) take part in variousoccupations ranging from agriculture, forestry,

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1 . Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.

(i) Which one of the following has caused the sex ratio of the United ArabEmirates to be low?

(a) Selective migration of male working population

(b) High birth rate of males

(c) Low birth rate of females

(d) High out migration of females

fishing, manufacturing construction,commercial transport, services, communicationand other unclassified services.

Agriculture, forestry, fishing and miningare classified as primary activitiesmanufacturing as secondary, transport,communication and other services as tertiaryand the jobs related to research and developingideas as quaternary activities. The proportionof working population engaged in these four

sectors is a good indicator of the levels ofeconomic development of a nation. This isbecause only a developed economy withindustries and infrastructure canaccommodate more workers in the secondary,tertiary and quaternary sector. If the economyis still in the primitive stages, then theproportion of people engaged in primaryactivities world be high as it involves extractionof natural resources.

986

1083

941

1040

935

1051

908

10631129

1007 1012

939

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

Finland Canada New Zealand Brazil Zimbabwe Nepal

Rural

Urban

Fem

ale

sper

1000

Male

s

Fig. 3.4: Rural Urban Sex Composition, 2003 (Selected Countries)

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Population Composition 21

(ii) Which one of the following figures represents the working age group of thepopulation?

(a) 15 to 65 years (c) 15 to 66 years

(b) 15 to 64 years (d) 15 to 59 years

(iii) Which one of the following countries has the highest sex ratio in the world?

(a) Latvia (c) Japan

(b) United Arab Emirates (d) France

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What do you understand by population composition?

(ii) What is the significance of age-structure?

(iii) How is sex-ratio measured?

3 . Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.

(i) Describe the rural-urban composition of the population.

(ii) Discuss the factors responsible for imbalances in the sex-age found indifferent parts of the world and occupational structure.

Project/Activity

Construct an age-sex pyramid for your district/state.

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Human Development

The words ‘growth’ and ‘development’ are notnew to you. Look around you, almost everythingthat you can see (and many that you cannot)grows and develops. These may be plants, cities,ideas, nations, relationships or even youyourself! What does this mean?

Do growth and development meanthe same thing?Do they accompany each other?

This chapter discusses the concept ofhuman development as it pertains to nationsand communities.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENTGROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Both growth and development refer to changesover a period of time. The difference is thatgrowth is quantitative and value neutral. It mayhave a positive or a negative sign. This meansthat the change may be either positive (showingan increase) or negative (indicating a decrease).

Development means a qualitative changewhich is always value positive. This means thatdevelopment cannot take place unless there isan increment or addition to the existingconditions. Development occurs when positivegrowth takes place. Yet, positive growth doesnot always lead to development. Developmentoccurs when there is a positive change inquality.

For example, if the population of a citygrows from one lakh to two lakhs over a periodof time, we say the city has grown. However, if afacilities like housing, provision of basic servicesand other characteristics remain the same, thenthis growth has not been accompanied bydevelopment.

Can you think of a few more examples todifferentiate between growth and development?

Write a short essay or draw a set of pictures illustratinggrowth without development and growth withdevelopment.

For many decades, a country’s level ofdevelopment was measured only in terms of its

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economic growth. This meant that the biggerthe economy of the country, the more developedit was considered, even though this growth didnot really mean much change in the lives of mostpeople.

The idea that the quality of life people enjoyin a country, the opportunities they have andfreedoms they enjoy, are important aspects ofdevelopment, is not new.

These ideas were clearly spelt out for thefirst time in the late eighties and early nineties.The works of two South Asian economists,Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen areimportant in this regard.

The concept of human development wasintroduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq. Dr Haq hasdescribed human development as developmentthat enlarges people’s choices and improvestheir lives. People are central to all developmentunder this concept. These choices are not fixedbut keep on changing. The basic goal ofdevelopment is to create conditions wherepeople can live meaningful lives.

A meaningful life is not just a long one. Itmust be a life with some purpose. This meansthat people must be healthy, be able to developtheir talents, participate in society and be freeto achieve their goals.

Do you know that cities can also grow negatively? Look at the photographs of this tsunamiaffected city. Are natural disasters the only reasons for negative growth in a city’s size?

Band Aceh, June, 2004 Band Aceh, December, 2004

Human Development 23

Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq and Prof Amartya Sen were close friends and have worked together under the leadership of DrHaq to bring out the initial Human Development Reports. Both these South Asian economists have been able toprovide an alternative view of development.

A man of vision and compassion, Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human DevelopmentIndex in 1990. According to him, development is all about enlarging people’s choices in order to lead long,healthy lives with dignity. The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human developmentto publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.

Dr Haq’s flexibility of mind and ability to think out of the box can be illustrated from one of his speeches wherehe quoted Shaw saying, “‘You see things that are, and ask why? I dream of things that never were, and ask whynot?’

Nobel Laureate Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) as the main objectiveof development. Interestingly, increasing freedoms is also one of the most effective ways of bringing aboutdevelopment. His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in increasing freedom.

The works of these economists are path breaking and have succeeded in bringing people to the centre of anydiscussion on development.

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What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?What is a Meaningful Life?

Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?Which of these lives is a meaningful life?

Who do you think leads more meaningful life? What makes one of these more meaningful than the other?

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Leading a long and healthy life, being ableto gain knowledge and having enough meansto be able to live a decent life are the mostimportant aspects of human development.

Therefore, access to resources, health andeducation are the key areas in humandevelopment. Suitable indicators have beendeveloped to measure each of these aspects. Canyou think of some?

Very often, people do not have thecapability and freedom to make even basicchoices. This may be due to their inability toacquire knowledge, their material poverty,social discrimination, inefficiency of institutionsand other reasons. This prevents them fromleading healthy lives, being able to get educatedor to have the means to live a decent life.

Building people’s capabilities in the areasof health, education and access to resources istherefore, important in enlarging their choices.If people do not have capabilities in these areas,their choices also get limited.

For example, an uneducated child cannotmake the choice to be a doctor because herchoice has got limited by her lack of education.Similarly, very often poor people cannot chooseto take medical treatment for disease becausetheir choice is limited by their lack of resources.

Enact a five-minute play with your classmates showinghow choices are limited due to lack of capability in theareas of either income, education or health.

THE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANTHE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANTHE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANTHE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANTHE FOUR PILLARS OF HUMANDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Just as any building is supported by pillars,the idea of human development is supportedby the concepts of equity, sustainability,productivity and empowerment.

Equity refers to making equal access toopportunities available to everybody. Theopportunities available to people must be equalirrespective of their gender, race, income andin the Indian case, caste. Yet this is very oftennot the case and happens in almost everysociety.

For example, in any country, it is interestingto see which group the most of the schooldropouts belong to. This should then lead to anunderstanding of the reasons for such behaviour.In India, a large number of women and personsbelonging to socially and economicallybackward groups drop out of school. This showshow the choices of these groups get limited bynot having access to knowledge.

Sustainability means continuity in theavailability of opportunities. To havesustainable human development, eachgeneration must have the same opportunities.All environmental, financial and humanresources must be used keeping in mind thefuture. Misuse of any of these resources willlead to fewer opportunities for futuregenerations.

A good example is about the importanceof sending girls to school. If a community doesnot stress the importance of sending its girlchildren to school, many opportunities will belost to these young women when they grow up.Their career choices will be severely curtailedand this would affect other aspects of their lives.So each generation must ensure the availabilityof choices and opportunities to its futuregenerations.

Productivity here means human labourproductivity or productivity in terms of humanwork. Such productivity must be constantlyenriched by building capabilities in people.Ultimately, it is people who are the real wealthof nations. Therefore, efforts to increase theirknowledge, or provide better health facilitiesultimately leads to better work efficiency.

Empowerment means to have the powerto make choices. Such power comes fromincreasing freedom and capability. Goodgovernance and people-oriented policies arerequired to empower people. The empowermentof socially and economically disadvantagedgroups is of special importance.

Talk to the vegetable vendor in your neighbourhood andfind out if she has gone to school. Did she drop out ofschool? Why? What does this tell you about her choicesand the freedom she has? Note how her opportunitieswere limited because of her gender, caste and income.

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APPROACHES TO HUMANAPPROACHES TO HUMANAPPROACHES TO HUMANAPPROACHES TO HUMANAPPROACHES TO HUMANDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

There are many ways of looking at the problemof human development. Some of the importantapproaches are: (a) The income approach; (b) Thewelfare approach; (c) Minimum needs approach;and (d) Capabilities approach (Table 4.1).

MEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENTMEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENTMEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENTMEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENTMEASURING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The human development index (HDI) ranks thecountries based on their performance in the keyareas of health, education and access toresources. These rankings are based on a scorebetween 0 to 1 that a country earns from itsrecord in the key areas of human development.

The indicator chosen to assess health isthe life expectancy at birth. A higher lifeexpectancy means that people have a greaterchance of living longer and healthier lives.

The adult literacy rate and the grossenrolment ratio represent access to knowledge.The number of adults who are able to read and

write and the number of children enrolled inschools show how easy or difficult it is to accessknowledge in a particular country.

Access to resources is measured in termsof purchasing power (in U.S. dollars).

Each of these dimensions is given aweightage of 1/3. The human developmentindex is a sum total of the weights assigned toall these dimensions.

The closer a score is to one, the greater isthe level of human development. Therefore, ascore of 0.983 would be considered very highwhile 0.268 would mean a very low level ofhuman development.

The human development index measuresattainments in human development. It reflectswhat has been achieved in the key areas ofhuman development. Yet it is not the mostreliable measure. This is because it does notsay anything about the distribution.

The human poverty index is related to thehuman development index. This indexmeasures the shortfall in human development.

(a) Income Approach This is one of the oldest approaches to humandevelopment. Human development is seen as beinglinked to income. The idea is that the level of incomereflects the level of freedom an individual enjoys.Higher the level of income, the higher is the level ofhuman development.

(b) Welfare Approach This approach looks at human beings as beneficiariesor targets of all development activities. The approachargues for higher government expenditure oneducation, health, social secondary and amenities.People are not participants in development but onlypassive recipients. The government is responsible forincreasing levels of human development bymaximising expenditure on welfare.

(c) Basic Needs Approach This approach was initially proposed by theInternational Labour Organisation (ILO). Six basicneeds i.e.: health, education, food, water supply,sanitation, and housing were identified. The questionof human choices is ignored and the emphasis is onthe provision of basic needs of defined sections.

(d) Capability Approach This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen.Building human capabilities in the areas of health,education and access to resources is the key toincreasing human development.

Table 4.1: Approaches to Human Development

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It is a non-income measure. The probability ofnot surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracyrate, the number of people who do not haveaccess to clean water, and the number of smallchildren who are underweight are all taken intoaccount to show the shortfall in humandevelopment in any region. Often the humanpoverty index is more revealing than the humandevelopment index.

Looking at both these measures of humandevelopment together gives an accurate pictureof the human development situation in acountry.

The ways to measure human developmentare constantly being refined and newer ways ofcapturing different elements of humandevelopment are being researched. Researchershave found links between the level of corruptionor political freedom in a particular region. Thereis also a discussion regarding a politicalfreedom index and, a listing of the most corruptcountries. Can you think of other links to thelevel of human development?

Since 1990, the United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP) has beenpublishing the Human Development Reportevery year. This report provides a rank-wiselist of all member countries according to thelevel of human development. The HumanDevelopment index and the Human Povertyindex are two important indices to measurehuman development used by the UNDP.

Bhutan is the only country in the world toofficially proclaim the Gross NationalHappiness (GNH) as the measure of thecountry’s progress. Material progress andtechnological developments are approachedmore cautiously taking into consideration thepossible harm they might bring to theenvironment or the other aspects of culturaland spiritual life of the Bhutanese. This simplymeans material progress cannot come at thecost of happiness. GNH encourages us tothink of the spiritual, non-material andqualitative aspects of development.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONSINTERNATIONAL COMPARISONSINTERNATIONAL COMPARISONSINTERNATIONAL COMPARISONSINTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS

International comparisons of humandevelopment are interesting. Size of the territoryand per capita income are not directly relatedto human development. Often smaller countrieshave done better than larger ones in humandevelopment. Similarly, relatively poorernations have been ranked higher than richerneighbours in terms of human development.

For example, Sri Lanka, Trinidad andTobago have a higher rank than India in thehuman development index despite havingsmaller economies. Similarly, within India,Kerala performs much better than Punjab andGujarat in human development despite havinglower per capita income.

Countries can be classified into threegroups on the basis of the human developmentscores earned by them (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Human Development: Categories, Criteriaand Countries

Level of Human Score in Number ofDevelopment Development Countries

Index

High above 0.8 57

Medium between 0.5 up to 880.799

Low below 0.5 32

Source: Human Development Report, 2005

Countries with High Index Value

Countries with high human development indexare those which have a score of over 0.8.

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You will notice that many of these countrieshave been the former imperial powers. The degreeof social diversity in these countries is not veryhigh. Many of the countries with a high humandevelopment score are located in Europe andrepresent the industrialised western world. Yetthere are striking numbers of non-Europeancountries also who have made it to this list.

Countries with Medium Index Value

Countries with medium levels of humandevelopment form the largest group. There area total of 88 countries in this group. Most ofthese are countries which have emerged in theperiod after the Second World War. Somecountries from this group were former colonieswhile many others have emerged after the breakup of the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990. Manyof these countries have been rapidly improvingtheir human development score by adoptingmore people-oriented policies and reducingsocial discrimination. Most of these countrieshave a much higher social diversity than thecountries with higher human developmentscores. Many in this group have faced politicalinstability and social uprisings at some pointof time in their recent history.

According to the Human Development Reportof 2005, this group includes 57 countries. Table4.3 shows the countries in this group.

Table 4.3: Top Ten Countries with High Value Index

Sl. No. Country Sl. No. Country

1. Norway 6. Sweden2. Iceland 7. Switzerland3. Australia 8. Ireland4. Luxembourg 9. Belgium5. Canada 10. United States

Source: Human Development Report, 2005

Try to locate these countries on a map.Can you see what these countries have incommon? To find out more visit the officialgovernment websites of these countries.

Providing education and healthcare is animportant government priority. Countries withhigher human development are those where alot of investment in the social sector has takenplace. Altogether, a higher investment in peopleand good governance has set this group ofcountries apart from the others.

Try to find out the percentage of thecountry’s income spent on these sectors. Canyou think of some other characteristics thatthese countries have in common?

What could bethe reasons forIndia to bebehind 125countries inHDI?

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(i) Which one of the following best describes development?

(a) an increase in size (c) a positive change in quality

(b) a constant in size (d) a simple change in the quality

(ii) Which one of the following scholars introduced the concept of HumanDevelopment?

(a) Prof. Amartya Sen (c) Dr Mahabub-ul-Haq

(b) Ellen C. Semple (d) Ratzel

(iii) Which one of the following is not a country with high human development?

(a) Norway (c) Argentina

(b) Japan (d) Egypt

2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) What are the three basic areas of human development?

(ii) Name the four main components of human development?

(iii) How are countries classified on the basis of human development index?


(i) What do you understand by the term human development?

(ii) What do equity and sustainability refer to within the concept of humandevelopment?

Countries with Low Index Value

As many as 32 countries record low levels ofhuman development. A large proportion ofthese are small countries which have been goingthrough political turmoil and social instabilityin the form of civil war, famine or a highincidence of diseases. There is an urgent needto address the human developmentrequirements of this group through wellthought out policies.

International comparisons of humandevelopment can show some very interestingresults. Often people tend to blame low levelsof human development on the culture of thepeople. For example, X country has lowerhuman development because its people followY religion, or belong to Z community. Suchstatements are misleading.

To understand why a particular regionkeeps reporting low or high levels of humandevelopment it is important to look at thepattern of government expenditure on thesocial sector. The political environment of thecountry and the amount of freedom peoplehave is also important. Countries with highlevels of human development invest more inthe social sectors and are generally free frompolitical turmoil and instability. Distributionof the country’s resources is also far moreequitable.

On the other hand, places with low levelsof human development tend to spend more ondefence rather than social sectors. This showsthat these countries tend to be located in areasof political instability and have not been ableto initiate accelerated economic development.

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Make a list of the ten most corrupt countries and ten least corrupt countries.Compare their scores on the human development index. What inferences canyou draw?

Consult the latest Human Development Report for this.

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Unit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-IIIUnit-IIIChapter-5

Primary Activities

Human activities which generate income areknown as economic activities. Economicactivities are broadly grouped into primary,secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities.Primary activities are directly dependent onenvironment as these refer to utilisation ofearth’s resources such as land, water,vegetation, building materials and minerals. It,thus includes, hunting and gathering, pastoralactivities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, andmining and quarrying.

Why are the inhabitants of coastal andplain regions engaged in fishing andagriculture respectively? What are thephysical and social factors which affect thetype of primary activities in differentregions?

People engaged in primary activities are called red-collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their work.

HUNTING AND GATHERINGHUNTING AND GATHERINGHUNTING AND GATHERINGHUNTING AND GATHERINGHUNTING AND GATHERING

The earliest human beings depended on theirimmediate environment for their sustenance.They subsisted on: (a) animals which theyhunted; and (b) the edible plants which theygathered from forests in the vicinity.

Primitive societies depended on wildanimals. People located in very cold andextremely hot climates survived on hunting. Thepeople in the coastal areas still catch fish thoughfishing has experienced modernisation due totechnological progress. Many species, now havebecome extinct or endangered due to illegalhunting (poaching). The early hunters usedprimitive tools made of stones, twigs or arrowsso the number of animals killed was limited.Why has hunting been banned in India?

Gathering and hunting are the oldesteconomic activity known. These are carried outat different levels with different orientations.

Gathering is practised in regions withharsh climatic conditions. It often involvesprimitive societies, who extract, both plants and

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animals to satisfy their needs for food, shelterand clothing. This type of activity requires asmall amount of capital investment andoperates at very low level of technology. Theyield per person is very low and little or nosurplus is produced.

Fig. 5.1: Women Gathering Oranges in Mizoram

Fig. 5.2: Areas of Subsistence Gathering

Gathering is practised in: (i) high latitudezones which include northern Canada, northernEurasia and southern Chile; (ii) Low latitudezones such as the Amazon Basin, tropicalAfrica, Northern fringe of Australia and theinterior parts of Southeast Asia (Fig. 5.2).

In modern times some gathering is market-oriented and has become commercial. Gathererscollect valuable plants such as leaves, barks oftrees and medicinal plants and after simpleprocessing sell the products in the market. Theyuse various parts of the plants, for example,the bark is used for quinine, tanin extract andcork— leaves supply materials for beverages,drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch and fabrics;nuts for food and oils and tree trunk yieldrubber, balata, gums and resins.

The name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavouris gone? It is called Chicle — it is made from the milkyjuice of zapota tree.

Gathering has little chance of becomingimportant at the global level. Products of such an

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Primary Activities 33

activity cannot compete in the world market.Moreover, synthetic products often of betterquality and at lower prices, have replaced manyitems supplied by the gatherers in tropical forests.

PASTORALISM

At some stage in history, with the realisationthat hunting is an unsustainable activity,human beings might have thought ofdomestication of animals. People living indifferent climatic conditions selected anddomesticated animals found in those regions.Depending on the geographical factors, andtechnological development, animal rearingtoday is practised either at the subsistence orat the commercial level.

Nomadic Herding

Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is aprimitive subsistence activity, in which theherders rely on animals for food, clothing, shelter,tools and transport. They move from one placeto another along with their livestock, dependingon the amount and quality of pastures andwater. Each nomadic community occupies awell-identified territory as a matter of tradition.

Fig. 5.3: Nomads taking their sheep up to theMountains at the onset of summer

A wide variety of animals is kept indifferent regions. In tropical Africa, cattle arethe most important livestock, while in Saharaand Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats and camelare reared. In the mountainous areas of Tibetand Andes, yak and llamas and in the Arcticand sub Arctic areas, reindeer are the mostimportant animals.

Pastoral nomadism is associated withthree important regions. The core regionextends from the Atlantic shores of North Africaeastwards across the Arabian peninsula intoMongolia and Central China. The second regionextends over the tundra region of Eurasia. Inthe southern hemisphere there are small areasin South-west Africa and on the island ofMadagascar (Fig. 5.4)

Movement in search of pastures isundertaken either over vast horizontaldistances or vertically from one elevation toanother in the mountainous regions. Theprocess of migration from plain areas topastures on mountains during summers andagain from mountain pastures to plain areasduring winters is known as transhumance. Inmountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars,Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate fromplains to the mountains in summers and to theplains from the high altitude pastures inwinters. Similarly, in the tundra regions, thenomadic herders move from south to north insummers and from north to south in winters.

The number of pastoral nomads has beendecreasing and the areas operated by themshrinking. This is due to (a) imposition ofpolitical boundaries; (b) new settlement plansby different countries.

Commercial Livestock Rearing

Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestockrearing is more organised and capital intensive.Commercial livestock ranching is essentiallyassociated with western cultures and is practisedon permanent ranches. These ranches coverlarge areas and are divided into a number ofparcels, which are fenced to regulate the grazing.When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animalsare moved to another parcel. The number ofanimals in a pasture is kept according to thecarrying capacity of the pasture.

This is a specialised activity in which onlyone type of animal is reared. Important animalsinclude sheep, cattle, goats and horses.Products such as meat, wool, hides and skinare processed and packed scientifically andexported to different world markets.

Rearing of animals in ranching isorganised on a scientific basis. The main

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Fig. 5.4: Areas of Nomadic Herding

emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement,disease control and health care of the animals.

New Zealand, Australia, Argentina,Uruguay and United States of America areimportant countries where commercial livestockrearing is practised (Fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.5: Commercial Livestock Rearing

Reindeer rearing in the northern regions of Alaska wheremost of the Eskimos own about two-third of the stock.

AGRICULAGRICULAGRICULAGRICULAGRICULTURETURETURETURETURE

Agriculture is practised under multiplecombinations of physical and socio-economicconditions, which gives rise to different types ofagricultural systems.

Based on methods of farming, differenttypes of crops are grown and livestock raised.The following are the main agricultural systems.

Subsistence Agriculture

Subsistence agriculture is one in which thefarming areas consume all, or nearly so, of theproducts locally grown. It can be grouped intwo categories — Primitive SubsistenceAgriculture and Intensive SubsistenceAgriculture.

Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

Primitive subsistence agriculture or shiftingcultivation is widely practised by many tribesin the tropics, especially in Africa, south andcentral America and south east Asia (Fig. 5.7).

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Fig. 5.6: Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing

Fig. 5.7: Areas of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

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The vegetation is usually cleared by fire,and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil.Shifting cultivation is thus, also called slashand burn agriculture. The cultivated patchesare very small and cultivation is done with veryprimitive tools such as sticks and hoes. Aftersometime (3 to 5 years) the soil looses its fertilityand the farmer shifts to another parts and clearsother patch of the forest for cultivation. Thefarmer may return to the earlier patch aftersometime. One of the major problems of shiftingcultivation is that the cycle of jhum becomesless and less due to loss of fertility in differentparcels. It is prevalent in tropical region indifferent names, e.g. Jhuming in North easternstates of India, Milpa in central America andMexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.Find out other areas and the names with whichshifting cultivation is done.

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

This type of agriculture is largely found indensely populated regions of monsoon Asia.

Fig. 5.8: Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming

Basically, there are two types of intensivesubsistence agriculture.

(i) Intensive subsistence agriculturedominated by wet paddy cultivation: Thistype of agriculture is characterised bydominance of the rice crop. Land holdingsare very small due to the high density ofpopulation. Farmers work with the helpof family labour leading to intensive use ofland. Use of machinery is limited and mostof the agricultural operations are done bymanual labour. Farm yard manure is usedto maintain the fertility of the soil. In thistype of agriculture, the yield per unit areais high but per labour productivity is low.

(ii) Intensive subsidence agriculturedominated by crops other than paddy:Due to the difference in relief, climate, soiland some of the other geographical factors,it is not practical to grow paddy in manyparts of monsoon Asia. Wheat, soyabean,barley and sorghum are grown in northernChina, Manchuria, North Korea and NorthJapan. In India wheat is grown in western

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parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains andmillets are grown in dry parts of westernand southern India. Most of thecharacteristics of this type of agricultureare similar to those dominated by wetpaddy except that irrigation is often used.

The Europeans colonised many parts inthe world and they introduced some other formsof agriculture such as plantations which weremainly profit-oriented large scale productionsystems.

Plantation Agriculture

Plantation agriculture as mentioned above wasintroduced by the Europeans in coloniessituated in the tropics. Some of the importantplantation crops are tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber,cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas andpineapples.

The characteristic features of this type offarming are large estates or plantations, largecapital investment, managerial and technicalsupport, scientific methods of cultivation,single crop specialisation, cheap labour, anda good system of transportation which linksthe estates to the factories and markets for theexport of the products.

The French established cocoa and coffeeplantations in west Africa. The British set uplarge tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka,rubber plantations in Malaysia and sugarcaneand banana plantations in West Indies.Spanish and Americans invested heavily in

Fig. 5.9: Rice Transplantation

coconut and sugarcane plantations in thePhilippines. The Dutch once had monopolyover sugarcane plantation in Indonesia. Somecoffee fazendas (large plantations) in Brazil arestill managed by Europeans.

Today, ownership of the majority ofplantations has passed into the hands of thegovernment or the nationals of the countriesconcerned.

Fig. 5.10: Tea Plantation

The slopes of hills are used for tea plantations becauseof favourable geographical conditions.

Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation

Commercial grain cultivation is practised in theinterior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-latitudes. Wheat is the principal crop, thoughother crops like corn, barley, oats and rye arealso grown. The size of the farm is very large,therefore entire operations of cultivation from

ploughing toharvesting aremechanised (Fig.5.11). There is lowyield per acre buthigh yield perperson. Why doesthis happen?

Fig. 5.11: MechanisedGrain Farming

Combine crews arecapable of harvestinggrain over manyhectares in a singleday.

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This type of agriculture is best developedin Eurasian steppes, the Canadian andAmerican Prairies, the Pampas of Argentina, theVelds of South Africa, the Australian Downs andthe Canterbury Plains of New Zealand. (Locatethese areas on the world map).

Mixed Farming

This form of agriculture is found in the highlydeveloped parts of the world, e.g. North-westernEurope, Eastern North America, parts ofEurasia and the temperate latitudes ofSouthern continents (Fig. 5.14).

Mixed farms are moderate in size andusually the crops associated with it are wheat,barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops.Fodder crops are an important component ofmixed farming. Crop rotation and intercroppingplay an important role in maintaining soilfertility. Equal emphasis is laid on cropcultivation and animal husbandry. Animals likecattle, sheep, pigs and poultry provide the mainincome along with crops.

Mixed farming is characterised by highcapital expenditure on farm machinery and

Fig. 5.12: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming

building, extensive use of chemical fertilisersand green manures and also by the skill andexpertise of the farmers.

Dairy Farming

Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type ofrearing of milch animals. It is highly capitalintensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities forfodder, feeding and milching machines add tothe cost of dairy farming. Special emphasis islaid on cattle breeding, health care andveterinary services.

Fig. 5.13: A Dairy Farm in Austria

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Fig. 5.14: Areas of Mixed Farming

It is highly labour intensive as it involvesrigorous care in feeding and milching. There isno off season during the year as in the case ofcrop raising.

It is practised mainly near urban andindustrial centres which provideneighbourhood market for fresh milk and dairyproducts. The development of transportation,refrigeration, pasteurisation and otherpreservation processes have increased theduration of storage of various dairy products.

There are three main regions of commercialdairy farming. The largest is North WesternEurope the second is Canada and the third beltincludes South Eastern Australia, New Zealandand Tasmania (Fig. 5.16).

Mediterranean Agriculture

Mediterranean agriculture is highly specialisedcommercial agriculture. It is practised in thecountries on either side of the Mediterranean

Fig. 5.15 (a): A vineyard in Switzerland Fig. 5.15 (b): Collection ofgrapes in a collective farm of Kazakhstan

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sea in Europe and in north Africa from Tunisiato Atlantic coast, southern California, centralChile, south western parts of South Africa andsouth and south western parts of Australia.This region is an important supplier of citrusfruits.

Viticulture or grape cultivation is aspeciality of the Mediterranean region. Bestquality wines in the world with distinctiveflavours are produced from high quality grapesin various countries of this region. The inferiorgrapes are dried into raisins and currants. Thisregion also produces olives and figs. Theadvantage of Mediterranean agriculture is thatmore valuable crops such as fruits andvegetables are grown in winters when there isgreat demand in European and North Americanmarkets.

Market Gardening and Horticulture

Market gardening and horticulture specialisein the cultivation of high value crops such asvegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for theurban markets. Farms are small and arelocated where there are good transportation

links with the urban centre where high incomegroup of consumers is located. It is both labourand capital intensive and lays emphasis on theuse of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,insecticides, greenhouses and artificial heatingin colder regions.

This type of agriculture is well developedin densely populated industrial districts ofnorth west Europe, north eastern United Statesof America and the Mediterranean regions. TheNetherlands specialises in growing flowers andhorticultural crops especially tulips, which areflown to all major cities of Europe.

The regions where farmers specialise invegetables only, the farming is know as truckfarming. The distance of truck farms from themarket is governed by the distance that a truckcan cover overnight, hence the name truckfarming.

In addition to market gardening, a moderndevelopment in the industrial regions of WesternEurope and North America is factory farming.Livestock, particularly poultry and cattlerearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed onmanufactured feedstuff and carefully

Fig. 5.16: Areas of Dairy Farming

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supervised against diseases. This requires heavycapital investment in terms of building,machinery for various operations, veterinaryservices and heating and lighting. One of theimportant features of poultry farming and cattlerearing is breed selection and scientificbreeding.

Types of farming can also be categorisedaccording to the farming organisation. Farmingorganisation is affected by the way in whichfarmers own their farms and various policies ofthe government which help to run these farms.

Co-operative Farming

A group of farmers form a co-operative societyby pooling in their resources voluntarily formore efficient and profitable farming. Individualfarms remain intact and farming is a matter ofcooperative initiative.

Co-operative societies help farmers, toprocure all important inputs of farming, sell theproducts at the most favourable terms and helpin processing of quality products at cheaperrates.

Co-operative movement originated over acentury ago and has been successful in manywestern European countries like Denmark,Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. InDenmark, the movement has been so successfulthat practically every farmer is a member of aco-operative.

Collective Farming

The basic principle behind this types of farming

Figure 5.17 (a): Vegetables being grown in thevicinity of the city

Figure 5.17 (b): Vegetables being loaded into a truckand cycle carts for transporting to city markets

is based on social ownership of the means ofproduction and collective labour. Collectivefarming or the model of Kolkhoz wasintroduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improveupon the inefficiency of the previous methodsof agriculture and to boost agriculturalproduction for self-sufficiency.

The farmers used to pool in all theirresources like land, livestock and labour.However, they were allowed to retain very smallplots to grow crops in order to meet their dailyrequirements.

Yearly targets were set by the governmentand the produce was also sold to the state atfixed prices. Produce in excess of the fixedamount was distributed among the membersor sold in the market. The farmers had to paytaxes on the farm produces, hired machineryetc. Members were paid according to the natureof the work allotted to them by the farmmanagement. Exceptional work was rewardedin cash or kind. This type of farming wasintroduced in former Soviet Union under thesocialist regime which was adopted by thesocialist countries. After its collapse, these havealready been modified.

MINING

The discovery of minerals in the history ofhuman development, is reflected in many stagesin terms of copper age, bronze age and iron age.The use of minerals in ancient times was largelyconfined to the making of tools, utensils andweapons. The actual development of miningbegan with the industrial revolution and itsimportance is continuously increasing.

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Fig. 5.18: Oil drilling operationin the Gulf of Mexico

Factors Affecting Mining Activity

The profitability of mining operations thus,depends on two main factors:(i) Physical factors include the size, grade and

the mode of occurrence of the deposits.(ii) Economic factors such as the demand for

the mineral, technology available and used,capital to develop infrastructure and thelabour and transport costs.

Methods of Mining

Depending on the mode of occurrence and thenature of the ore, mining is of two types: surfaceand underground mining. The surface miningalso known as open-cast mining is the easiestand the cheapest way of mining minerals thatoccur close to the surface. Overhead costs such

as safety precautions and equipment isrelatively low in this method. The output is bothlarge and rapid.

SHAFT MINING

OPEN-CAST OR(STRIP MINING)

Fig. 5.19: Methods of Mining

When the ore lies deep below the surface,underground mining method (shaft method)has to be used. In this method, vertical shaftshave to be sunk, from where undergroundgalleries radiate to reach the minerals.Minerals are extracted and transported to thesurface through these passages. It requiresspecially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles,ventilation system for safety and efficientmovement of people and material. This methodis risky. Poisonous gases, fires, floods andcaving in lead to fatal accidents. Have you everread about mine fires and flooding of coalmines in India?

The developed economies are retreatingfrom mining, processing and refining stages ofproduction due to high labour costs, while thedeveloping countries with large labour force andstriving for higher standard of living arebecoming more important. Several countriesof Africa and few of south America and Asiahave over fifty per cent of the earnings fromminerals alone.

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(i) Which one of the following is not a plantation crop?

(a) Coffee (c) Wheat

(b) Sugarcane (d) Rubber

(ii) In which one of the following countries co-operative farming was the mostsuccessful experiment?

(a) Russia (c) India

(b) Denmark (d) The Netherlands

(iii) Growing of flowers is called:

(a) Truck farming (c) Mixed farming

(b) Factory farming (d) Floriculture

(iv) Which one of the following types of cultivation was developed by Europeancolonists?

(a) Kolkoz (c) Mixed farming

(b) Viticulture (d) Plantation

(v) In which one of the following regions is extensive commercial grain cultivationnot practised?

(a) American Canadian prairies (c) Pampas of Argentina

(b) European Steppes (d) Amazon Basin

(vi) In which of the following types of agriculture is the farming of citrus fruit veryimportant?

(a) Market gardening (c) Mediterranean agriculture

(b) Plantation agriculture (d) Co-operative farming

(vii) Which one type of agriculture amongst the following is also called ‘slash andburn agriculture’?

(a) Extensive subsistence agriculture

(b) Primitive subsistence agriculture

(c) Extensive commercial grain cultivation

(d) Mixed farming

(viii) Which one of the following does not follow monoculture?

(a) Dairy farming (c) Plantation agriculture

(b) Mixed farming (d) Commercial grain farming

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(i) Future of shifting cultivation is bleak. Discuss.

(ii) Market gardening is practised near urban areas. Why?

(iii) Large scale dairy farming is the result of the development of transportationand refrigeration.

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(i) Differentiate between Nomadic Herding and Commercial Livestock Rearing.

(ii) Discuss the important characteristic features of plantation agriculture. Namea few important plantation crops from different countries.

Project/ActivityVisit a nearby village and observe the cultivation of some crops. Askthe farmers and list the various operations.

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Secondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary ActivitiesSecondary Activities

All economic activities namely primary,secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolvearound obtaining and utilising resourcesnecessary for survival.

Secondary activities add value to naturalresources by transforming raw materials intovaluable products. Cotton in the boll has limiteduse but after it is transformed into yarn,becomes more valuable and can be used formaking clothes. Iron ore, cannot be used;directly from the mines, but after beingconverted into steel it gets its value and can beused for making many valuable machines,tools, etc. The same is true of most of thematerials from the farm, forest, mine and thesea. Secondary activities, therefore, areconcerned with manufacturing, processing andconstruction (infrastructure) industries.

MANUFMANUFMANUFMANUFMANUFAAAAACTURINGCTURINGCTURINGCTURINGCTURING

Manufacturing involves a full array ofproduction from handicrafts to moulding ironand steel and stamping out plastic toys toassembling delicate computer components orspace vehicles. In each of these processes, thecommon characteristics are the application ofpower, mass production of identical productsand specialised labour in factory settings forthe production of standardised commodities.Manufacturing may be done with modernpower and machinery or it may still be veryprimitive. Most of the Third World countries still‘manufacture’ in the literal sense of the term. Itis difficult to present a full picture of all themanufacturers in these countries. Moreemphasis is given to the kind of ‘industrial’activity which involves less complicated systemsof production.

Characteristics of Modern Large ScaleManufacturing

Modern large scale manufacturing has thefollowing characteristics:

Specialisation of Skills/Methods ofProduction

Under the ‘craft’ method factories produce onlya few pieces which are made-to-order. So thecosts are high. On the other hand, mass

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production involves production of largequantities of standardised parts by each workerperforming only one task repeatedly.

‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing’ Industry and‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’‘Manufacturing Industry’

Manufacturing literally means ‘tomake by hand’. However, now itincludes goods ‘made by machines’.It is essentially a process whichinvolves transforming raw materialsinto finished goods of higher valuefor sale in local or distant markets.Conceptually, an industry is ageographically located manufacturingunit maintaining books of accountsand, records under a managementsystem. As the term industry iscomprehensive, it is also used assynonymous with ‘manufacturing’When one uses terms like ‘steelindustry’ and ‘chemical industry’ onethinks of factories and processes.But there are many secondaryactivities which are not carried on infactories such as what is now calledthe ‘entertainment industry’ andTourism industry, etc. So for claritythe longer expression ‘manufacturingindustry’ is used.

Mechanisation

Mechanisation refers to using gadgets whichaccomplish tasks. Automation (without aid ofhuman thinking during the manufacturingprocess) is the advanced stage of mechanisation.Automatic factories with feedback and closed-loop computer control systems where machinesare developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all overthe world.

Technological Innovation

Technological innovations through researchand development strategy are an importantaspect of modern manufacturing for qualitycontrol, eliminating waste and inefficiency, andcombating pollution.

Organisational Structure and Stratification

Modern manufacturing is characterised by:(i) a complex machine technology(ii) extreme specialisation and division of

labour for producing more goods with lesseffort, and low costs

(iii) vast capital(iv) large organisations(v) executive bureaucracy.

Uneven Geographic Distribution

Major concentrations of modern manufacturinghave flourished in a few number of places. Thesecover less than 10 per cent of the world’s landarea. These nations have become the centres ofeconomic and political power. However, in termsof the total area covered, manufacturing sitesare much less conspicuous and concentratedon much smaller areas than that of agriculturedue to greater intensity of processes. Forexample, 2.5 sq km of the American corn beltusually includes about four large farmsemploying about 10-20 workers supporting50-100 persons. But this same area couldcontain several large integrated factories andemploy thousands of workers.

Why do Large-scale Industries choosedifferent locations?

Industries maximise profits by reducingcosts. Therefore, industries should be locatedat points where the production costs areminimum. Some of the factors influencingindustrial locations are as under:

Access to Market

The existence of a market for manufacturedgoods is the most important factor in the locationof industries. ‘Market’ means people who have ademand for these goods and also have thepurchasing power (ability to purchase) to be ableto purchase from the sellers at a place. Remoteareas inhabited by a few people offer smallmarkets. The developed regions of Europe, NorthAmerica, Japan and Australia provide largeglobal markets as the purchasing power of thepeople is very high. The densely populatedregions of South and South-east Asia also

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Secondary Activities 47

provide large markets. Some industries, suchas aircraft manufacturing, have a global market.The arms industry also has global markets.

Access to Raw Material

Raw material used by industries should becheap and easy to transport. Industries basedon cheap, bulky and weight-losing material(ores) are located close to the sources of rawmaterial such as steel, sugar, and cementindustries. Perishability is a vital factor for theindustry to be located closer to the source ofthe raw material. Agro-processing and dairyproducts are processed close to the sources offarm produce or milk supply respectively.

Access to Labour Supply

Labour supply is an important factor in thelocation of industries. Some types ofmanufacturing still require skilled labour.Increasing mechanisation, automation andflexibility of industrial processes have reducedthe dependence of industry upon the labours.

Access to Sources of Energy

Industries which use more power are locatedclose to the source of the energy supply suchas the aluminium industry.

Earlier coal was the main source of energy,today hydroelectricity and petroleum are alsoimportant sources of energy for manyindustries.

Access to Transportation andCommunication Facilities

Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carryraw materials to the factory and to move finishedgoods to the market are essential for thedevelopment of industries. The cost of transportplays an important role in the location ofindustrial units. Western Europe and easternNorth America have a highly developed transportsystem which has always induced theconcentration of industries in these areas. Modernindustry is inseparably tied to transportationsystems. Improvements in transportation led tointegrated economic development and regionalspecialisation of manufacturing.

Communication is also an important needfor industries for the exchange andmanagement of information.

Government Policy

Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ topromote ‘balanced’ economic development andhence set up industries in particular areas.

Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries

Many industries benefit from nearness to aleader-industry and other industries. Thesebenefits are termed as agglomerationeconomies. Savings are derived from thelinkages which exist between differentindustries.

These factors operate together to determineindustrial location.

Foot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose IndustriesFoot Loose Industries

Foot loose industries can be locatedin a wide variety of places. They arenot dependent on any specific rawmaterial, weight losing or otherwise.They largely depend on componentparts which can be obtainedanywhere. They produce in smallquantity and also employ a smalllabour force. These are generally notpolluting industries. The importantfactor in their location is accessibilityby road network.

Classification of Manufacturing Industries

Manufacturing industries are classified on thebasis of their size, inputs/raw materials,output/products and ownership (Fig. 6.1).

Industries based on Size

The amount of capital invested, number ofworkers employed and volume of productiondetermine the size of industry. Accordingly,industries may be classified into household orcottage, small-scale and large-scale.

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HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORHOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORHOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORHOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORHOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES ORCOCOCOCOCOTTTTTTTTTTAAAAAGE MANUFGE MANUFGE MANUFGE MANUFGE MANUFAAAAACTURINGCTURINGCTURINGCTURINGCTURING

It is the smallest manufacturing unit. Theartisans use local raw materials and simpletools to produce everyday goods in their homeswith the help of their family members or part-time labour. Finished products may be forconsumption in the same household or, for salein local (village) markets, or, for barter. Capitaland transportation do not wield much influenceas this type of manufacturing has lowcommercial significance and most of the toolsare devised locally.

Some common everyday productsproduced in this sector of manufacturinginclude foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers,tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from woodlot and forest, shoes, thongs and other articles fromleather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones.Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver andbronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out ofbamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests.

Small Scale Manufacturing

Small scale manufacturing is distinguishedfrom household industries by its productiontechniques and place of manufacture (aworkshop outside the home/cottage of theproducer). This type of manufacturing useslocal raw material, simple power-drivenmachines and semi-skilled labour. It providesemployment and raises local purchasing power.Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesiaand Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensivesmall scale manufacturing in order to provideemployment to their population.

Fig. 6.2 (a) : A man making pots in his courtyard-example of household industry in Nagaland

Fig. 6.2 (b) : A man weaving a bamboo basket by theroadside in Arunachal Pradesh

Fig. 6.3: Products of cottage industry on salein Assam

Large Scale Manufacturing

Large scale manufacturing involves a largemarket, various raw materials, enormousenergy, specialised workers, advancedtechnology, assembly-line mass production andlarge capital. This kind of manufacturingdeveloped in the last 200 years, in the UnitedKingdom, north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Nowit has diffused to almost all over the world.

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On the basis of the system of large scalemanufacturing, the world’s major industrialregions may be grouped under two broad types,namely

(i) traditional large-scale industrial regionswhich are thickly clustered in a few moredeveloped countries.

(ii) high-technology large scale industrialregions which have diffused to lessdeveloped countries.

Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

On the basis of the raw materials used, theindustries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) forestbased: and (e) animal based.

(a) Agro based Industries

Agro processing involves the processing of rawmaterials from the field and the farm into finishedproducts for rural and urban markets. Majoragro-processing industries are food processing,sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffeeand cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles(cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.

Food Processing

Agro processing includes canning, producingcream, fruit processing and confectionery. Whilesome preserving techniques, such as drying,fermenting and pickling, have been known sinceancient times, these had limited applications tocater to the pre-Industrial Revolution demands.

Fig. 6.4 : Passenger car assembly hires at a plant ofthe Motor Company in Japan

Agri-business is commercial farmingon an industrial scale often financedby business whose main interests lieoutside agriculture, for example, largecorporations in tea plantationbusiness. Agri-business farms aremechanised, large in size, highlystructured, reliant on chemicals, andmay be described as ‘agro-factories’.

(b) Mineral based Industries

These industries use minerals as a raw material.Some industries use ferrous metallic mineralswhich contain ferrous (iron), such as iron andsteel industries but some use non-ferrousmetallic minerals, such as aluminium, copperand jewellery industries. Many industries usenon-metallic minerals such as cement andpottery industries.

(c) Chemical based Industries

Such industries use natural chemical minerals,e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petro-chemical industry. Salts, sulphur and potashindustries also use natural minerals. Chemicalindustries are also based on raw materialsobtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre,plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical basedindustries.

Fig. 6.5: Tea Garden and a Tea Factory in the NilgiriHills of Tamil Nadu

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(d) Forest based Raw Material usingIndustries

The forests provide many major and minorproducts which are used as raw material.Timber for furniture industry, wood, bambooand grass for paper industry, lac for lacindustries come from forests.

INDUSTRIES BINDUSTRIES BINDUSTRIES BINDUSTRIES BINDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIPASED ON OWNERSHIPASED ON OWNERSHIPASED ON OWNERSHIPASED ON OWNERSHIP

(a) Public Sector Industries are owned andmanaged by governments. In India, therewere a number of Public SectorUndertakings (PSUs). Socialist countrieshave many state owned industries. Mixedeconomies have both Public and Privatesector enterprises.

(b) Private Sector Industries are owned byindividual investors. These are managedby private organisations. In capitalistcountries, industries are generally ownedprivately.

(c) Joint Sector Industries are managed byjoint stock companies or sometimes theprivate and public sectors togetherestablish and manage the industries. Canyou make a list of such industries?

Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions

These are based on heavy industry, oftenlocated near coal-fields and engaged in metalsmelting, heavy engineering, chemicalmanufacture or textile production. Theseindustries are now known as smokestackindustries. Traditional industrial regions canbe recognised by:

• High proportion of employment inmanufacturing industry.High-density housing, often of inferiortype, and poor services.Unattractive environment, for example,pollution, waste heaps, and so on.

• Problems of unemployment, emigrationand derelict land areas caused by closureof factories because of a worldwide fall indemand.

The Ruhr Coal-field, Germany

This has been one of the major industrialregions of Europe for a long time. Coal and ironand steel formed the basis of the economy, butas the demand for coal declined, the industrystarted shrinking. Even after the iron ore wasexhausted, the industry remained, usingimported ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr.

The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 percent of Germany’s total steel production.

(e) Animal based Industries

Leather for leather industry and wool forwoollen textiles are obtained from animals.Besides, ivory is also obtained fromelephant’s tusks.

Industries Based On Output/Product

You have seen some machines and tools madeof iron or steel. The raw material for suchmachines and tools is iron and steel. Which isitself an industry. The industry whose productsare used to make other goods by using themas raw materials are basic industries. Can youidentify the links? Iron/steel machinesfor textile industry clothes for use byconsumers.

The consumer goods industries producedgoods which are consumed by consumersdirectly. For example, industries producingbreads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries,paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumergoods or non-basic industries.

Fig. 6.6: A pulp mill in the heart of the Ketchikan’stimber area of Alaska

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Changes in the industrial structure have led tothe decay of some areas, and there are problemsof industrial waste and pollution. The futureprosperity of the Ruhr is based less on theproducts of coal and steel, for which it wasinitially famous, and more on the newindustries like the huge Opel car assemblyplant, new chemical plants, universities. Out-of-town shopping centres have appearedresulting in a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.

Concept of High Technology Industry

High technology, or simply high-tech, is thelatest generation of manufacturing activities. Itis best understood as the application ofintensive research and development (R and D)efforts leading to the manufacture of productsof an advanced scientific and engineeringcharacter. Professional (white collar) workersmake up a large share of the total workforce.These highly skilled specialists greatlyoutnumber the actual production (blue collar)workers. Robotics on the assembly line,computer-aided design (CAD) andmanufacturing, electronic controls of smeltingand refining processes, and the constantdevelopment of new chemical andpharmaceutical products are notable examplesof a high-tech industry.

Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,office-plant-lab buildings rather than massiveassembly structures, factories and storageareas mark the high-tech industrial landscape.Planned business parks for high-tech start-upshave become part of regional and localdevelopment schemes.

High-tech industries which are regionallyconcentrated, self-sustained and highlyspecialised are called technopolies. The SiliconValley near San Francisco and Silicon Forestnear Seattle are examples of technopolies. Aresome technopolies developing in India?

Manufacturing contributes significantly tothe world economy. Iron and steel, textiles,automobiles, petrochemicals and electronicsare some of the world’s most importantmanufacturing industries.

Iron and Steel Industry

The iron and steel industry forms the base ofall other industries and, therefore, it is called abasic industry. It is basic because it providesraw material for other industries such asmachine tools used for further production. Itmay also be called a heavy industry because ituses large quantities of bulky raw materials andits products are also heavy.

Iron is extracted from iron ore by smeltingin a blast furnace with carbon (coke) andlimestone. The molten iron is cooled andmoulded to form pig iron which is used forconverting into steel by adding strengtheningmaterials like manganese.

The large integrated steel industry istraditionally located close to the sources of rawmaterials – iron ore, coal, manganese andlimestone – or at places where these could beeasily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steelmills access to markets is more important thaninputs. These are less expensive to build andoperate and can be located near marketsbecause of the abundance of scrap metal, whichis the main input. Traditionally, most of the steelwas produced at large integrated plants, butmini mills are limited to just one-step process –steel making – and are gaining ground.

Distribution : The industry is one of themost complex and capital-intensive industriesand is concentrated in the advanced countriesof North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A,most of the production comes from the northAppalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lakeregion (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain,Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast(Sparrows Point and Morisville). The industryhas also moved towards the southern state ofAlabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground.It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. InEurope, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia arethe leading producers. The important steelcentres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot,Birmingham and Sheffield in the U.K.;Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essenin Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettiennein France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and

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Donetsk in Ukraine. In Asia, the importantcentres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohamain Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan inChina; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur,Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem,Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India.Consult your atlas to locate these places/centres.

Cotton Textile Industry

Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectorsi.e. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors.Handloom sector is labour-intensive andprovides employment to semi-skilled workers.It requires small capital investment. Why didMahatma Gandhi propagate Khadi as part ofthe independence movement? This sectorinvolves spinning, weaving and finishing of thefabrics. The powerloom sector introducesmachines and becomes less labour intensive

and the volume of production increases. Cottontextile mill sector is highly capital intensive andproduces fine clothes in bulk.

Cotton textile manufacturing requires goodquality cotton as raw material. India, China,U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt producemore than half of the world’s raw cotton. TheU.K, NW European countries and Japan alsoproduce cotton textile made from importedyarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half ofthe world’s cotton imports. The industry has toface very stiff competition with synthetic fibreshence it has now shown a declining trend inmany countries. With the scientific advancementand technological improvements the structureof industries changes. For example, Germanyrecorded constant growth in cotton textileindustry since Second World War till theseventies but now it has declined. It has shiftedto less developed countries where labour costsare low.



(i) Which one of the following statements is wrong?

(a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry alongthe Hugli.

(b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.

(c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a greatextent, the importance of coal energy as a locational factor forindustry.

(d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.

(ii) In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of productionowned individually ?

(a) Capitalist (c) Socialist

(b) Mixed (d) None

(iii) Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materialsfor other industries?

(a) Cottage Industries (c) Basic Industries

(b) Small-scale Industries (d) Footloose Industries

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(iv) Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched ?

(a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles

(b) Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka

(c) Aircraft industry … Florence

(d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh

2 . Write a short note on the following in about 30 words.

(i) High-Tech industry

(ii) Manufacturing

(iii) Footloose industries

3 . Answer the following in not more than 150 words.

(i) Differentiate between primary and secondary activities.

(ii) Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially inthe developed countries of the world.

(iii) Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attractedto the peripheral areas of major metropolitan centres.

(iv) Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the mostbackward continent. Comment.


(i) Carry out a survey in your school premises of the factory-made goodsused by students and the staff.

(ii) Find out the meaning of the terms bio-degradable and non-biodegradable. Which kind of material is better to use? Why?

(iii) Look around and make a list of the global brands, their logos andproducts.

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Tertiary andQuaternary Activities

When you fall ill you go to your family doctoror you call a doctor. Sometimes your parentstake you to a hospital for treatment. While inschool, you are taught by your teachers. In theevent of any dispute, legal opinion is obtainedfrom a lawyer. Likewise, there are manyprofessionals who provide their services againstpayment of their fee. Thus, all types of servicesare special skills provided in exchange ofpayments. Health, education, law, governanceand recreation etc. require professional skills.These services require other theoreticalknowledge and practical training. Tertiaryactivities are related to the service sector.Manpower is an important component of theservice sector as most of the tertiary activitiesare performed by skilled labour, professionallytrained experts and consultants.

In the initial stages of economicdevelopment, larger proportion of peopleworked in the primary sector. In a developedeconomy, the majority of workers getemployment in tertiary activity and a moderateproportion is employed in the secondary sector.

Tertiary activities include both productionand exchange. The production involves the‘provision’ of services that are ‘consumed’. Theoutput is indirectly measured in terms of wagesand salaries. Exchange, involves trade,transport and communication facilities that areused to overcome distance. Tertiary activities,therefore, involve the commercial output ofservices rather than the production of tangiblegoods. They are not directly involved in theprocessing of physical raw materials. Commonexamples are the work of a plumber, electrician,technician, launderer, barber, shopkeeper,driver, cashier, teacher, doctor, lawyer andpublisher etc. The main difference betweensecondary activities and tertiary activities is thatthe expertise provided by services relies moreheavily on specialised skills, experience andknowledge of the workers rather than on theproduction techniques, machinery and factoryprocesses.

TYPES OF TERTIARY ACTIVITIES

By now you know that you purchase yourbooks, stationery from traders shop, travel by

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Tertiary and Quaternary Activities 57

bus or rail, send letters, talk on telephone andobtain services of teachers for studies anddoctors at the time of illness.

Thus, trade, transport, communicationand services are some of the tertiary activitiesdiscussed in this section. The chart providesthe basis for classifying the tertiary activities.

Trade and commerce

Trade is essentially buying and selling of itemsproduced elsewhere. All the services in retailand wholesale trading or commerce arespecifically intended for profit. The towns andcities where all these works take place areknown us trading centres.

The rise of trading from barter at the locallevel to money-exchange of international scalehas produced many centres and institutionssuch as trading centres or collection anddistribution points.

Trading centres may be divided into ruraland urban marketing centres.

Rural marketing centres cater to nearbysettlements. These are quasi-urban centres.They serve as trading centres of the mostrudimentary type. Here personal andprofessional services are not well-developed.These form local collecting and distributingcentres. Most of these have mandis (wholesalemarkets) and also retailing areas. They are noturban centres per se but are significant centresfor making available goods and services whichare most frequently demanded by rural folk.

Fig. 7.2: A Wholesale Vegetable Market

Periodic markets in rural areas are foundwhere there are no regular markets and localperiodic markets are organised at differenttemporal intervals. These may be weekly, bi-weekly markets from where people from thesurrounding areas meet their temporallyaccumulated demand. These markets areheld on specified dates and move from oneplace to another. The shopkeepers thus,remain busy on all the days while a large areais served by them.

Urban marketing centres have more widelyspecialised urban services. They provideordinary goods and services as well as many ofthe specialised goods and services required bypeople. Urban centres, therefore, offermanufactured goods as well as manyspecialised markets develop, e.g. markets forlabour, housing, semi or finished products.Services of educational institutions andprofessionals such as teachers, lawyers,consultants, physicians, dentists and veterinarydoctors are available.

Fig. 7.3: Packed Food Market in U.S.A.

Retail Trading

This is the business activity concerned with thesale of goods directly to the consumers. Mostof the retail trading takes place in fixedestablishments or stores solely devoted toselling. Street peddling, handcarts, trucks,door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automaticvending machines and internet are examplesof non-store retail trading.

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MMMMMore on Storesore on Storesore on Storesore on Storesore on Stores

Consumer cooperatives were the first ofthe large-scale innovations in retailing.

Departmental stores delegate theresponsibility and authority to departmentalheads for purchasing of commodities andfor overseeing the sale in different sectionsof the stores.

Chain stores are able to purchasemerchandise most economically, oftengoing so far as to direct the goods to bemanufactured to their specification. Theyemploy highly skilled specialists in manyexecutive tasks. They have the ability toexperiment in one store and apply theresults to many.

Wholesale Trading

Wholesale trading constitutes bulk businessthrough numerous intermediary merchantsand supply houses and not through retailstores. Some large stores including chain storesare able to buy directly from the manufacturers.However, most retail stores procure suppliesfrom an intermediary source. Wholesalers oftenextend credit to retail stores to such an extentthat the retailer operates very largely on thewholesaler’s capital.

Transport

Transport is a service or facility by whichpeople, materials and manufactured goodsare physically carried from one location toanother. It is an organised industry createdto satisfy man’s basic need of mobility.Modern society requires speedy and efficienttransport systems to assist in the production,distribution and consumption of goods. Atevery stage in this complex system, the valueof the material is significantly enhanced bytransportation.

Transport distance can be measured as:km distance or actual distance of route length;time distance or the time taken to travel on a

particular route; and cost distance or theexpense of travelling on a route. In selecting themode of transport, distance, in terms of time orcost, is the determining factor. Isochrone linesare drawn on a map to join places equal in termsof the time taken to reach them.

Network and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and AccessibilityNetwork and Accessibility

As transport systems develop, differentplaces are linked together to form anetwork. Networks are made up of nodesand links. A node is the meeting point oftwo or more routes, a point of origin, a pointof destination or any sizeable town along aroute, Every road that joins two nodes iscalled a link. A developed network hasmany links, which means that places arewell-connected.

Factors Affecting Transport

Demand for transport is influenced by the sizeof population. The larger the population size,the greater is the demand for transport.

Routes depend on: location of cities,towns, villages, industrial centres and rawmaterials, pattern of trade between them, natureof the landscape between them, type of climate,and funds available for overcoming obstaclesalong the length of the route.

Communication

Communication services involve thetransmission of words and messages, factsand ideas. The invention of writing preservedmessages and helped to make communicationdependent on means of transport. These wereactually carried by hand, animals, boat, road,rail and air. That is why all forms of transportare also referred to as lines of communication.Where the transport network is efficient,communications are easily disseminated.Certain developments, such as mobiletelephony and satellites, have madecommunications independent of transport. Allforms are not fully disassociated because of thecheapness of the older systems. Thus, very

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large volumes of mail continue to be handledby post offices all over the world.

Some of the communication services arediscussed below.

Telecommunications

The use of telecommunications is linked to thedevelopment of modern technology. It hasrevolutionised communications because of thespeed with which messages are sent. The timereduced is from weeks to minutes. Besides, therecent advancements like mobile telephonyhave made communications direct andinstantaneous at any time and from anywhere.The telegraph, morse code and telex have almostbecome things of the past.

Radio and television also help to relaynews, pictures, and telephone calls to vastaudiences around the world and hence they aretermed as mass media. They are vital foradvertising and entertainment. Newspapers areable to cover events in all corners of the world.Satellite communication relays information ofthe earth and from space. The internet has trulyrevolutionised the global communicationsystem .

Services

Services occur at many different levels. Someare geared to industry, some to people, and someto both industry and people, e.g. the transportsystems. Low-order services, such as groceryshops and laundries, are more common andwidespread than high-order services or morespecialised ones like those of accountants,consultants and physicians. Services areprovided to individual consumers who canafford to pay for them. For example, thegardener, the launderers and the barber doprimarily physical labour. Teacher, lawyers,physicians, musicians and others performmental labour.

Many services have now been regulated.Making and maintaining highways andbridges, maintaining fire fighting departmentsand supplying or supervising education andcustomer -care are among the importantservices most often supervised or performed bygovernments or companies. State and union

legislation have established corporations tosupervise and control the marketing of suchservices as transport, telecommunication,energy and water supply. Professional servicesare primarily health care, engineering, law andmanagement. The location of recreational andentertainment services depends on the market.Multiplexes and restaurants might find locationwithin or near the Central Business District(CBD), whereas a golf course would choose asite where land costs are lower than in the CBD.

Personal services are made available to thepeople to facilitate their work in daily life. Theworkers migrate from rural areas in search ofemployment and are unskilled. They areemployed in domestic services ashousekeepers, cooks, and gardeners. Thissegment of workers is generally unorganised.One such example in India is Mumbai’sdabbawala (Tiffin) service provided to about1,75,000 customers all over the city.

Fig. 7.4: Dabbawala Service in Mumbai

PEOPLE ENGAGED INPEOPLE ENGAGED INPEOPLE ENGAGED INPEOPLE ENGAGED INPEOPLE ENGAGED INTERTIARY ACTIVITIESTERTIARY ACTIVITIESTERTIARY ACTIVITIESTERTIARY ACTIVITIESTERTIARY ACTIVITIES

Today most people are service workers. Servicesare provided in all societies. But in moredeveloped countries a higher percentage ofworkers is employed in provision of services incontrast to less than 10 per cent in the lessdeveloped countries. In U.S.A. over 75 per centof workers are engaged in services. The trend

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in employment in this sector has beenincreasing while it has remained unchanged ordecreasing in the primary and secondaryactivities.

SOME SELECTED EXAMPLESSOME SELECTED EXAMPLESSOME SELECTED EXAMPLESSOME SELECTED EXAMPLESSOME SELECTED EXAMPLES

Tourism

Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes ofrecreation rather than business. It has becomethe world’s single largest tertiary activity in totalregistered jobs (250 million) and total revenue(40 per cent of the total GDP). Besides, manylocal persons, are employed to provide serviceslike accommodation, meals, transport,entertainment and special shops serving thetourists. Tourism fosters the growth ofinfrastructure industries, retail trading, andcraft industries (souvenirs). In some regions,tourism is seasonal because the vacation periodis dependent on favourable weather conditions,but many regions attract visitors all the yearround.

Fig. 7.5: Tourists skiing in the snow cappedmountain slopes of Switzerland

Tourist Regions

The warmer places around the MediterraneanCoast and the West Coast of India are some ofthe popular tourist destinations in the world.Others include winter sports regions, foundmainly in mountainous areas, and variousscenic landscapes and national parks, which

are scattered. Historic towns also attracttourists, because of the monument, heritagesites and cultural activities.

Factors Affecting Tourism

Demand : Since the last century, the demandfor holidays has increased rapidly.Improvements in the standard of living andincreased leisure time, permit many morepeople to go on holidays for leisure.

Transport : The opening-up of touristareas has been aided by improvement intransport facilities. Travel is easier by car, withbetter road systems. More significant in recentyears has been the expansion in air transport.For example, air travel allows one to travelanywhere in the world in a few hours of flying-time from their homes. The advent of packageholidays has reduced the costs.

Tourist Attractions

Climate: Most people from colder regions expectto have warm, sunny weather for beachholidays. This is one of the main reasons forthe importance of tourism in Southern Europeand the Mediterranean lands. TheMediterranean climate offers almost consistentlyhigher temperatures, than in other parts ofEurope, long hours of sunshine and low rainfallthroughout the peak holiday season. Peopletaking winter holidays have specific climaticrequirements, either higher temperatures thantheir own homelands, or snow cover suitablefor skiing.

Landscape: Many people like to spendtheir holidays in an attractive environment,which often means mountains, lakes,spectacular sea coasts and landscapes notcompletely altered by man.

History and Art: The history and art of anarea have potential attractiveness. People visitancient or picturesque towns andarchaeological sites, and enjoy exploringcastles, palaces and churches.

Culture and Economy: These attracttourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnicand local customs. Besides, if a region providesfor the needs of tourists at a cheap cost, it islikely to become very popular. Home-stay hasemerged as a profitable business such as

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Organise an informal debate session in your class about how could theemerging medical industry of our country become a boom as well as doom?

heritage homes in Goa, Madikere and Coorgin Karnataka.

Medical Services for Overseas Patients in India

About 55,000 patients from U.S.A. visited Indiain 2005 for treatment. This is still a smallnumber compared with the millions of surgeriesperformed each year in the U.S. healthcaresystem. India has emerged as the leadingcountry of medical tourism in the world. Worldclass hospitals located in metropolitan citiescater to patients all over the world. Medicaltourism brings abundant benefits to developingcountries like India, Thailand, Singapore andMalaysia. Beyond medical tourism, is the trendof outsourcing of medical tests and datainterpretation. Hospitals in India, Switzerlandand Australia have been performing certainmedical services – ranging from readingradiology images, to interpreting MagneticResonance Images (MRIs) and ultrasound tests.Outsourcing holds tremendous advantages forpatients, if it is focused on improving quality orproviding specialised care.

Medical TourismMedical TourismMedical TourismMedical TourismMedical Tourism

When medical treatment is combined withinternational tourism activity, it lends itselfto what is commonly known as medicaltourism.

QUATERNARY ACTIVITIESQUATERNARY ACTIVITIESQUATERNARY ACTIVITIESQUATERNARY ACTIVITIESQUATERNARY ACTIVITIESWhat do a CEO of an MNC in Copenhagen, atNew York and a medical transcriptionist atBangalore have in common? All these peoplework in a segment of the service sector that isknowledge oriented. This sector can be dividedinto quaternary and quinary activities.

Quaternary activities involve some of thefollowing: the collection, production anddissemination of information or even theproduction of information. Quaternary activitiescentre around research, development and maybe seen as an advanced form of services involvingspecialised knowledge and technical skills.

The Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary SectorThe Quaternary Sector along with the TertiarySector has replaced most of the primary andsecondary employment as the basis foreconomic growth. Over half of all workers Indeveloped economies are in the ‘KnowledgeSector’ and there has been a very high growthin demand for and consumption of information-based services from mutual fund managersto tax consultants, software developers andstatisticians. Personnel working in officebuildings, elementary schools and universityclassrooms, hospitals and doctors’ offices,theatres, accounting and brokerage firms allbelong to this category of services.

Like some of the tertiary functions,quaternary activities can also be outsourced.They are not tied to resources, affected bythe environment, or necessarily localised bymarket.© N

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QUINARY ACTIVITIESQUINARY ACTIVITIESQUINARY ACTIVITIESQUINARY ACTIVITIESQUINARY ACTIVITIES

The highest level of decision makers or policymakers perform quinary activities. These aresubtly different from the knowledge basedindustries that the quinary sector in generaldeals with.

Quinary activities are services that focus onthe creation, re-arrangement andinterpretation of new and existing ideas; datainterpretation and the use and evaluation ofnew technologies. Often referred to as ‘goldcollar’ professions, they represent anothersubdivision of the tertiary sector representingspecial and highly paid skills of seniorbusiness executives, government officials,research scientists, financial and legalconsultants, etc. Their importance in thestructure of advanced economies faroutweighs their numbers.

Outsourcing has resulted in the openingup of a large number of call centres in India,China, Eastern Europe, Israel, Philippines andCosta Rica. It has created new jobs in thesecountries. Outsourcing is coming to thosecountries where cheap and skilled workers areavailable. These are also out-migratingcountries. With the work available thoughoutsourcing, the migration in these countriesmay come down. Outsourcing countries arefacing resistance from job-seeking youths intheir respective countries. The comparativeadvantage is the main reason for continuingoutsourcing. New trends in quinary servicesinclude knowledge processing outsourcing(KPO) and ‘home shoring’, the latter as analternative to outsourcing. The KPO industryis distinct from Business Process Outsourcing(BPO) as it involves highly skilled workers. It isinformation driven knowledge outsourcing.KPO enables companies to create additionalbusiness opportunities. Examples of KPOsinclude research and development (R and D)activities, e-learning, business research,intellectual property (IP) research, legalprofession and the banking sector.

OutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcingOutsourcing

Outsourcing or contracting out is giving workto an outside agency to improve efficiencyand to reduce costs. When outsourcinginvolves transferring work to overseaslocations, it is described by the term off -shoring, although both off - shoring andoutsourcing are used together. Businessactivities that are outsourced includeinformation technology (IT), humanresources, customer support and call centreservices and at times also manufacturingand engineering.

Data processing is an IT related serviceeasily be carried out in Asian, EastEuropean and African countries, In thesecountries IT skilled staff with good Englishlanguage skills are available at lower wagesthan those in the developed countries. Thus,a company in Hyderabad or Manila does

Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?Where Will it All Lead to?

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work on a project based on GIS techniquesfor a country like U.S.A or Japan. Overheadcosts are also much lower making itprofitable to get job-work carried outoverseas, whether it is in India, China oreven a less populous country like Botswanain Africa.

Describe the nature of work against each colour-name

Colour of the collar Nature of work

Red ?Gold ?White ?Grey ?Blue ?

Pink ?



(i) Which one of the following is a tertiary activity?

(a) Farming (c) Weaving

(b) Trading (d) Hunting

(ii) Which one of the following activities is NOT a secondary sector activity?

(a) Iron Smelting (c) Making garments

(b) Catching fish (d) Basket Weaving

(iii) Which one of the following sectors provides most of the employment in Delhi,Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.

(a) Primary (c) Secondary

(b) Quaternary (d) Service

(iv) Jobs that involve high degrees and level of innovations are known as:

(a) Secondary activities (c) Quinary activities

(b) Quaternary activities (d) Primary activities

(v) Which one of the following activities is related to quaternary sector?

(a) Manufacturing computers (c) University teaching

(b) Paper and Raw pulp production (d) Printing books

TTTTTHE DIGITAL DIVIDEHE DIGITAL DIVIDEHE DIGITAL DIVIDEHE DIGITAL DIVIDEHE DIGITAL DIVIDE

Opportunities emerging from the Informationand Communication Technology baseddevelopment is unevenly distributed acrossthe globe. There are wide ranging economic,political and social differences amongcountries. How quickly countries can provideICT access and benefits to its citizens is thedeciding factor. While developed countries ingeneral have surged forward, the developingcountries have lagged behind and this isknown as the digital divide. Similarly digitaldivides exist within countries. For example,in a large country like India or Russia, it isinevitable that certain areas like metropolitancentres possess better connectivity andaccess to the digital world versus peripheralrural areas.

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(vi) Which one out of the following statements is not true?

(a) Outsourcing reduces costs and increases efficiency.

(b) At times engineering and manufacturing jobs can also be outsourced.

(c) BPOs have better business opportunities as compared to KPOs.

(d) There may be dissatisfaction among job seekers in the countries thatoutsource the job.


(i) Explain retail trading service.

(ii) Describe quaternary services.

(iii) Name the fast emerging countries of medical tourism in the world.

(iv) What is digital divide?


(i) Discuss the significance and growth of the service sector in moderneconomic development.

(ii) Explain in detail the significance of transport and communicationservices.


(i) Find out the activities of BPO.

(ii) Find out from a travel agent the documents you need to travel abroad.

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Transport andCommunication

Natural resources, economic activities andmarkets are rarely found in one place.Transport, communication and trade establishlinks between producing centres andconsuming centres. The system of massproduction and exchange is complex. Eachregion produces the items for which it is bestsuited. Trade or the exchange of suchcommodities relies on transportation andcommunication. Likewise, the high livingstandards and quality of life depend on efficienttransportation, communications and trade. Inearlier days, the means of transport andcommunication were the same. But today bothhave acquired distinct and specialised forms.Transport provides the network of links andcarriers through which trade takes place.

TRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTRANSPORTTTTT

Transport is a service or facility for the carriageof persons and goods from one place to the otherusing humans, animals and different kinds ofvehicles. Such movements take place over land,water and air. Roads and railways form part ofland transport; while shipping and waterwaysand airways are the other two modes. Pipelinescarry materials like petroleum, natural gas, andores in liquidified form.

Moreover, transportation is an organisedservice industry created to satisfy the basicneeds of society. It includes transport arteries,vehicles to carry people and goods, and theorganisation to maintain arteries, and to handleloading, unloading and delivery. Every nationhas developed various kinds of transportationfor defence purposes. Assured and speedytransportation, along with efficientcommunication, promote cooperation andunity among scattered peoples.

What is a Transport Network What is a Transport Network What is a Transport Network What is a Transport Network What is a Transport Network ?????

Several places (nodes) joined together by aseries of routes (links) to form a pattern.

MODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORMODES OF TRANSPORTTTTTAAAAATIONTIONTIONTIONTION

The principal modes of world transportation,as already mentioned are land, water, air and

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pipelines. These are used for inter-regional andintra-regional transport, and each one (exceptpipelines) carries both passengers and freight.The significance of a mode depends on the typeof goods and services to be transported, costsof transport and the mode available.International movement of goods is handled byocean freighters. Road transport is cheaper andfaster over short distances and for door-to-door services. Railways are most suited for largevolumes of bulky materials over long distanceswithin a country. High-value, light andperishable goods are best moved by airways.In a well-managed transport system, thesevarious modes complement each other.

Land Transport

Most of the movement of goods and servicestakes place over land. In early days, humansthemselves were carriers. Have you ever seen abride being carried on a palanquin (palki/doli)by four persons (Kahars in north India). Lateranimals were used as beasts of burden. Haveyou seen mules, horses and camels, carryingloads of cargo in rural areas? With the inventionof the wheel, the use of carts and wagonsbecame important. The revolution in transportcame about only after the invention of the steamengine in the eighteenth century. Perhaps thefirst public railway line was opened in 1825between Stockton and Darlington in northernEngland and then onwards, railways becamethe most popular and fastest form of transportin the nineteenth century. It opened upcontinental interiors for commercial grainfarming, mining and manufacturing in U.S.A.The invention of the internal combustion enginerevolutionised road transport in terms of roadquality and vehicles (motor cars and trucks)plying over them. Among the newerdevelopments in land transportation arepipelines, ropeways and cableways. Liquids likemineral oil, water, sludge and sewers aretransported by pipelines. The great freightcarriers are the railways, ocean vessels, barges,boats and motor trucks and pipelines.

In general, the old and elementary formslike the human porter, pack animal, cart orwagon are the most expensive means of

transportation and large freighters are thecheapest. They are important in supplementingmodern channels and carriers which penetratethe interiors in large countries. In the denselypopulated districts of India and China, overlandtransport still takes place by human porters orcarts drawn or pushed by humans.

Pack Animals Pack Animals Pack Animals Pack Animals Pack Animals

Horses Horses Horses Horses Horses are used as a draught animal evenin the Western countries. DogsDogsDogsDogsDogs andreindeerreindeerreindeerreindeerreindeer are used in North America, NorthEurope and Siberia to draw sledges oversnow-covered ground. MulesMulesMulesMulesMules are preferredin the mountainous regions; while camelscamelscamelscamelscamelsare used for caravan movement in deserts.In India, bullocksbullocksbullocksbullocksbullocks are used for pulling carts.

Fig. 8.2: A horse cart in a village Tefki,in Ethiopia

Fig. 8.1: Ropeway and Cable cars in Austria

This means of transport is usually found on steepmountain slopes and mines which are not suitable forbuilding roads.

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Transport and Communication 67

Roads

Road transport is the most economical for shortdistances compared to railways. Freighttransport by road is gaining importancebecause it offers door-to-door service. Butunmetalled roads, though simple inconstruction, are not effective and serviceablefor all seasons. During the rainy season thesebecome unmotorable and even the metalledones are seriously handicapped during heavyrains and floods. In such conditions, the highembankment of rail-tracks and the efficientmaintenance of railway transport service, is aneffective solution. But the rail kilometrage beingsmall cannot serve the needs of vast anddeveloping countries at a low cost. Roads,therefore, play a vital role in a nation’s tradeand commerce and for promoting tourism.

The quality of the roads varies greatlybetween developed and developing countriesbecause road construction and maintenancerequire heavy expenditure. In developedcountries good quality roads are universal andprovide long-distance links in the form ofmotorways, autobahns (Germany), and inter–state highways for speedy movement. Lorries,of increasing size and power to carry heavyloads, are common. But unfortunately, theworld’s road system is not well developed.

The world’s total motorable road lengthis only about 15 million km, of which NorthAmerica accounts for 33 per cent. The highestroad density and the highest number ofvehicles are registered in this continentcompared to Western Europe.

Table 8.1: Length of the Roads

Sl. Countries For everyNo. 100 km2

area

1. India 1052. Japan 3273. France 1644. U.K. 1625. U.S.A. 676. Spain 687. Sri Lanka 151

Source : Encyclopedia Britannica – Year Book, 2005.

Traffic Flows: Traffic on roads hasincreased dramatically in recent years. When

the road network cannot cope with the demandsof traffic, congestion occurs. City roads sufferfrom chronic traffic congestion. Peaks (highpoints) and troughs (low points) of traffic flowcan be seen on roads at particular times of theday, for example, peaks occurring during therush hour before and after work. Most of thecities in the world have been facing the problemof congestion.

Think on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for aThink on these lines for abetter tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .better tomorrow . . .

URBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONSURBAN TRANSPORT SOLUTIONS

Higher Parking Fee

Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)

Improved Public Bus Service

Expressways

Highways

Highways are metalled roads connecting distantplaces. They are constructed in a manner forunobstructed vehicular movement. As suchthese are 80 m wide, with separate traffic lanes,bridges, flyovers and dual carriageways tofacilitate uninterrupted traffic flow. In developedcountries, every city and port town is linkedthrough highways.

Fig. 8.3 : Dharmavaram Tuni National Highway,India

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In North America, highway density is high,about 0.65 km per sq km. Every place is within20 km distance from a highway. Cities locatedon the Pacific coast (west) are well-connectedwith those of the Atlantic Coast (east). Likewise,the cities of Canada in the north are linked withthose of Mexico in the south. The Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver in BritishColumbia(west coast) to St. John’s City inNewfoundland (east coast) and the AlaskanHighway links Edmonton (Canada) toAnchorage (Alaska).

The Pan-American Highway, a largeportion of which has been constructed, willconnect the countries of South America, CentralAmerica and U.S.A.-Canada. The Trans-Continental Stuart Highway connects Darwin(north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant Creekand Alice Springs in Australia.

Europe has a large number of vehicles anda well-developed highway network. Buthighways face a lot of competition from railwaysand waterways.

In Russia, a dense highway network isdeveloped in the industrialised region west ofthe Urals with Moscow as the hub. Theimportant Moscow-Vladivostok Highway servesthe region to the east. Due to the vastgeographical area, highways in Russia are notas important as railways.

In China, highways criss-cross the countryconnecting all major cities such as Tsungtso(near Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (centralChina), Guangzhou (south) and Beijing (north).A new highway links Chengdu with Lhasa inTibet.

In India, there are many highwayslinking the major towns and cities. Forexample, National Highway No. 7 (NH 7),connecting Varanasi with Kanya Kumari, isthe longest in the country. The GoldenQuadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway isunderway to connect the four metropolitancities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore,Chennai, Kolkata and Hyderabad.

In Africa, a highway joins Algiers in thenorth to Conakry in Guinea. Similarly, Cairois also connected to Cape Town.

Border Roads

Roads laid along international boundaries arecalled border roads. They play an importantrole in integrating people in remote areas withmajor cities and providing defence. Almost allcountries have such roads to transport goodsto border villages and military camps.

Railways

Railways are a mode of land transport forbulky goods and passengers over longdistances. The railway gauges vary in differentcountries and are roughly classified as broad(more than 1.5 m), standard (1.44 m), metregauge (1 m) and smaller gauges. The standardgauge is used in the U.K.

Commuter trains are very popular in U.K.,U.S.A, Japan and India. These carry millionsof passengers daily to and fro in the city. Thereare about 13 lakh km of railways open for trafficin the world.

Fig. 8.4: Tube Train in Vienna

Table 8.2: Total Length of Railways in SelectedCountries (in 100 sq km)

Sl. Countries For everyNo. 100/km2 area

1. U.S.A. 278.32. Russia 160.83. India 144.74. Canada 93.55. Germany 90.86. China 70.17. Australia 40.08. U.K. 37.99. France 34.5

10. Brazil 30.1

Source : Encyclopaedia Britanica – Year Book, 2005.

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Europe has one of the most dense railnetworks in the world. There are about4,40,000 km of railways, most of which isdouble or multiple-tracked. Belgium has thehighest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5sq kms area. The industrial regions exhibitsome of the highest densities in the world. Theimportant rail heads are London, Paris,Brussels, Milan, Berlin and Warsaw. Passengertransport is more important than freight inmany of these countries. Underground railwaysare important in London and Paris. ChannelTunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Groupthrough England, connects London with Paris.Trans-continental railway lines have now losttheir importance to quicker and more flexibletransport systems of airways and roadways.

In Russia, railways account for about 90per cent of the country’s total transport with avery dense network west of the Urals. Moscowis the most important rail head with major linesradiating to different parts of the country’s vastgeographical area. Underground railways andcommuter trains are also important in Moscow.

North America has one of the mostextensive rail networks accounting for nearly40 per cent of the world’s total? In contrast tomany European countries, the railways areused more for long-distance bulky freight likeores, grains, timber and machinery than forpassengers. The most dense rail network isfound in the highly industrialised andurbanised region of East Central U.S.A. andadjoining Canada.

In Canada, railways are in the publicsector and distributed all over the sparselypopulated areas. The transcontinental railwayscarry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage.

Australia has about 40,000 km ofrailways, of which 25 per cent are found in NewSouth Wales alone. The west-east AustralianNational Railway line runs across the countryfrom Perth to Sydney. New Zealand’s railwaysare mainly in the North Island to serve thefarming areas.

In South America, the rail network is themost dense in two regions, namely, the Pampasof Argentina and the coffee growing region ofBrazil which together account for 40 per cent

of South America’s total route length. Only Chile,among the remaining countries has aconsiderable route length linking coastal centreswith the mining sites in the interior. Peru, Bolivia,Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have shortsingle-track rail-lines from ports to the interiorwith no inter-connecting links.

There is only one trans-continental railroute linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) withValparaiso (Chile) across the Andes Mountainsthrough the Uspallatta Pass located at a heightof 3,900 m.

In Asia, rail network is the most dense inthe thickly populated areas of Japan, China andIndia. Other countries have relatively few railroutes. West Asia is the least developed in railfacilities because of vast deserts and sparselypopulated regions.

Africa continent, despite being thesecond largest, has only 40,000 km ofrailways with South Africa alone accountingfor 18,000 km due to the concentration ofgold, diamond and copper mining activities.The important routes of the continent are: (i)the Benguela Railway through Angola toKatanga-Zambia Copper Belt; (ii) the TanzaniaRailway from the Zambian Copper Belt toDar-es-Salaam on the coast; (iii) the Railwaythrough Botswana and Zimbabwe linking thelandlocked states to the South Africannetwork; and (iv) the Blue Train from CapeTown to Pretoria in the Republic of SouthAfrica. Elsewhere, as in Algeria, Senegal,Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia, railway linesconnect port cities to interior centres but donot form a good network with other countries.

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Trans–Continental Railways

Trans–continental railways run across thecontinent and link its two ends. They wereconstructed for economic and political reasonsto facilitate long runs in different directions.The following are the most important of these:

Trans–Siberian Railway

This is a trans–siberian Railways major railroute of Russia runs from St. Petersburg in thewest to Vladivostok on the Pacific Coast in theeast passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk,Irkutsk, Chita and Khabarovsk. It is the mostimportant route in Asia and the longest (9,332km) double-tracked and electrified trans–continental railway in the world. It has helpedin opening up its Asian region to West Europeanmarkets. It runs across the Ural Mountains Oband Yenisei rivers Chita is an important agro-

Fig. 8.5: Trans–Siberian Railway

centre and Irkutsk, a fur centre. There areconnecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa(Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast,Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia),and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China.

Trans–Canadian Railways

This 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs fromHalifax in the east to Vancouver on the PacificCoast passing through Montreal, Ottawa,Winnipeg and Calgary (Fig. 8.6). It wasconstructed in 1886, initially as part of anagreement to make British Columbia on the westcoast join the Federation of States. Later on, itgained economic significance because itconnected the Quebec-Montreal IndustrialRegion with the wheat belt of the Prairie Regionand the Coniferous Forest region in the north.Thus each of these regions becamecomplementary to the other. A loop line from

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Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior)connects this rail-line with one of the importantwaterways of the world. This line is the economicartery of Canada. Wheat and meat are theimportant exports on this route.

The Union and Pacific Railway

This rail-line connects New York on the AtlanticCoast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coastpassing through Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha,Evans, Ogden and Sacramento. The mostvaluable exports on this route are ores, grain,paper, chemicals and machinery.

The Australian Trans–ContinentalRailwayThis rail-line runs west-east across the southernpart of the continent from Perth on the westcoast, to Sydney on the east coast. passingthrough Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and PortAugusta (Fig. 8.7).

Another major north-south line connectsAdelaide and Alice Spring and to be joinedfurther to the Darwin–Birdum line.

The Orient Express

This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passingthrough Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna,Budapest and Belgrade. The journey time fromLondon to Istanbul by this Express is nowreduced to 96 hours as against 10 days by thesea-route. The chief exports on this rail-routeare cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, andmachinery.

There is a proposal to build a Trans–AsiaticRailway linking Istanbul with Bangkok viaIran, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh andMyanmar.

WAWAWAWAWATER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTER TRANSPORTTTTT

One of the great advantages of watertransportation is that it does not require routeconstruction. The oceans are linked with each

Fig. 8.6: Trans–Canadian Railway

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other and are negotiable with ships of varioussizes. All that is needed is to provide portfacilities at the two ends. It is much cheaperbecause the friction of water is far less than thatof land. The energy cost of water transportationis lower. Water transport is divided into searoutes and inland waterways.

Fig. 8.8: The view of Seine River from the EiffelTower (One can see how the river has become an

important Inland waterway)

Sea Routes

The oceans offer a smooth highway traversablein all directions with no maintenance costs. Itstransformation into a routeway by sea-goingvessels is an important development in humanadaptation to the physical environment.Compared to land and air, ocean transport is acheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) ofbulky material over long distances from onecontinent to another.

Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargoships are equipped with radar, wireless and othernavigation aids. The development of refrigeratedchambers for perishable goods, tankers andspecialised ships has also improved cargotransport. The use of containers has made cargohandling at the world’s major ports easier.

Important Sea Routes

Major sea routes are shown in the Fig. 8.9. Someimportant routes have been discussed in thefollowing pages.

Fig. 8.7: Australian Trans–Continental Railway

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The Northern Atlantic Sea Route

This links North-eastern U.S.A. and North-western Europe, the two industrially developedregions of the world. The foreign trade over thisroute is greater than that of the rest of the worldcombined. One fourth of the world’s foreigntrade moves on this route. It is, therefore, thebusiest in the world and otherwise, called theBig Trunk Route. Both the coasts have highlyadvanced ports and harbour facilities.

Find out some of the important ports on the coast ofU.S.A. and Western Europe in your atlas.

The Mediterranean–Indian Ocean SeaRoute

This sea route passes through the heart of theOld World and serves more countries and peoplethan any other route. Port Said, Aden, Mumbai,Colombo and Singapore are some of theimportant ports on this route. The construction

of Suez canal has greatly reduced the distanceand time as compared to the earlier routethrough the Cape of Good Hope.

This trade route connects the highlyindustrialised Western European region with WestAfrica, South Africa, South-east Asia and thecommercial agriculture and livestock economiesof Australia and New Zealand. Before theconstruction of the Suez Canal this was theroute connecting Liverpool and Colombo whichwas 6,400 km longer than the Suez Canalroute. The volume of trade and traffic betweenboth East and West Africa is on the increasedue to the development of the rich naturalresources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin,groundnut, oil palm, coffee and fruits.

The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route

This sea route is another important one acrossthe Atlantic Ocean which connects WestEuropean and West African countries withBrazil, Argentina and Uruguay in SouthAmerica. The traffic is far less on this route

Fig. 8.9: Major Sea Routes and Sea Ports

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compared to that of the North Atlantic Routebecause of the limited development andpopulation in South America and Africa. Onlysoutheastern Brazil and Plata estuary andparts of South Africa have large-scale industries.There is also little traffic on the route betweenRio de Janeiro and Cape Town because bothSouth America and Africa have similarproducts and resources.

Trade across the vast North Pacific Oceanmoves by several routes which converge atHonolulu. The direct route on the Great Circlelinks Vancouver and Yokohama and reducesthe travelling distance (2,480 km) by half.

The North Pacific Sea Route

This sea route links the ports on the west-coastof North America with those of Asia. These areVancouver, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco andLos Angeles on the American side andYokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manilaand Singapore on the Asian side.

The South Pacific Sea Route

This sea route connects Western Europe andNorth America with Australia, New Zealand andthe scattered Pacific islands via the PanamaCanal. This route is also used for reaching HongKong, Philippines and Indonesia. The distancecovered between Panama and Sydney is12,000 km. Honolulu is an important port onthis route.

Coastal Shipping

It is obvious that water transport is a cheapermode. While oceanic routes connect differentcountries, coastal shipping is a convenientmode of transportation with long coastlines,e.g. U.S.A, China and India. Shenzhen Statesin Europe are most suitably placed for coastalshipping connecting one member’s coast withthe other. If properly developed, coastal shippingcan reduce the congestion on the land routes.

Shipping Canals

The Suez and the Panama Canals are two vitalman-made navigation canals or waterwayswhich serve as gateways of commerce for both

the eastern and western worlds.

The Suez Canal

This canal had been constructed in 1869 inEgypt between Port Said in the north and PortSuez in the south linking the MediterraneanSea and the Red Sea. It gives Europe a newgateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces directsea-route distance between Liverpool andColombo compared to the Cape of Good Hoperoute. It is a sea-level canal without lockswhich is about 160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.About 100 ships travel daily and each shiptakes 10-12 hours to cross this canal. The tollsare so heavy that some find it cheaper to go bythe longer Cape Route whenever theconsequent delay is not important. A railwayfollows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailiathere is a branch line to Cairo. A navigablefresh-water canal from the Nile also joins the

Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water toPort Said and Suez.

Fig. 8.10 : Suez Canal

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The Panama Canal

This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in theeast to the Pacific Ocean in the west. It has beenconstructed across the Panama Isthmusbetween Panama City and Colon by the U.S.government which purchased 8 km of area oneither side and named it the Canal Zone. TheCanal is about 72 km. long and involves a verydeep cutting for a length of 12 km. It has a six-lock system and ships cross the different levels(26 m up and down) through these locks beforeentering the Gulf of Panama.

It shortens the distance between New Yorkand San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.Likewise the distance between Western Europeand the West-coast of U.S.A.; and North-easternand Central U.S.A. and East and South-eastAsia is shortened. The economic significance ofthis Canal is relatively less than that of theSuez. However, it is vital to the economies ofLatin America.

Inland Waterways

Rivers, canals, lakes and coastal areas havebeen important waterways since timeimmemorial. Boats and steamers are used asmeans of transport for cargo and passengers.The development of inland waterways isdependent on the navigability width and depthof the channel, continuity in the water flow,and transport technology in use. Rivers arethe only means of transport in dense forests.Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber andmetallic ores can be transported through inlandwaterways. In ancient times, riverways were themain highways of transportation as in the caseof India. But they lost importance because ofcompetition from railways, lack of water due todiversion for irrigation, and their poormaintenance.

Fig. 8.11 : The Panama Canal

Can you think of the impact on traffic in Panamacanal after the Nicaraguan canal opens up?

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Fig. 8.12: Inland waterways are a major sourceof transport wherever the river is wide, deep

and free of silt

The significance of rivers as inlandwaterways for domestic and internationaltransport and trade has been recognisedthroughout the developed world. Despiteinherent limitations, many rivers have beenmodified to enhance their navigability bydredging, stabilising river banks, and buildingdams and barrages for regulating the flow ofwater. The following river waterways are someof the world’s important highways of commerce.

The Rhine Waterways

The Rhine flows through Germany and theNetherlands. It is navigable for 700 km fromRotterdam, at its mouth in the Netherlands toBasel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels canreach up to Cologne. The Ruhr river joins theRhine from the east. It flows through a richcoalfield and the whole basin has become aprosperous manufacturing area. Dusseldorf isthe Rhine port for this region. Huge tonnagemoves along the stretch south of the Ruhr. Thiswaterway is the world’s most heavily used. Eachyear more than 20,000 ocean-going ships and2,00,000 inland vessels exchange their cargoes.It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland,Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlandswith the North Atlantic Sea Route.

The Danube Waterway

This important inland waterway serves EasternEurope. The Danube river rises in the Black

Forest and flows eastwards through manycountries. It is navigable up to Taurna Severin.The chief export items are wheat, maize, timber,and machinery.

The Volga Waterway

Russia has a large number of developedwaterways, of which the Volga is one of the mostimportant. It provides a navigable waterway of11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with theMoscow region and the Volga-Don Canal withthe Black Sea.

The Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Seaway

The Great Lakes of North America Superior,Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by SooCanal and Welland Canal to form an inlandwaterway. The estuary of St. Lawrence River,along with the Great Lakes, forms a uniquecommercial waterway in the northern part ofNorth America. The ports on this route likeDuluth and Buffalo are equipped with allfacilities of ocean ports. As such large ocean-going vessels are able to navigate up the river

Fig. 8.13: The Rhine Waterway

Fig. 8.14 : Rhine Waterway

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operations require elaborate infrastructure likehangars, landing, fuelling, and maintenancefacilities for the aircrafts. The construction ofairports is also very expensive and has developedmore in highly industrialised countries wherethere is a large volume of traffic.

At present no place in the world is morethan 35 hours away. This startling fact has beenmade possible due to people who build and flyairplanes. Travel by air can now be measuredby hours and minutes instead of years andmonths. Frequent air services are available tomany parts of the world. Although, U.K.pioneered the use of commercial jet transport,U.S.A. developed largely post-War internationalcivil aviation. Today, more than 250commercial airlines offer regular services todifferent parts of the world. Recentdevelopments can change the future course ofair transport. Supersonic aircraft, cover thedistance between London and New York withinthree and a half hours.

Inter-Continental Air Routes

In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distincteast-west belt of inter-continental air routes.Dense network exists in Eastern U.S.A., WesternEurope and Southeast Asia. U.S.A. aloneaccounts for 60 per cent of the airways of theworld. New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam,Frankfurt Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi,Mumbai, Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, SanFrancisco, Los Angeles and Chicago are thenodal points where air routes converge orradiate to all continents.

Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and SouthAmerica lack air services. There are limited airservices between 10-35 latitudes in theSouthern hemisphere due to sparserpopulation, limited landmass and economicdevelopment.

PIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINESPIPELINES

Pipelines are used extensively to transportliquids and gases such as water, petroleumand natural gas for an uninterrupted flow.Water supplied through pipelines is familiarto all. Cooking gas or LPG is supplied through

deep inside the continent to Montreal. But heregoods have to be trans-shipped to smallervessels due to the presence of rapids. Canalshave been constructed up to 3.5 m deep toavoid these.

The Mississippi Waterways

The Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects theinterior part of U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexicoin the south. Large steamers can go throughthis route up to Minneapolis.

AIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORAIR TRANSPORTTTTT

Air transport is the fastest means oftransportation, but it is very costly. Being fast,it is preferred by passengers for long-distancetravel. Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly ona world-wide scale. It is often the only meansto reach inaccessible areas. Air transport hasbrought about a connectivity revolution in theworld. The frictions created by mountainoussnow fields or inhospitable desert terrains havebeen overcome. The accessibility has increased.The airplane brings varied articles to theEskimos in Northern Canada unhindered bythe frozen ground. In the Himalayan region, theroutes are often obstructed due to landslides,avalanches or heavy snow fall. At such times,air travel is the only alternative to reach a place.Airways also have great strategic importance.The air strikes by U.S. and British forces in Iraqbears testimony to this fact. The airwaysnetwork is expanding very fast.

Fig. 8.15: An Aeroplane at Salsburg Airport

The manufacturing of aircrafts and their

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pipelines in many parts of the world. Pipelinescan also be used to transport liquidified coal.In New Zealand, milk is being supplied throughpipelines from farms to factories.

In U.S.A. there is a dense network of oilpipelines from the producing areas to theconsuming areas. Big Inch is one such famouspipeline, which carries petroleum from the oilwells of the Gulf of Mexico to the North-easternStates. About 17 per cent of all freight pertonne-km. is carried through pipelines in U.S.A.

Fig. 8.17: Pipelines transporting natural gas

in Ukraine

In Europe, Russia, West Asia and Indiapipelines are used to connect oil wells torefineries, and to ports or domestic markets.Turkmenistan is central Asia has extendedpipelines to Iran and also to parts of China.

The proposed Iran-India via Pakistaninternational oil and natural gas pipeline willbe the longest in the world.

COMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICACOMMUNICATIONSTIONSTIONSTIONSTIONS

Human beings have used different methodslong-distance communications of which thetelegraph and the telephone were important.The telegraph was instrumental in thecolonisation of the American West. During theearly and mid-twentieth century, the AmericanTelegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.’s telephoneindustry. In fact, the telephone became a criticalfactor in the urbanisation of America. Firmscentralised their functioning at city-headquarters and located their branch officesin smaller towns. Even today, the telephone isthe most commonly used mode. In developing

Fig. 8.16: Major Airports

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countries, the use of cell phones, made possibleby satellites, is important for rural connectivity.

Today there is a phenomenal pace ofdevelopment. The first major breakthrough isthe use of optic fiber cables (OFC). Faced withmounting competition, telephone companies allover the world soon upgraded their copper cablesystems to include optic fiber cables. Theseallow large quantities of data to be transmittedrapidly, securely, and are virtually error-free.With the digitisation of information in the 1990s,telecommunication slowly merged withcomputers to form integrated networks termedas Internet.

Satellite Communication

Today Internet is the largest electronic networkon the planet connecting about 1,000 millionpeople in more than 100 countries.

Satellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manySatellites touch human lives in manywayswayswayswaysways. Every time you use a cell phone tocall a friend, send an SMS or watch apopular programme on cable television. Youare using satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.satellite communication.

Communication through satellitesemerged as a new area in communicationtechnology since the 1970s after U.S.A. andformer U.S.S.R. pioneered space research.Artificial satellites, now, are successfullydeployed in the earth’s orbit to connect eventhe remote corners of the globe with limited on-site verification. These have rendered the unitcost and time of communication invariant interms of distance. This means it costs the sameto communicate over 500 km as it does over5,000 km via satellite

India has also made great strides insatellite development. Aryabhatt was launchedon 19 April 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 andRohini in 1980. On 18 June 1981, APPLE(Arian Passenger Payload Experiment) waslaunched through Arian rocket. Bhaskar,Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long-distance communication, television and radiovery effective. Today weather forecastingthrough television is a boon.

Cyber Space – Internet

Cyberspace is the world of electroniccomputerised space. It is encompassed by theInternet such as the World Wide Web (www).In simple words, it is the electronic digitalworld for communicating or accessinginformation over computer networks withoutphysical movement of the sender and thereceiver... It is also referred to as the Internet.Cyberspace exists everywhere. It may be inan office, sailing boat, flying plane and virtuallyanywhere.

The speed at which this electronic networkhas spread is unprecedented in human history.There were less than 50 million Internet usersin 1995, about 400 million in 2000 A.D. andover one billion in 2005. The next billion usersare to be added by 2010. In the last five yearsthere has been a shift among global users fromU.S.A. to the developing countries. Thepercentage share of U.S.A. has dropped from66 in 1995 to only 25 in 2005. Now the majorityof the world’s users are in U.S.A., U.K.,Germany, Japan, China and India.

As billions use the Internet each year,cyberspace will expand the contemporaryeconomic and social space of humans throughe-mail, e-commerce, e-learning ande-governance. Internet together with fax,television and radio will be accessible to moreand more people cutting across place and time.It is these modern communication systems,more than transportation, that has made theconcept of global village a reality.

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(i) The Trans–Continental Stuart Highway runs between

(a) Darwin and Melbourne

(b) Edmonton and Anchorage

(c) Vancouver and St. John’s City

(d) Chengdu and Lhasa

(ii) Which country has the highest density of railway network?

(a) Brazil (c) Canada

(b) U.S.A (d) Russia

(iii) The Big Trunk Route runs through

(a) The Mediterranean – Indian ocean

(b) The North Atlantic Ocean

(c) The South Atlantic Ocean

(d) The North Pacific Ocean

(iv) The Big Inch pipeline transports

(a) Milk (c) Water

(b) Liquid petroleum gas (LGP) (d) Petroleum

(v) Which one pair of the following places is linked by Channel Tunnel?

(a) London – Berlin (c) Berlin – Paris

(b) Paris – London (d) Barcelona – Berlin


(i) What are the problems of road transport in mountainous, desert andflood prone regions?

(ii) What is a trans–continental railway?

(iii) What are the advantages of water transport?


(i) Elucidate the statement– “In a well managed transport system, variousmodes complement each other”.

(ii) Which are the major regions of the world having a dense network ofairways.

(iii) What are the modes by which cyber space will expand the contemporaryeconomic and social space of humans.

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International Trade

You are already familiar with the term “trade”as a tertiary activity which you have studied inChapter 7 of this book. You know that trademeans the voluntary exchange of goods andservices. Two parties are required to trade. Oneperson sells and the other purchases. In certainplaces, people barter their goods. For both theparties trade is mutually beneficial.

Trade may be conducted at two levels:international and national. International tradeis the exchange of goods and services amongcountries across national boundaries.Countries need to trade to obtain commodities,they cannot produce themselves or they canpurchase elsewhere at a lower price.

The initial form of trade in primitivesocieties was the barter system, where directexchange of goods took place. In this system ifyou were a potter and were in need of a plumber,you would have to look for a plumber whowould be in need of pots and you couldexchange your pots for his plumbing service.

Fig. 9.1: Two women practising barter system inJon Beel Mela

Every January after the harvest season Jon Beel Melatakes place in Jagiroad, 35 km away from Guwahatiand it is possibly the only fair In India, where bartersystem is still alive. A big market is organised duringthis fair and people from various tribes and communi-ties exchange their products.

The difficulties of barter system wereovercome by the introduction of money. In theolden times, before paper and coin currency

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came into being, rare objects with very highintrinsic value served as money, like,flintstones, obsidian, cowrie shells, tiger’spaws, whale’s teeth, dogs teeth, skins, furs,cattle, rice, peppercorns, salt, small tools,copper, silver and gold.

The word salary comes from the Latin word Salariumwhich means payment by salt. As in those timesproducing salt from sea water was unknown and couldonly be made from rock salt which was rare andexpensive. That is why it became a mode of payment.

HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEHISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEHISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEHISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEHISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

In ancient times, transporting goods over longdistances was risky, hence trade was restrictedto local markets. People then spent most of theirresources on basic necessities – food andclothes. Only the rich people bought jewellery,costly dresses and this resulted in trade ofluxury items.

The Silk Route is an early example of longdistance trade connecting Rome to China –along the 6,000 km route. The traderstransported Chinese silk, Roman wool andprecious metals and many other high valuecommodities from intermediate points in India,Persia and Central Asia.

After the disintegration of the RomanEmpire, European commerce grew duringtwelfth and thirteenth century with thedevelopment of ocean going warships tradebetween Europe and Asia grew and theAmericas were discovered.

Fifteenth century onwards, the Europeancolonialism began and along with trade of exoticcommodities, a new form of trade emergedwhich was called slave trade. The Portuguese,Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured Africannatives and forcefully transported them to thenewly discovered Americas for their labour inthe plantations. Slave trade was a lucrativebusiness for more than two hundred years tillit was abolished in Denmark in 1792, GreatBritain in 1807 and United States in 1808.

Figure 9.2 : Advertisement for Slave Auction, 1829

This American slave auction advertised slaves for saleor temporary hire by their owners. Buyers often paid asmuch as $2,000 for a skilled, healthy slave. Such auc-tions often separated family members from one another,many of whom never saw their loved ones again.

After the Industrial Revolution the demandfor raw materials like grains, meat, wool alsoexpanded, but their monetary value declinedin relation to the manufactured goods.

The industrialised nations importedprimary products as raw materials andexported the value added finished productsback to the non-industrialised nations.

In the later half of the nineteenth century,regions producing primary goods were no moreimportant, and industrial nations became eachother’s principle customers.

During the World Wars I and II, countriesimposed trade taxes and quantitativerestrictions for the first time. During the post-war period, organisations like GeneralAgreement for Tariffs and Trade (which laterbecame the World Trade Organisation), helpedin reducing tariff.

Why Does International Trade Exist?

International trade is the result of specialisationin production. It benefits the world economy if

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International Trade 83

different countries practise specialisation anddivision of labour in the production ofcommodities or provision of services. Each kindof specialisation can give rise to trade. Thus,international trade is based on the principle ofcomparative advantage, complimentarity andtransferability of goods and services and inprinciple, should be mutually beneficial to thetrading partners.

In modern times, trade is the basis of theworld’s economic organisation and is relatedto the foreign policy of nations. With well-developed transportation and communicationsystems, no country is willing to forego thebenefits derived from participation ininternational trade.

Basis of International Trade

(i) Difference in national resources: Theworld’s national resources are unevenlydistributed because of differences in theirphysical make up i.e. geology, relief soiland climate.(a) Geological structure: It determines

the mineral resource base andtopographical differences ensurediversity of crops and animalsraised. Lowlands have greateragricultural potential. Mountainsattract tourists and promotetourism.

(b) Mineral resources: They areunevenly distributed the world over.The availability of mineral resourcesprovides the basis for industrialdevelopment.

(c) Climate: It influences the type of floraand fauna that can survive in a givenregion. It also ensures diversity inthe range of various products, e.g.wool production can take place incold regions, bananas, rubber andcocoa can grow in tropical regions.

(ii) Population factors: The size, distributionand diversity of people between countriesaffect the type and volume of goodstraded.(a) Cultural factors: Distinctive forms of

art and craft develop in certain

cultures which are valued the worldover, e.g. China produces the finestporcelains and brocades. Carpets ofIran are famous while North Africanleather work and Indonesian batikcloth are prized handicrafts.

(b) Size of population: Denselypopulated countries have largevolume of internal trade but littleexternal trade because most of theagricultural and industrialproduction is consumed in the localmarkets. Standard of living of thepopulation determines the demandfor better quality imported productsbecause with low standard of livingonly a few people can afford to buycostly imported goods.

(iii) Stage of economic development: Atdifferent stages of economic developmentof countries, the nature of items tradedundergo changes. In agriculturallyimportant countries, agro products areexchanged for manufactured goodswhereas industrialised nations exportmachinery and finished products andimport food grains and other rawmaterials.

(iv) Extent of foreign investment: Foreigninvestment can boost trade in developingcountries which lack in capital requiredfor the development of mining, oil drilling,heavy engineering, lumbering andplantation agriculture. By developingsuch capital intensive industries indeveloping countries, the industrialnations ensure import of food stuffs,minerals and create markets for theirfinished products. This entire cycle stepsup the volume of trade between nations.

(v) T ransport: In olden times, lack ofadequate and efficient means of transportrestricted trade to local areas. Only highvalue items, e.g. gems, silk and spiceswere traded over long distances. Withexpansions of rail, ocean and airtransport, better means of refrigerationand preservation, trade has experiencedspatial expansion.

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Important Aspects of InternationalTrade

International trade has three very importantaspects. These are volume, sectoral compositionand direction of trade.

Volume of Trade

The actual tonnage of goods traded makes upthe volume. However, services traded cannot bemeasured in tonnage. Therefore, the total valueof goods and services traded is considered tobe the volume of trade. Table 9.1 shows thatthe total volume of world trade has been steadilyrising over the past decades.

Why do you think that the volume of trade has increasedover the decades? Can these figures be compared?What has been the growth in the year 2005 over theyear 1955?

Composition of Trade

The nature of goods and services imported andexported by countries have undergone changesduring the last century.

Trade of primary products was dominantin the beginning of the last century. Latermanufactured goods gained prominence andcurrently, though the manufacturing sectorcommands the bulk of the global trade, servicesector which includes travel, transportation andother commercial services have been showingan upward trend.

Table 9.1: World Imports and Exports (in millions of U.S. $)

1980

0

1500

12000

10500

9000

7500

6000

4500

3000

82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 9820

000

1500

12000

10500

9000

7500

6000

4500

3000

Billion $Billion $ Goods

Services

Source: WTO, T rade Statistics, 2002.

Fig. 9.3: Exports of Goods and Services, 1980-2000

The share of different commodities in totalglobal trade can be seen in the graph below.

0 5 10 15 20

Machinery andTransport EquipmentFuels & Mining Road

Office/Telecome EquipmentChemicals

Automotive ProductsAgriculture Products

Other ManufacturesOther Semi–manufactures

Iron & SteelClothing

Textiles

Percentage to total value

Source: WTO, Trade Statistics, 2005

Fig. 9.4: World Merchandise Exports ByProducts, 2004

Looking at the graph above, we find thatmachinery and transport equipment, fuel andmining products, office and telecom equipment,chemicals, automobile parts, agricultural

1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005

Exports 95000 190000 877000 1954000 5162000 10393000

Total Merchandise

Imports 99000 199000 912000 2015000 5292000 10753000

Total Merchandise

Source: WTO, International Trade Statistics, 2005

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products, iron and steel, clothing and textilesmake up the major items of merchandise whichare traded over the world. Trade in the servicesector is quite different from trade in theproducts of primary and manufacturing sectorsas the services can be expanded infinitely,consumed by many, are weightless and onceproduced, can be easily replicated and thus,are capable of generating more profit thanproducing goods. There are four different waysthrough which services can be supplied. Table9.2 shows different types of services and theshare of those services supplied to theinternational market.

Table 9.2 : Services and their Share to theInternational Market

Relevant Services Share in %

Commercial services excludingtravel and construction services. 35Travel 10 to 15Construction services 50Labour flow 1 to 2

Direction of Trade

Historically, the developing countries of thepresent used to export valuable goods andartefacts, etc. which were exported to Europeancountries. During the nineteenth century therewas a reversal in the direction of trade.European countries started exportingmanufactured goods for exchange of foodstuffsand raw materials from their colonies. Europeand U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners inthe world and were leaders in the trade ofmanufactured goods. Japan at that time wasalso the third important trading country. Theworld trade pattern underwent a drastic changeduring the second half of the twentieth century.Europe lost its colonies while India, China andother developing countries started competingwith developed countries. The nature of thegoods traded has also changed.

Balance of Trade

Balance of trade records the volume of goodsand services imported as well as exported by acountry to other countries. If the value ofimports is more than the value of a country’s

exports, the country has negative orunfavourable balance of trade. If the value ofexports is more than the value of imports, thenthe country has a positive or favourable balanceof trade.

Balance of trade and balance of paymentshave serious implications for a country’seconomy. A negative balance would mean thatthe country spends more on buying goods thanit can earn by selling its goods. This wouldultimately lead to exhaustion of its financialreserves.

Types of International Trade

International trade may be categorised into twotypes:

(a) Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is doneby two countries with each other. Theyenter into agreement to trade specifiedcommodities amongst them. Forexample, country A may agree to tradesome raw material with agreement topurchase some other specified item tocountry B or vice versa.

(b) Multi-lateral trade: As the term suggestsmulti-lateral trade is conducted withmany trading countries. The samecountry can trade with a number ofother countries. The country may alsogrant the status of the “Most FavouredNation” (MFN) on some of the tradingpartners.

Case for Free Trade

The act of opening up economies for trading isknown as free trade or trade liberalisation. Thisis done by bringing down trade barriers liketariffs. Trade liberalisation allows goods andservices from everywhere to compete withdomestic products and services.

Globalisation along with free trade canadversely affect the economies of developingcountries by not giving equal playing field byimposing conditions which are unfavourable.With the development of transport andcommunication systems goods and services cantravel faster and farther than ever before. Butfree trade should not only let rich countriesenter the markets, but allow the developed

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countries to keep their own markets protectedfrom foreign products.

Countries also need to be cautious aboutdumped goods; as along with free tradedumped goods of cheaper prices can harm thedomestic producers.

DumpingDumpingDumpingDumpingDumping

The practice of selling a commodity in twocountries at a price that differs for reasonsnot related to costs is called dumping.

World Trade Organisation

In1948, to liberalise the world from highcustoms tariffs and various other types ofrestrictions, General Agreement for Tariffs andTrade (GATT) was formed by some countries.In 1994, it was decided by the member

countries to set up a permanent institution forlooking after the promotion of free and fair tradeamongst nation and the GATT was transformedinto the World Trade Organisation from 1st

January 1995.WTO is the only international organisation

dealing with the global rules of trade betweennations. It sets the rules for the global tradingsystem and resolves disputes between itsmember nations. WTO also covers trade inservices, such as telecommunication andbanking, and others issues such as intellectualrights.

The WTO has however been criticised andopposed by those who are worried about theeffects of free trade and economic globalisation.It is argued that free trade does not makeordinary people’s lives more prosperous. It isactually widening the gulf between rich andpoor by making rich countries more rich. Thisis because the influential nations in the WTOfocus on their own commercial interests.Moreover, many developed countries have notfully opened their markets to products fromdeveloping countries. It is also argued thatissues of health, worker’s rights, child labourand environment are ignored.

WTO Headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.

149 countries were members of WTO as on December2005.

India has been one of the founder member of WTO.

Regional Trade Blocs

Regional Trade Blocs have come up in order toencourage trade between countries withgeographical proximity, similarity andcomplementarities in trading items and to curbrestrictions on trade of the developing world.Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 percent of the world trade. These trading blocsdeveloped as a response to the failure of the globalorganisations to speed up intra-regional trade.

Though, these regional blocs remove tradetariffs within the member nations and

Think of some reasons why dumping is becoming aserious concern among trading nations?

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encourage free trade, in the future it could getincreasingly difficult for free trade to take place

between different trading blocs. Some majorregional trade blocs have been listed in Table 9.3.

Table 9.3: Major Regional Trade

RegionalBlocs

ASEAN(Association ofSouth East AsianNations)

CIS(Commonwealthof IndependentStates)

EU(European Union)

LAIA(Latin AmericanIntegrationAssociation)

NAFTA(North AmericanFree TradeAssociation)

OPEC(Organisation ofPetroleumExportingCountries)

SAFTA(South AsianFree TradeAgreement)

HeadQuarter

Jakarta,Indonesia

Minsk,Belarus

Brussels,Belgium

Montevideo,Uruguay

Vienna,Austria

Membernations

Brunei,Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Thailand,Vietnam

Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus, Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Moldova, Russia,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Ukraine andUzbekistan.

Austria, Belgium,Denmark,France, Finland,Ireland, Italy, theNetherlands,Luxemburg,Portugal, Spain,Sweden and U.K.

Argentina, Bolivia,Brazil, Columbia,Ecuador, Mexico,Paraguay, Peru,Uruguay andVenezuela

U.S.A., Canadaand Mexico

Algeria,Indonesia, Iran,Iraq, Kuwait,Libya, Nigeria,Qatar, SaudiArabia, U.A.E.and Venezuela

Bangladesh,Maldives, Bhutan,Nepal, India,Pakistan and SriLanka

Origin

Aug, 1967

—

EEC-March 1957EU - Feb. 1992

1960

1994

1949

Jan-2006

Commodities

Agro products,rubber, palm oil,rice, copra,coffee, minerals –copper, coal,nickel andtungsten. Energy– petroleum andnatural gas andSoftwareproducts

Crude oil, naturalgas, gold, cotton,fibre, aluminium

Agro products,minerals,chemicals, wood,paper, transportvehicles, opticalinstruments,clocks - works ofart, antiques

—

Agro products,motor vehicles,automotive parts,computers,textiles

Crude petroleum

—

Other Areasof

Cooperation

Accelerateeconomicgrowth,culturaldevelopment,peace andregionalstability

Integrationandcooperation onmatters ofeconomics,defence andforeign policy

Single marketwith singlecurrency

—

—

Coordinateand unifypetroleumpolicies.

Reduce tariffson inter-regional trade

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Concerns Related to International Trade

Undertaking international trade is mutuallybeneficial to nations if it leads to regionalspecialisation, higher level of production, betterstandard of living, worldwide availability ofgoods and services, equalisation of prices andwages and diffusion of knowledge and culture.

International trade can prove to bedetrimental to nations of it leads to dependenceon other countries, uneven levels ofdevelopment, exploitation, and commercialrivalry leading to wars. Global trade affectsmany aspects of life; it can impact everythingfrom the environment to health and well-beingof the people around the world. As countriescompete to trade more, production and the useof natural resources spiral up, resources getused up faster than they can be replenished.As a result, marine life is also depleting fast,forests are being cut down and river basins soldoff to private drinking water companies. Multi-national corporations trading in oil, gas mining,pharmaceuticals and agri-business keepexpanding their operations at all costs creatingmore pollution – their mode of work does notfollow the norms of sustainable development.If organisations are geared only towards profitmaking, and environmental and healthconcerns are not addressed, then it could leadto serious implications in the future.

GATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEGATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEGATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEGATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADEGATEWAYS OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

Ports

The chief gateways of the world of internationaltrade are the harbours and ports. Cargoes andtravellers pass from one part of the world toanother through these ports.

The ports provide facilities of docking,loading, unloading and the storage facilities forcargo. In order to provide these facilities, theport authorities make arrangements formaintaining navigable channels, arranging tugsand barges, and providing labour andmanagerial services. The importance of a portis judged by the size of cargo and the numberof ships handled. The quantity of cargo handledby a port is an indicator of the level ofdevelopment of its hinterland.

Fig. 9.5: San Francisco, the largest land-lockedharbour in the world

Types of Port

Generally, ports are classified according to thetypes of traffic which they handle.Types of port according to cargo handled:(i) Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in

bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil,chemicals and similar materials.

(ii) Commercial Ports: These ports handlegeneral cargo-packaged products andmanufactured good. These ports alsohandle passenger traffic.

Fig. 9.6: Leningrad Commercial Port

(iii) Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handlebulk and general cargo in large volumes.

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Most of the world’s great ports areclassified as comprehensive ports.

Types of port on the basis of location:

(i) Inland Ports: These ports are located awayfrom the sea coast. They are linked to thesea through a river or a canal. Such portsare accessible to flat bottom ships orbarges. For example, Manchester is linkedwith a canal; Memphis is located on theriver Mississippi; Rhine has several portslike Mannheim and Duisburg; andKolkata is located on the river Hoogli, abranch of the river Ganga.

(ii) Out Ports: These are deep water ports builtaway from the actual ports. These servethe parent ports by receiving those shipswhich are unable to approach them dueto their large size. Classic combination,for example, is Athens and its out portPiraeus in Greece.

Types of port on the basis of specialisedfunctions:

(i) Oil Ports: These ports deal in theprocessing and shipping of oil. Some ofthese are tanker ports and some arerefinery ports. Maracaibo in Venezuela,Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are

tanker ports. Abadan on the Gulf of Persiais a refinery port.

(ii) Ports of Call: These are the ports whichoriginally developed as calling points onmain sea routes where ships used toanchor for refuelling, watering and takingfood items. Later on, they developed intocommercial ports. Aden, Honolulu andSingapore are good examples.

(iii) Packet Station: These are also known asferry ports. These packet stations areexclusively concerned with thetransportation of passengers and mailacross water bodies covering shortdistances. These stations occur in pairslocated in such a way that they face eachother across the water body, e.g. Dover inEngland and Calais in France across theEnglish Channel.

(iv) Entrepot Ports: These are collection centreswhere the goods are brought from differentcountries for export. Singapore is anentrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe,and Copenhagen for the Baltic region.

(v) Naval Ports: These are ports which haveonly strategic importance. These portsserve warships and have repair workshopsfor them. Kochi and Karwar are examplesof such ports in India.


1 . Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.(i) Most of the world’s great ports are classified as:

(a) Naval Ports (c) Comprehensive Ports

(b) Oil Ports (d) Industrial Ports

(ii) Which one of the following continents has the maximum flow of globaltrade?

(a) Asia (c) Europe

(b) North America (d) Africa

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(iii) Which one of the following South American nation, is a part of OPEC?

(a) Brazil (c) Venezuela

(b) Chile (d) Peru

(iv) In which of the following trade blocs, is India an associate member?

(a) SAFTA (c) ASEAN

(b) OECD (d) OPEC2 . Answer the following questions in about 30 words:

(i) What is the basic function of the World Trade Organisation?

(ii) Why is it detrimental for a nation to have negative balance of payments?

(iii) What benefits do nations get by forming trading blocs?3 . Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words:

(i) How are ports helpful for trade? Give a classification of ports on the basisof their location.

(ii) How do nations gain from International Trade?

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Unit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IVUnit-IVChapter-10

Human Settlements

We all live in clusters of houses. You may call ita village, a town or a city, all are examples ofhuman settlements. The study of humansettlements is basic to human geographybecause the form of settlement in any particularregion reflects human relationship with theenvironment. A human settlement is defined asa place inhabited more or less permanently. Thehouses may be designed or redesigned,buildings may be altered, functions may changebut settlement continues in time and space.There may be some settlements which aretemporary and are occupied for short periods,may be a season.

CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSCLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSCLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSCLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSCLASSIFICATION OF SETTLEMENTSRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMYRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMYRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMYRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMYRURAL URBAN DICHOTOMY

It is widely accepted that settlements can bedifferentiated in terms of rural and urban, butthere is no consensus on what exactly definesa village or a town. Although population size isan important criterion, it is not a universalcriterion since many villages in denselypopulated countries of India and China havepopulation exceeding that of some towns ofWestern Europe and United States.

At one time, people living in villagespursued agriculture or other primary activities,but presently in developed countries, largesections of urban populations prefer to live invillages even though they work in the city. Thebasic difference between towns and villages isthat in towns the main occupation of the peopleis related to secondary and tertiary sectors,while in the villages most of the people areengaged in primary occupations such asagriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, animalhusbandry, etc.

Sub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub UrbanisationSub Urbanisation

It is a new trend of people moving away fromcongested urban areas to cleaner areasoutside the city in search of a better qualityof living. Important suburbs develop aroundmajor cities and everyday thousands ofpeople commute from their homes in thesub urbs to their work places in the city.

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Differentiations between rural and urbanon the basis of functions are more meaningfuleven though there is no uniformity in thehierarchy of the functions provided by rural andurban settlements. Petrol pumps are consideredas a lower order function in the United Stateswhile it is an urban function in India. Evenwithin a country, rating of functions may varyaccording to the regional economy. Facilitiesavailable in the villages of developed countriesmay be considered rare in villages of developingand less developed countries.

The census of India, 1991 defines urbansettlements as “All places which havemunicipality, corporation, cantonment boardor notified town area committee and have aminimum population of 5000 persons, atleast 75 per cent of male workers areengaged in non-agricultural pursuits and adensity of population of at least 400 personsper square kilometers are urban.

TYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTSTYPES AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS

Settlements may also be classified by theirshape, patterns types. The major typesclassified by shape are:

(i) Compact or Nucleated settlements:These settlements are those in whichlarge number of houses are built veryclose to each other. Such settlementsdevelop along river valleys and in fertileplains. Communities are closely knitand share common occupations.

(ii) Dispersed Settlements: In thesesettlements, houses are spaced farapart and often interspersed with fields.A cultural feature such as a place ofworship or a market, binds thesettlement together.

Fig. 10.2: Dispersed Settlements

Rural Settlements

Rural settlements are most closely and directlyrelated to land. They are dominated by primaryactivities such as agriculture, animalhusbandary, fishing etc. The settlements sizeis relatively small.

Fig.10.1 : Compact Settlements

Fig. 10.3 : Siting near water

Water Supply

Usually rural settlements are located near waterbodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs wherewater can be easily obtained. Sometimes theneed for water drives people to settle in otherwisedisadvantaged sites such as islandssurrounded by swamps or low lying riverbanks. Most water based ‘wet point’ settlementshave many advantages such as water for

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Human Settlements 93

drinking, cooking and washing. Rivers andlakes can be used to irrigate farm land. Waterbodies also have fish which can be caught fordiet and navigable rivers and lakes can be usedfor transportation.

Land

People choose to settle near fertile lands suitablefor agriculture. In Europe villages grew up nearrolling country avoiding swampy, low lyingland while people in south east Asia chose tolive near low lying river valleys and coastalplains suited for wet rice cultivation. Earlysettlers chose plain areas with fertile soils.

Upland

Upland which is not prone to flooding waschosen to prevent damage to houses and lossof life. Thus, in low lying river basins peoplechose to settle on terraces and levees which are“dry points”. In tropical countries people buildtheir houses on stilts near marshy lands toprotect themselves from flood, insects andanimal pests.

Building Material

The availability of building materials- wood,stone near settlements is another advantage.Early villages were built in forest clearings wherewood was plentiful.

Defence

During the times of political instability, war,hostility of neighbouring groups villages werebuilt on defensive hills and islands. In Nigeria,upstanding inselbergs formed good defensivesites. In India most of the forts are located onhigher grounds or hills.

Planned Settlements

Sites that are not spontaneously chosen byvillagers themselves, planned settlements areconstructed by governments by providingshelter, water and other infrastructures onacquired lands. The scheme of villagisation inEthiopia and the canal colonies in IndiraGandhi canal command area in India are somegood examples.

Rural Settlement Patterns

Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way thehouses are sited in relation to each other. Thesite of the village, the surrounding topographyand terrain influence the shape and size of avillage.

Rural settlements may be classified on thebasis of a number of criteria:

(i) On the basis of setting: The main typesare plain villages, plateau villages,coastal villages, forest villages anddesert villages.

(ii) On the basis of functions: There maybe farming villages, fishermen’s villages,lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.

(iii) On the basis of forms or shapes of thesettlements: These may be a numberof geometrical forms and shapes suchas Linear, rectangular, circular starlike, T-shaped village, double village,cross-shaped village etc.

(a) Linear pattern: In such settlementshouses are located along a road,railway line, river, canal edge of a valleyor along a levee.

(b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns ofrural settlements are found in plainareas or wide inter montane valleys.The roads are rectangular and cut eachother at right angles.

In loess areas of China, cave dwellings wereimportant and African Savanna’s buildingmaterials were mud bricks and the Eskimos, inpolar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos.

Fig. 10.4 : House on stilts

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(c) Circular pattern: Circular villagesdevelop around lakes, tanks andsometimes the village is planned in sucha way that the central part remains openand is used for keeping the animals toprotect them from wild animals.

(d) Star like pattern: Where several roadsconverge, star shaped settlements developby the houses built along the roads.

(e) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped orcrucifor m settlements: T -shaped

settlements develop at tri-junctions of

the roads ( ) while -shapedsettlements emerge as the places wheretwo roads converge on the third oneand houses are built along these roads.Cruciform settlements develop on thecross-roads and houses extend in allthe four direction.

Fig.10.6 : Linear pattern settlement Fig.10.7 : Y shape settlement

Linear Pattern Cross-shape Pattern Star-like Pattern

T-Shape Pattern Circular Pattern Double Pattern

Railway

Bridge

Road

Temple

River

Village

Canal

Pond

Well

Tree

Fig. 10.5: Rural Settlement Patterns

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(f) Double village: These settlementsextend on both sides of a river wherethere is a bridge or a ferry.

Identify these patterns on any topographical sheet whichyou have studied in Practical Work in Geography, PartI (NCERT, 2006) in Class XI

Problems of Rural Settlements

Rural settlements in the developing countriesare large in number and poorly equipped withinfrastructure. They represent a great challengeand opportunity for planners.

Supply of water to rural settlements indeveloping countries is not adequate. Peoplein villages, particularly in mountainous andarid areas have to walk long distances to fetchdrinking water. Water borne diseases such ascholera and jaundice tend to be a commonproblem. The countries of South Asia faceconditions of drought and flood very often. Cropcultivation sequences, in the absence ofirrigation, also suffer.

The general absence of toilet and garbagedisposal facilities cause health related problems.

The design and use of building materialsof houses vary from one ecological region toanother. The houses made up of mud, woodand thatch, remain susceptible to damageduring heavy rains and floods, and requireproper maintenance every year. Most housedesigns are typically deficient in properventilation. Besides, the design of a houseincludes the animal shed along with its fodder-store within it. This is purposely done to keepthe domestic animals and their food properlyprotected from wild animals.

Unmetalled roads and lack of moderncommunication network creates a uniqueproblem. During rainy season, the settlementsremain cut off and pose serious difficulties inproviding emergency services. It is also difficultto provide adequate health and educationalinfrastructure for their large rural population.The problem is particularly serious whereproper villagisation has not taken place andhouses are scattered over a large area.

Urban Settlements

Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon.Until recent times, few settlements reached thepopulation size of more than a few thousandinhabitants. The first urban settlement to reacha population of one million was the city ofLondon by around. A.D. 1810 By 1982approximately 175 cities in the world hadcrossed the one million population mark.Presently 48 per cent of the world’s populationlives in urban settlements compared to only 3per cent in the year 1800 (Table 10.1).

Classification of Urban Settlements

The definition of urban areas varies from onecountry to another. Some of the common basisof classification are size of population,occupational structure and administrativesetup.

Population Size

It is an important criteria used by most countriesto define urban areas. The lower limit of thepopulation size for a settlement to be designatedas urban is 1,500 in Colombia, 2,000 inArgentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. andThailand, 5,000 in India and 30,000 in Japan.Besides the size of population, density of 400persons per sq km and share of non-agriculturalworkers are taken into consideration in India.Countries with low density of population maychoose a lower number as the cut-off figurecompared to densely populated countries. InDenmark, Sweden and Finland, all places witha population size of 250 persons are calledurban. The minimum population for a city is

Year Percentage

1800 3

1850 6

1900 14

1950 30

1982 37

2001 48

Table 10.1: Percentage of World’s Population Livingin Urban Areas

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300 in Iceland, whereas in Canada andVenezuela, it is 1,000 persons.

Occupational Structure

In some countries, such as India, the majoreconomic activities in addition to the size of thepopulation in designating a settlement as urbanare also taken as a criterion. Similarly, in Italy, asettlement is called urban, if more than 50 percent of its economically productive populationis engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. Indiahas set this criterion at 75 per cent.

Administration

The administrative setup is a criterion forclassifying a settlement as urban in somecountries. For example, in India, a settlementof any size is classified as urban, if it has amunicipality, Cantonment Board or NotifiedArea Council. Similarly, in Latin Americancountries, such as Brazil and Bolivia, anyadministrative centre is considered urbanirrespective of its population size.

Location

Location of urban centres is examined withreference to their function. For example, thesitting requirements of a holiday resort are quitedifferent from that of an industrial town, amilitary centre or a seaport. Strategic townsrequire sites offering natural defence; miningtowns require the presence of economicallyvaluable minerals; industrial towns generallyneed local energy supplies or raw materials;tourist centres require attractive scenery, or amarine beach, a spring with medicinal wateror historical relics, ports require a harbour etc.

Locations of the earliest urban settlementswere based on the availability of water, buildingmaterials and fertile land. Today, while theseconsiderations still remain valid, moderntechnology plays a significant role in locatingurban settlements far away from the source ofthese materials. Piped water can be suppliedto a distant settlement, building material canbe transported from long distances.

Apart from site, the situation plays animportant role in the expansion of towns. The

urban centres which are located close to animportant trade route have experienced rapiddevelopment.

Functions of Urban Centres

The earliest towns were centres ofadministration, trade, industry, defence andreligious importance. The significance of defenceand religion as differentiating functions hasdeclined in general, but other functions haveentered the list. Today, several new functions,such as, recreational, residential, transport,mining, manufacturing and most recentlyactivities related to information technology arecarried on in specialised towns. Some of thesefunctions do not necessarily require the urbancentre to have any fundamental relationshipwith their neighbouring rural areas.

What would be the effects of Informationand Communication Technology (ICT) asa function on the development of existingand new settlements?

Prepare a list of cities where earlier functions have beenreplaced by newer ones.

In spite of towns performing multiplefunctions we refer to their dominant function.For example, we think of Sheffield as anindustrial city, London as a port city,Chandigarh as an administrative city and soon. Large cities have a rather greater diversityof functions. Besides, all cities are dynamic andover a period of time may develop new functions.Most of the early nineteenth-century fishingports in England have now developed tourism.Many of the old market towns are now knownfor manufacturing activities. Towns and citiesare classified into the following categories.

Administrative Towns

National capitals, which house the administrativeoffices of central governments, such as New Delhi,Canberra, Beijing, Addis Ababa, WashingtonD.C., and London etc. are called administrative

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towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can alsohave administrative functions, for example,Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New York),Chennai (Tamil Nadu).

Trading and Commercial Towns

Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipegand Kansas city; banking and financial centreslike Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inlandcentres like Manchester and St Louis; andtransport nodes such as, Lahore, Baghdad andAgra have been important trading centres.

Cultural Towns

Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca,Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. areconsidered cultural towns. These urbancentres are of great religious importance.

Additional functions which the citiesperform are health and recreation (Miami andPanaji), industrial (Pittsburgh andJamshedpur), mining and quarrying (BrokenHill and Dhanbad) and transport (Singaporeand Mughal Sarai).

Urbanisation means the increase in the proportionpopulation of a country who live in urban areas.

The most important cause of urbanisation is rural-urbanmigration. During the late 1990s some 20 to 30 millionpeople were leaving the countryside every year andmoving into towns and cities.

Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisationduring the nineteenth century.

Developing counties experienced rapid urbanisationduring the second half of the twentieth century.

CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THECLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THECLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THECLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THECLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS ON THEBASIS OF FORMSBASIS OF FORMSBASIS OF FORMSBASIS OF FORMSBASIS OF FORMS

An urban settlement may be linear, square, staror crescent shaped. In fact, the form of thesettlement, architecture and style of buildingsand other structures are an outcome of itshistorical and cultural traditions.

Towns and cities of developed anddeveloping countries reflect marked differencesin planning and development. While most citiesin developed countries are planned, mosturban settlements of developing countries haveevolved historically with irregular shapes. Forexample, Chandigarh and Canberra areplanned cities, while smaller town in India haveevolved historically from walled cities to largeurban sprawls.

Addis Ababa (The New Flower)

The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, asthe name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower)is a ‘new’ city which was established in 1878.

The whole city is located on a hill-valleytopography. The road pattern bears the influence

Fig. 10.8: Morphology of Addis Ababa

Fig. 10.9: Skyline of Addis Ababa

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of the local topography. The roads radiate fromthe govt headquarters Piazza, Arat and AmistKilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets whichgrew with time and is supposed to be the largestmarket between Cairo and Johannesburg. Amulti-faculty university, a medical college, anumber of good schools make Addis Ababa aneducational centre. It is also the terminal stationfor the Djibouti-Addis Ababa rail route. Boleairport is a relatively new airport. The city haswitnessed rapid growth because of its multi-functional nature and being a large nodal centrelocated in the centre of Ethiopia.

Canberra

Canberra was planned as the capital ofAustralia in 1912 by American landscapearchitect, Walter Burley Griffin. He hadenvisaged a garden city for about 25,000 peopletaking into account the natural features of thelandscape. There were to be five main centres,

each with separate city functions. During thelast few decades, the city has expanded toaccommodate several satellite towns, whichhave their own centres. The city has wide-openspaces and many parks and gardens.

Types of Urban Settlements

Depending on the size and the services availableand functions rendered, urban centres aredesignated as town, city, million city,conurbation, megalopolis.

Town

The concept of ‘town’ can best be understoodwith reference to ‘village’. Population size is notthe only criterion. Functional contrasts betweentowns and villages may not always be clear-cut, but specific functions such as,manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, andprofessional services exist in towns.

City

A city may be regarded as a leading town, whichhas outstripped its local or regional rivals. Inthe words of Lewis Mumford, “ the city is in factthe physical form of the highest and mostcomplex type of associative life”. Cities aremuch larger than towns and have a greaternumber of economic functions. They tend tohave transport terminals, major financialinstitutions and regional administrative offices.When the population crosses the one millionmark it is designated as a million city.

Conurbation

The term conurbation was coined by PatrickGeddes in 1915 and applied to a large area ofurban development that resulted from themerging of originally separate towns or cities.Greater London, Manchester, Chicago andTokyo are examples. Can you find out anexample from India?

Megalopolis

This Greek word meaning “great city”, waspopularised by Jean Gottman (1957) andsignifies ‘super- metropolitan’ region extending,Fig. 10.10 : Morphology of a planned city – Canberra

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as union of conurbations. The urbanlandscape stretching from Boston in the northto south of Washington in U.S.A. is the bestknown example of a megalopolis.

Million City

The number of million cities in the world hasbeen increasing as never before. Londonreached the million mark in 1800, followed byParis in 1850, New York in 1860, and by 1950there were around 80 such cities. The rate ofincrease in the number of million cities has beenthree-fold in every three decades – around 160in 1975 to around 438 in 2005.

Table 10.2: Continent–wise Distributionof Million Cities

Continent Early Mid Mid1950 1970s 2000

Europe 23 30 58

Asia 32 69 206

North and Central America 16 36 79

South America 8 17 43

Africa 3 8 46

Australia 2 2 6

World Total 84 162 438

Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.html

Distribution of Mega Cities

A mega city or megalopolis is a general termfor cities together with their suburbs with apopulation of more than 10 million people.New York was the first to attain the status ofa mega city by 1950 with a total populationof about 12.5 million. The number of megacities is now 25. The number of mega citieshas increased in the developing countriesduring the last 50 years vis-à-vis thedeveloped countries.

Problems of Human Settlementsin Developing Countries

The settlements in developing countries, sufferfrom various problems, such as unsustainableconcentration of population, congested housingand streets, lack of drinking water facilities.

They also lack infrastructure such as,electricity, sewage disposal, health andeducation facilities.

Rural/Urban Problems

Can you identify the problems faced by your city/town/village in terms of any one of the following?

Availability of potable water.

Electricity supply.

Sewerage system.

Transportation and communication facilities.

Health and educational infrastructure.

Water and air pollution.

Can you think of solutions to these problems?

Source: www.citypopulation.de/World.html

Table 10.3: Mega Cities of the World (as on 28. 01. 2006)

Sl. Name of Country PopulationNo. the City (in millions)

1. Tokyo Japan 34.22. Mexico city Mexico 22.83. Seoul South Korea 22.34. New York U.S.A. 21.95. Sao Paulo Brazil 20.26. Mumbai India 19.97. Delhi India 19.78. Shanghai China 18.29. Los Angeles U.S.A. 18.0

10. Osaka Japan 16.811. Jakarta Indonesia 16.612. Kolkata India 15.713. Cairo Egypt 15.614. Manila Philippines 15.015. Karachi Pakistan 14.316. Moscow Russia 13.817. Buenos Aires Argentina 13.518. Dhaka Bangladesh 13.319. Rio de Janeiro Brazil 12.220. Beijing China 12.121. London G. Britain 12.022. Tehran Iran 11.923. Istanbul Turkey 11.524. Lagos Nigeria 11.125. Shenzhen China 10.7

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Problems of Urban Settlements

People flock to cities to avail of employmentopportunities and civic amenities. Since mostcities in developing countries are unplanned,it creates severe congestion. Shortage ofhousing, vertical expansion and growth ofslums are characteristic features of moderncities of developing countries. In many citiesan increasing proportion of the populationlives in substandard housing, e.g. slums andsquatter settlements. In most million pluscities in India, one in four inhabitants lives inillegal settlements, which are growing twice asfast as the rest of the cities. Even in the AsiaPacific countries, around 60 per cent of theurban population lives in squatter settlements.

Fig. 10.11: Slums

Economic Problems

The decreasing employment opportunities inthe rural as well as smaller urban areas of thedeveloping countries consistently push thepopulation to the urban areas. The enormousmigrant population generates a pool of un-skilled and semi-skilled labour force, which isalready saturated in urban areas.

Socio-cultural Problems

Cities in the developing countries suffer fromseveral social ills. Insufficient financial resourcesfail to create adequate social infrastructurecatering to the basic needs of the hugepopulation. The available educational andhealth facilities remain beyond the reach of theurban poor. Health indices also, present agloomy picture in cities of developing countries.Lack of employment and education tends toaggravate the crime rates. Male selectivemigration to the urban areas distorts the sexratio in these cities.

Environmental Problems

The large urban population in developingcountries not only uses but also disposes off ahuge quantity of water and all types of wastematerials. Many cities of the developingcountries even find it extremely difficult toprovide the minimum required quantity ofpotable water and water for domestic andindustrial uses. An improper sewerage systemcreates unhealthy conditions. Massive use oftraditional fuel in the domestic as well as theindustrial sector severely pollutes the air. Thedomestic and industrial wastes are either letinto the general sewerages or dumped withouttreatment at unspecified locations. Hugeconcrete structures erected to accommodatethe population and economic play a veryconducive role to create heat islands.

Urban Strategyyyyy

The United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) has outlined thesepriorities as part of its ‘Urban Strategy’.

What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?What is a Healthy City?

World Health Organisation (WHO) suggeststhat, among other things, a ‘healthy city’must have:A ’Clean’ and ‘Safe’ environment.Meets the ‘Basic Needs’ of ‘All’ itsinhabitants.Involves the ‘Community’ in localgovernment.Provides easily accessible ‘Health’ service.

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Increasing ‘Shelter’ for the urban poor.Provision of basic urban services such as‘Education’, ‘Primary Health care’, ‘CleanWater and Sanitation’.Improving women’s access to ‘BasicServices’ and government facilities.Upgrading ‘Energy’ use and alternative‘Transport’ systems.Reducing ‘Air Pollution’.

Cities, towns and rural settlements are linkedthrough the movements of goods, resources andpeople. Urban-rural linkages are of crucialimportance for the sustainability of human



(i) Which one of the following forms of settlement develops along either side ofroads, rivers or canals?

(a) circular (c) cross-shaped

(b) linear (d) square

(ii) Which one of the following types of economic activities dominates in all ruralsettlement?

(a) primary (c) secondary

(b) tertiary (d) quaternary

(iii) In which of the following regions has the oldest well-documented urbansettlement found?

(a) Huang He Valley (c) Nile Valley

(b) Indus Valley (d) Mesopotamia

(iv) How many of the following cities in India have attained the million status at thebeginning of 2006?

(a) 40 (c) 41

(b) 42 (d) 43

(v) Sufficiency of which type of resources can help to create adequate socialinfrastructure catering to the needs of the large population in the developingcountries?

(a) financial (c) natural

(b) human (d) social

settlements. As the growth of rural populationhas outpaced the generation of employment andeconomic opportunities, rural-to-urban migrationhas steadily increased, particularly in thedeveloping countries, which has put an enormouspressure on urban infrastructure and servicesthat are already under serious stress. It is urgentto eradicate rural poverty and to improve thequality of living conditions, as well as to createemployment and educational opportunities inrural settlements. Full advantage must be takenof the complementary contributions and linkagesof rural and urban areas by balancing theirdifferent economic, social and environmentalrequirements.

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(i) How would you define a settlement?

(ii) Distinguish between site and situation.

(iii) What are the bases of classifying settlements?

(iv) How would you justify the study of human settlements in humangeography?


(i) What are rural and urban settlements? Mention theircharacteristics.

(ii) Discuss the problems associated with urban settlements indeveloping countries.


(i) Do you live in a city? If not, do you live nearby? Is your lifesomehow linked to a city?(a) What is its name?(b) When was it first settled?(c) Why was the site chosen?(d) What is its population?(e) What are the functions it performs?(f) On a sketch of the city, try to identify the areas where

these functions are performed.Each student should make a list of five things associated with the selected city;things that cannot be found elsewhere. This is a mini definition of the city as eachstudent sees it. The lists should be shared with the class. How much agreement isthere between the lists?

(ii) Can you think of some ways by which you can singlehandedly help reduce pollution levels of your settlement

Hints :(a) Proper garbage disposal(b) Using public transport(c) Better management of domestic water consumption(d) Planting trees in the neighbourhood© N

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Appendix I

World Population : Selected Data, 2000

Region/Country Surface Area Population by Density of Growth Rate(thousand the year 2000 Population 1990–95 1995–2000

sq km) (million) (per sq km)

World – 6,005 – 1.7 1.3

Africa – 784.4 – 2.9 2.4

Algeria 2,382 31.5 13 2.7 2.3

Angola 1,247 12.9 11 3.7 3.2

Benin 113 6.1 57 3.1 2.7

Botswana 582 1.6 3 2.9 1.9

Burkina Faso 274 11.9 41 2.8 2.7

Burundi 28 6.7 265 2.9 1.7

Cameroon 475 15.1 32 2.8 2.7

Central African Republic 623 3.6 6 2.6 1.9

Chad 1,284 7.7 6 2.7 2.6

Democratic Republic of Congo 2,345 51.7 22 3 2.6

Republic of Congo 342 2.9 9 – 2.8

Cote d’Ivoire 322 14.8 50 3.7 1.8

Egypt 1,001 68.5 64 2.2 1.9

Eritrea 118 3.9 41 – 3.8

Ethiopia 1,104 62.6 64 3.1 2.5

Gabon 268 1.2 5 3.3 2.6

Chana 239 20.2 85 3 2.7

Guinea 246 7.4 30 3 0.8

Guinea-Bissau 36 1.2 43 2.1 2.2

Kenya 580 30.1 53 3.4 2

Lesotho 30 2.2 67 2.5 2.2

Liberia 111 3.2 32 3.3 8.2

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – 5.6 – 3.5 2.4

Madagascar 587 15.9 27 3.3 3

Malawi 118 10.9 110 3.3 2.4

Mali 1,240 11.2 9 3.2 2.4

Mauritania 1,026 2.7 3 2.9 2.7

Mauritius 2 1.2 584 1 0.8

Morocco 447 28.4 64 2.4 1.8

Mozambique 802 19.7 23 2.8 2.5

Namibia 824 1.7 2 3.2 2.2

Niger 1,267 10.7 9 3.3 3.2

Nigeria 924 111.5 32.7 3.1 2.4

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Rwanda 26 7.7 345 3.4 7.7

Senegal 197 9.5 49 2.7 2.6

Sierra Leone 72 4.9 70 2.7 3

Somalia 638 10.1 14 3.2 4.2

South Africa 1,221 40.4 35 2.4 1.5

Sudan 2,506 29.5 13 2.8 2.1

Togo 57 4.6 83 3.2 2.6

Tunisia 164 9.6 62 2.1 1.4

Uganda 241 21.8 113 3 2.8

United Republic of Tanzania – 33.5 – 3.4 2.3

Asia – 3,682.60 – 1.8 1.4

Afghanistan 652 22.7 41 6.7 2.9

Bangladesh 144 129.2 1,007 2.4 1.7

Bhutan – 2.1 – 2.3 2.8

Cambodia 181 11.2 68 2.5 2.3

China 9,598 1,277.60 135 1.4 0.9

Democratic People’s

Republic of Korea – 24 – 1.9 1.6

Hongkong, China – 6.9 – 0.8 2.1

India 3,287 1,013.70 342 1.9 1.6

Indonesia 1,905 212.1 116 1.8 1.4

Islamic Republic of Iran 1,633 67.7 39 2.7 1.7

Iraq 438 23.1 53 3.2 2.8

Israel 21 6.2 302 4.7 2.2

Japan 378 126.7 348 0.4 0.2

Jordan 89 6.7 55 3.4 3

Kuwait 18 2 111 –5.8 3.1

Democratic Republic of Laos – 5.4 – 3 2.6

Lebanon 10 3.3 423 2 1.7

Malaysia 330 22.2 71 2.4 2

Mongolia 1,567 2.7 2 2.6 1.7

Myanmar 802 45.6 23 2.1 1.2

Nepal 147 23.9 161 2.5 2.4

Oman 212 2.5 11 3.6 3.3

Pakistan 796 156.5 179 2.7 2.8

Philippines 300 76 253 2.1 2.1

Republic of Korea – 46.8 – 0.8 0.8

Saudi Arabia 2,150 21.6 10 3.4 3.4



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Appendix I 105

Singapore 1 3.6 6,587 1 1.4

Sri Lanka 66 18.8 300 1.3 1

Syrian Arab Republic 185 16.1 88 3.6 2.5

Thailand 513 61.4 119 1.3 0.9

Turkey 775 66.6 85 2 1.7

United Arab Emirates 84 2.4 35 2.3 2

Vietnam 332 79.8 241 2 1.6

Yemen 528 18.1 33 3.5 3.7

Europe – 728.9 – 0.3 0

Albania 29 3.1 124 0.8 –0.4

Austria 84 8.2 98 0.4 0.5

Belgium 30 10.2 331 0.1 0.1

Bosnia & Herzegovina 51 4 78 – 3

Bulgaria 111 8.2 74 –0.2 –0.7

Croatia – 4.5 – – –0.1

Czech Republic 79 10.2 133 – –0.2

Denmark 43 5.3 126 0.2 0.3

Estonia 45 1.4 32 –0.2 –1.2

Finland 338 5.2 17 0.3 0.3

France 552 59.1 107 0.4 0.4

Germany 357 82.2 230 0.4 0.1

Greece 132 10.6 82 0.3 0.3

Hungary 93 10 109 –0.2 –0.4

Ireland 70 3.7 55 –0.2 0.7

Italy 301 57.3 196 0.1 0

Latvia 65 2.4 38 –0.3 –1.5

Lithuania 65 3.7 57 0.2 –0.3

Macedonia (Former

Republic of Yugoslavia) 26 2 80 – 0.6

Netherlands 42 15.8 470 0.7 0.4

Norway 324 4.5 15 0.5 0.5

Poland 323 38.8 127 0.3 0.1

Portugal 92 9.9 109 0 0

Romania 238 22.3 97 0.3 –0.4

Slovakia – 5.4 – – 0.1

Slovenia 20 2 99 – –0.1

Spain 506 39.6 79 0.2 0

Sweden 450 8.9 22 0.5 0.3



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Switzerland 41 7.4 182 0.7 0.7

United Kingdom 243 58.8 248 0.2 0.2

Yugoslavia 102 10.6 108 0.3 0.1

North America – 309.6 – 1.1 0.9

Canada 9,971 31.1 3 1.4 1

United States of America 9,629 278.4 31 1 0.8

Oceania – 30.4 – 1.5 1.3

Australia 7,741 18.9 2 1.4 1

New Caledonia – 0.2 – – 2.1

New Zealand 271 3.9 14 0.9 1

Papua New Guinea 463 4.8 11 2.3 2.2

Vanuatu – 0.2 – – 2.4

Latin America – 519.1 – 1.8 1.6

Argentina 2,780 37 14 1.2 1.3

Belize – 0.2 – – 2.4

Bolivia 1,099 8.3 8 2.4 2.3

Brazil 8,547 170.1 20 1.6 1.3

Chile 757 15.2 20 1.6 1.4

Colombia 1,139 42.3 41 1.7 1.9

Costa Rica 51 4 75 2.4 2.5

Cuba 111 11.2 102 0.9 0.4

Dominican Republic 49 8.5 173 2 1.7

Ecuador 284 12.6 46 2.3 2

EI Salvador 21 6.3 303 2.2 2

Guatemala 109 11.4 105 2.9 2.6

Haiti 28 8.2 289 2 1.7

Honduras 112 6.5 57 3 2.8

Jamaica 11 2.6 243 1 0.9

Mexico 1,958 08.9 51 2.1 1.6

Nicaragua 130 5.1 42 3.7 2.7

Panama 76 2.1 38 1.9 1.6

Paraguay 407 5.5 14 2.7 2.6

Peru 1,285 25.7 20 2 1.7

Puerto Rico 9 3.9 442 0.9 0.8

Trinidad and Tobago 5 1.3 254 1.1 0.5

Uruguay 176 3.3 19 0.6 0.7

Venezuela 912 24.2 27 2.1 2




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1.000 Norway 0.9632.000 Iceland 0.9563.000 Australia 0.9554.000 Luxembourg 0.9495.000 Canada 0.949

6.000 Sweden 0.9497.000 Switzerland 0.9478.000 Ireland 0.9469.000 Belgium 0.94510.000 United States 0.944

11.000 Japan 0.94312.000 Netherlands 0.94313.000 Finland 0.94114.000 Denmark 0.94115.000 United Kingdom 0.939

16.000 France 0.93817.000 Austria 0.93618.000 Italy 0.93419.000 New Zealand 0.93320.000 Germany 0.930

21.000 Spain 0.92822.000 Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.91623.000 Israel 0.91524.000 Greece 0.91225.000 Singapore 0.907

26.000 Slovenia 0.90427.000 Portugal 0.90428.000 Republic of Korea 0.90129.000 Cyprus 0.89130.000 Barbados 0.878

31.000 Czech Republic 0.87432.000 Malta 0.86733.000 Brunei Darussalam 0.86634.000 Argentina 0.86335.000 Hungary 0.862

36.000 Poland 0.85837.000 Chile 0.85438.000 Estonia 0.85339.000 Lithuania 0.85240.000 Qatar 0.849

41.000 United Arab Emirates 0.84942.000 Slovakia 0.84943.000 Bahrain 0.84644.000 Kuwait 0.84445.000 Croatia 0.841

46.000 Uruguay 0.84047.000 Costa Rica 0.83848.000 Latvia 0.83649.000 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.83450.000 Bahamas 0.832

51.000 Seychelles 0.82152.000 Cuba 0.81753.000 Mexico 0.81454.000 Tonga 0.81055.000 Bulgaria 0.808

56.000 Panama 0.80457.000 Trinidad and Tobago 0.80158.000 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0.79959.000 Macedonia, TFYR 0.79760.000 Antigua and Barbuda 0.797

61.000 Malaysia 0.79662.000 Russian Federation 0.79563.000 Brazil 0.79264.000 Romania 0.79265.000 Mauritius 0.791

66.000 Grenada 0.78767.000 Belarus 0.78668.000 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.78669.000 Colombia 0.78570.000 Dominica 0.783

71.000 Oman 0.78172.000 Albania 0.78073.000 Thailand 0.77874.000 Samoa (Western) 0.77675.000 Venezuela 0.772

76.000 Saint Lucia 0.77277.000 Saudi Arabia 0.77278.000 Ukraine 0.76679.000 Peru 0.76280.000 Kazakhstan 0.761

81.000 Lebanon 0.75982.000 Ecuador 0.75983.000 Armenia 0.75984.000 Philippines 0.75885.000 China 0.755

86.000 Suriname 0.75587.000 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.75588.000 Paraguay 0.75589.000 Tunisia 0.75390.000 Jordan 0.753

Appendix II

Human Development Index, 2003

HDI Country (HDI) ValueRank


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91.000 Belize 0.75392.000 Fiji 0.75293.000 Sri Lanka 0.75194.000 Turkey 0.75095.000 Dominican Republic 0.749

96.000 Maldives 0.74597.000 Turkmenistan 0.73898.000 Jamaica 0.73899.000 Islamic Republic of Iran 0.736100.000 Georgia 0.732

101.000 Azerbaijan 0.729102.000 Occupied Palestinian Territories 0.729103.000 Algeria 0.722104.000 El Salvador 0.722105.000 Cape Verde 0.721

106.000 Syrian Arab Republic 0.721107.000 Guyana 0.720108.000 Viet Nam 0.704109.000 Kyrgyzstan 0.702110.000 Indonesia 0.697

111.000 Uzbekistan 0.694112.000 Nicaragua 0.690113.000 Bolivia 0.687114.000 Mongolia 0.679115.000 Republic of Moldova 0.671

116.000 Honduras 0.667117.000 Guatemala 0.663118.000 Vanuatu 0.659119.000 Egypt 0.659120.000 South Africa 0.658

121.000 Equatorial Guinea 0.655122.000 Tajikistan 0.652123.000 Gabon 0.635124.000 Morocco 0.631125.000 Namibia 0.627

126.000 São Tomé and Principe 0.604127.000 India 0.602128.000 Solomon Islands 0.594129.000 Myanmar 0.578130.000 Cambodia 0.571

131.000 Botswana 0.565132.000 Comoros 0.547133.000 Democratic Republic of Laos 0.545134.000 Bhutan 0.536135.000 Pakistan 0.527

136.000 Nepal 0.526137.000 Papua New Guinea 0.523138.000 Ghana 0.520139.000 Bangladesh 0.520140.000 Timor-Leste 0.513

141.000 Sudan 0.512142.000 Congo 0.512143.000 Togo 0.512144.000 Uganda 0.508145.000 Zimbabwe 0.505

146.000 Madagascar 0.499147.000 Swaziland 0.498148.000 Cameroon 0.497149.000 Lesotho 0.497150.000 Djibouti 0.495

151.000 Yemen 0.489152.000 Mauritania 0.477153.000 Haiti 0.475154.000 Kenya 0.474155.000 Zambia 0.470

156.000 Guinea 0.466157.000 Senegal 0.458158.000 Nigeria 0.453159.000 Rwanda 0.450160.000 Angola 0.445

161.000 Eritrea 0.444162.000 Benin 0.431163.000 Côte d’Ivoire 0.420164.000 United Republic of Tanzania 0.418165.000 Malawi 0.404

166.000 Zambia 0.394167.000 Democratic Republic of Congo 0.385168.000 Mozambique 0.379169.000 Burundi 0.378170.000 Ethiopia 0.367

171.000 Central African Republic 0.355172.000 Guinea-Bissau 0.348173.000 Chad 0.341174.000 Mali 0.333175.000 Burkina Faso 0.317

176.000 Sierra Leone 0.298177.000 Nigeria 0.281




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All developing countries 0.694 Least developed countries 0.518 Arab States 0.679 East Asia and the Pacific 0.768 Latin America and the Caribbean 0.797 South Asia 0.628 Sub-Saharan Africa 0.515Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS 0.802OECD 0.892 High-income OECD 0.911

High human development 0.895Medium human development 0.718Low human development 0.486

High income 0.910Middle income 0.774Low income 0.593

World 0.741

Notes :

Aggregates of Education Indices are based on the aggregates of gross enrolment data calculated by the UNESCOInstitute for Statistics and literacy data as used to calculate the HDI.

Source :

Calculated on the basis of data in columns 6-8 of Table 1 (HDR 2005); see technical note 1 for the details.

Appendix II 109

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Appendix I

World Population : Selected Data, 2000



World – 6,005 – 1.7 1.3

Africa – 784.4 – 2.9 2.4

Algeria 2,382 31.5 13 2.7 2.3

Angola 1,247 12.9 11 3.7 3.2

Benin 113 6.1 57 3.1 2.7

Botswana 582 1.6 3 2.9 1.9

Burkina Faso 274 11.9 41 2.8 2.7

Burundi 28 6.7 265 2.9 1.7

Cameroon 475 15.1 32 2.8 2.7

Central African Republic 623 3.6 6 2.6 1.9

Chad 1,284 7.7 6 2.7 2.6

Democratic Republic of Congo 2,345 51.7 22 3 2.6

Republic of Congo 342 2.9 9 – 2.8

Cote d’Ivoire 322 14.8 50 3.7 1.8

Egypt 1,001 68.5 64 2.2 1.9

Eritrea 118 3.9 41 – 3.8

Ethiopia 1,104 62.6 64 3.1 2.5

Gabon 268 1.2 5 3.3 2.6

Chana 239 20.2 85 3 2.7

Guinea 246 7.4 30 3 0.8

Guinea-Bissau 36 1.2 43 2.1 2.2

Kenya 580 30.1 53 3.4 2

Lesotho 30 2.2 67 2.5 2.2

Liberia 111 3.2 32 3.3 8.2

Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – 5.6 – 3.5 2.4

Madagascar 587 15.9 27 3.3 3

Malawi 118 10.9 110 3.3 2.4

Mali 1,240 11.2 9 3.2 2.4

Mauritania 1,026 2.7 3 2.9 2.7

Mauritius 2 1.2 584 1 0.8

Morocco 447 28.4 64 2.4 1.8

Mozambique 802 19.7 23 2.8 2.5

Namibia 824 1.7 2 3.2 2.2

Niger 1,267 10.7 9 3.3 3.2

Nigeria 924 111.5 32.7 3.1 2.4

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Rwanda 26 7.7 345 3.4 7.7

Senegal 197 9.5 49 2.7 2.6

Sierra Leone 72 4.9 70 2.7 3

Somalia 638 10.1 14 3.2 4.2

South Africa 1,221 40.4 35 2.4 1.5

Sudan 2,506 29.5 13 2.8 2.1

Togo 57 4.6 83 3.2 2.6

Tunisia 164 9.6 62 2.1 1.4

Uganda 241 21.8 113 3 2.8

United Republic of Tanzania – 33.5 – 3.4 2.3

Asia – 3,682.60 – 1.8 1.4

Afghanistan 652 22.7 41 6.7 2.9

Bangladesh 144 129.2 1,007 2.4 1.7

Bhutan – 2.1 – 2.3 2.8

Cambodia 181 11.2 68 2.5 2.3

China 9,598 1,277.60 135 1.4 0.9

Democratic People’s

Republic of Korea – 24 – 1.9 1.6

Hongkong, China – 6.9 – 0.8 2.1

India 3,287 1,013.70 342 1.9 1.6

Indonesia 1,905 212.1 116 1.8 1.4

Islamic Republic of Iran 1,633 67.7 39 2.7 1.7

Iraq 438 23.1 53 3.2 2.8

Israel 21 6.2 302 4.7 2.2

Japan 378 126.7 348 0.4 0.2

Jordan 89 6.7 55 3.4 3

Kuwait 18 2 111 –5.8 3.1

Democratic Republic of Laos – 5.4 – 3 2.6

Lebanon 10 3.3 423 2 1.7

Malaysia 330 22.2 71 2.4 2

Mongolia 1,567 2.7 2 2.6 1.7

Myanmar 802 45.6 23 2.1 1.2

Nepal 147 23.9 161 2.5 2.4

Oman 212 2.5 11 3.6 3.3

Pakistan 796 156.5 179 2.7 2.8

Philippines 300 76 253 2.1 2.1

Republic of Korea – 46.8 – 0.8 0.8

Saudi Arabia 2,150 21.6 10 3.4 3.4



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Singapore 1 3.6 6,587 1 1.4

Sri Lanka 66 18.8 300 1.3 1

Syrian Arab Republic 185 16.1 88 3.6 2.5

Thailand 513 61.4 119 1.3 0.9

Turkey 775 66.6 85 2 1.7

United Arab Emirates 84 2.4 35 2.3 2

Vietnam 332 79.8 241 2 1.6

Yemen 528 18.1 33 3.5 3.7

Europe – 728.9 – 0.3 0

Albania 29 3.1 124 0.8 –0.4

Austria 84 8.2 98 0.4 0.5

Belgium 30 10.2 331 0.1 0.1

Bosnia & Herzegovina 51 4 78 – 3

Bulgaria 111 8.2 74 –0.2 –0.7

Croatia – 4.5 – – –0.1

Czech Republic 79 10.2 133 – –0.2

Denmark 43 5.3 126 0.2 0.3

Estonia 45 1.4 32 –0.2 –1.2

Finland 338 5.2 17 0.3 0.3

France 552 59.1 107 0.4 0.4

Germany 357 82.2 230 0.4 0.1

Greece 132 10.6 82 0.3 0.3

Hungary 93 10 109 –0.2 –0.4

Ireland 70 3.7 55 –0.2 0.7

Italy 301 57.3 196 0.1 0

Latvia 65 2.4 38 –0.3 –1.5

Lithuania 65 3.7 57 0.2 –0.3

Macedonia (Former

Republic of Yugoslavia) 26 2 80 – 0.6

Netherlands 42 15.8 470 0.7 0.4

Norway 324 4.5 15 0.5 0.5

Poland 323 38.8 127 0.3 0.1

Portugal 92 9.9 109 0 0

Romania 238 22.3 97 0.3 –0.4

Slovakia – 5.4 – – 0.1

Slovenia 20 2 99 – –0.1

Spain 506 39.6 79 0.2 0

Sweden 450 8.9 22 0.5 0.3



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Switzerland 41 7.4 182 0.7 0.7

United Kingdom 243 58.8 248 0.2 0.2

Yugoslavia 102 10.6 108 0.3 0.1

North America – 309.6 – 1.1 0.9

Canada 9,971 31.1 3 1.4 1

United States of America 9,629 278.4 31 1 0.8

Oceania – 30.4 – 1.5 1.3

Australia 7,741 18.9 2 1.4 1

New Caledonia – 0.2 – – 2.1

New Zealand 271 3.9 14 0.9 1

Papua New Guinea 463 4.8 11 2.3 2.2

Vanuatu – 0.2 – – 2.4

Latin America – 519.1 – 1.8 1.6

Argentina 2,780 37 14 1.2 1.3

Belize – 0.2 – – 2.4

Bolivia 1,099 8.3 8 2.4 2.3

Brazil 8,547 170.1 20 1.6 1.3

Chile 757 15.2 20 1.6 1.4

Colombia 1,139 42.3 41 1.7 1.9

Costa Rica 51 4 75 2.4 2.5

Cuba 111 11.2 102 0.9 0.4

Dominican Republic 49 8.5 173 2 1.7

Ecuador 284 12.6 46 2.3 2

EI Salvador 21 6.3 303 2.2 2

Guatemala 109 11.4 105 2.9 2.6

Haiti 28 8.2 289 2 1.7

Honduras 112 6.5 57 3 2.8

Jamaica 11 2.6 243 1 0.9

Mexico 1,958 08.9 51 2.1 1.6

Nicaragua 130 5.1 42 3.7 2.7

Panama 76 2.1 38 1.9 1.6

Paraguay 407 5.5 14 2.7 2.6

Peru 1,285 25.7 20 2 1.7

Puerto Rico 9 3.9 442 0.9 0.8

Trinidad and Tobago 5 1.3 254 1.1 0.5

Uruguay 176 3.3 19 0.6 0.7

Venezuela 912 24.2 27 2.1 2




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1.000 Norway 0.9632.000 Iceland 0.9563.000 Australia 0.9554.000 Luxembourg 0.9495.000 Canada 0.949

6.000 Sweden 0.9497.000 Switzerland 0.9478.000 Ireland 0.9469.000 Belgium 0.94510.000 United States 0.944

11.000 Japan 0.94312.000 Netherlands 0.94313.000 Finland 0.94114.000 Denmark 0.94115.000 United Kingdom 0.939

16.000 France 0.93817.000 Austria 0.93618.000 Italy 0.93419.000 New Zealand 0.93320.000 Germany 0.930

21.000 Spain 0.92822.000 Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.91623.000 Israel 0.91524.000 Greece 0.91225.000 Singapore 0.907

26.000 Slovenia 0.90427.000 Portugal 0.90428.000 Republic of Korea 0.90129.000 Cyprus 0.89130.000 Barbados 0.878

31.000 Czech Republic 0.87432.000 Malta 0.86733.000 Brunei Darussalam 0.86634.000 Argentina 0.86335.000 Hungary 0.862

36.000 Poland 0.85837.000 Chile 0.85438.000 Estonia 0.85339.000 Lithuania 0.85240.000 Qatar 0.849

41.000 United Arab Emirates 0.84942.000 Slovakia 0.84943.000 Bahrain 0.84644.000 Kuwait 0.84445.000 Croatia 0.841

46.000 Uruguay 0.84047.000 Costa Rica 0.83848.000 Latvia 0.83649.000 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0.83450.000 Bahamas 0.832

51.000 Seychelles 0.82152.000 Cuba 0.81753.000 Mexico 0.81454.000 Tonga 0.81055.000 Bulgaria 0.808

56.000 Panama 0.80457.000 Trinidad and Tobago 0.80158.000 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0.79959.000 Macedonia, TFYR 0.79760.000 Antigua and Barbuda 0.797

61.000 Malaysia 0.79662.000 Russian Federation 0.79563.000 Brazil 0.79264.000 Romania 0.79265.000 Mauritius 0.791

66.000 Grenada 0.78767.000 Belarus 0.78668.000 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.78669.000 Colombia 0.78570.000 Dominica 0.783

71.000 Oman 0.78172.000 Albania 0.78073.000 Thailand 0.77874.000 Samoa (Western) 0.77675.000 Venezuela 0.772

76.000 Saint Lucia 0.77277.000 Saudi Arabia 0.77278.000 Ukraine 0.76679.000 Peru 0.76280.000 Kazakhstan 0.761

81.000 Lebanon 0.75982.000 Ecuador 0.75983.000 Armenia 0.75984.000 Philippines 0.75885.000 China 0.755

86.000 Suriname 0.75587.000 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 0.75588.000 Paraguay 0.75589.000 Tunisia 0.75390.000 Jordan 0.753

Appendix II

Human Development Index, 2003



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91.000 Belize 0.75392.000 Fiji 0.75293.000 Sri Lanka 0.75194.000 Turkey 0.75095.000 Dominican Republic 0.749

96.000 Maldives 0.74597.000 Turkmenistan 0.73898.000 Jamaica 0.73899.000 Islamic Republic of Iran 0.736100.000 Georgia 0.732

101.000 Azerbaijan 0.729102.000 Occupied Palestinian Territories 0.729103.000 Algeria 0.722104.000 El Salvador 0.722105.000 Cape Verde 0.721

106.000 Syrian Arab Republic 0.721107.000 Guyana 0.720108.000 Viet Nam 0.704109.000 Kyrgyzstan 0.702110.000 Indonesia 0.697

111.000 Uzbekistan 0.694112.000 Nicaragua 0.690113.000 Bolivia 0.687114.000 Mongolia 0.679115.000 Republic of Moldova 0.671

116.000 Honduras 0.667117.000 Guatemala 0.663118.000 Vanuatu 0.659119.000 Egypt 0.659120.000 South Africa 0.658

121.000 Equatorial Guinea 0.655122.000 Tajikistan 0.652123.000 Gabon 0.635124.000 Morocco 0.631125.000 Namibia 0.627

126.000 São Tomé and Principe 0.604127.000 India 0.602128.000 Solomon Islands 0.594129.000 Myanmar 0.578130.000 Cambodia 0.571

131.000 Botswana 0.565132.000 Comoros 0.547133.000 Democratic Republic of Laos 0.545134.000 Bhutan 0.536135.000 Pakistan 0.527

136.000 Nepal 0.526137.000 Papua New Guinea 0.523138.000 Ghana 0.520139.000 Bangladesh 0.520140.000 Timor-Leste 0.513

141.000 Sudan 0.512142.000 Congo 0.512143.000 Togo 0.512144.000 Uganda 0.508145.000 Zimbabwe 0.505

146.000 Madagascar 0.499147.000 Swaziland 0.498148.000 Cameroon 0.497149.000 Lesotho 0.497150.000 Djibouti 0.495

151.000 Yemen 0.489152.000 Mauritania 0.477153.000 Haiti 0.475154.000 Kenya 0.474155.000 Zambia 0.470

156.000 Guinea 0.466157.000 Senegal 0.458158.000 Nigeria 0.453159.000 Rwanda 0.450160.000 Angola 0.445

161.000 Eritrea 0.444162.000 Benin 0.431163.000 Côte d’Ivoire 0.420164.000 United Republic of Tanzania 0.418165.000 Malawi 0.404

166.000 Zambia 0.394167.000 Democratic Republic of Congo 0.385168.000 Mozambique 0.379169.000 Burundi 0.378170.000 Ethiopia 0.367

171.000 Central African Republic 0.355172.000 Guinea-Bissau 0.348173.000 Chad 0.341174.000 Mali 0.333175.000 Burkina Faso 0.317

176.000 Sierra Leone 0.298177.000 Nigeria 0.281




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All developing countries 0.694 Least developed countries 0.518 Arab States 0.679 East Asia and the Pacific 0.768 Latin America and the Caribbean 0.797 South Asia 0.628 Sub-Saharan Africa 0.515Central and Eastern Europe and the CIS 0.802OECD 0.892 High-income OECD 0.911

High human development 0.895Medium human development 0.718Low human development 0.486

High income 0.910Middle income 0.774Low income 0.593

World 0.741

Notes :

Aggregates of Education Indices are based on the aggregates of gross enrolment data calculated by the UNESCOInstitute for Statistics and literacy data as used to calculate the HDI.

Source :

Calculated on the basis of data in columns 6-8 of Table 1 (HDR 2005); see technical note 1 for the details.

Appendix II 109

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AgricultureThe science and art of cultivating the soil,raising crops and rearing livestock. It isalso called farming.

Balance of TradeThe difference between the total value of acountry’s exports and imports. An excessof export over import makes a favourablebalance of trade, and the converse an un-favourable balance.

BarterA direct exchange of excess producebetween two parties to the mutualadvantages of both, without the use oftokens, credit or money in the transaction.

CensusOfficial enumeration of population along withcertain economic and social statistics in agiven territory at some time interval.

Chemical FertilisersSubstance of natural or artificial origincontaining chemical elements such asphosphorus, potassium and nitrogem thatare necessary to plan life. They are addedto the soil for increasing its productivity.

Contour PloughingTilling or ploughing hillsides or sloping landsalong the contour lines, that is, aroundrather than up and down a slope mainlywith a view to conserving soil and water.

Crop RotationGrowing of different crops in successionon the same field from season to season tomaintain soil fertility

Dairy Farming A kind of agriculture in which majoremphasis is on breeding and rearing milchcattle. Agriculture crops are raised mainlyto feed these cattle.

Density of PopulationThe average number of inhabitants livingwithin a specified unit of area, such as asq km.

Dry FarmingA method of farming adopted in certain regionsof inadequate rainfall and devoid of irrigationfacilities by conserving moisture in the soiland by raising drought-enduring crops.

Economic GeographyThe aspect or branch of geography whichdeals with the influences of the environment,both physical and cultural, on the economicactivity of man, bringing out similarities anddifferences from place to place in the wayspeople make a living.

EnvironmentSurroundings or the conditions underwhich a person or things exist and develophis or its character. It covers both physicaland cultural elements.

ExportsGoods despatched from one country toanother.

Extensive AgricultureFarming in which the amount of capital andlabour applied to a given area is relativelysmall.

FazendaA coffee plantation in Brazil.

Foreign ExchangeThe mechanism or process by whichpayments between any two placesoperating under different national currencysystems are effected without passing ofactual money or gold, etc.

FreewaysThe wide highways on which cross-roadsare avoided by providing overhead linkswhere one turns in only one direction toensure smooth and speedy traffic.

HarbourAn extensive stretch of deep water wherevessels can anchor securely to obtainprotection from sea and swell either throughnatural features or artificial works.

GLOSSARGLOSSARGLOSSARGLOSSARGLOSSARYYYYY

HighwayPublic road connecting distant places. Sucha road of national importance is called thenational highway.

HorticultureCultivation of vegetables and fruits; often onsmall plots, involving higher intensivenessthan in field cultivation.

ImportsGoods brought into a country from anothercountry.

Industrial RevolutionThe change in manufacturing from hand-operated tools to power-driven machinerybegan in England during the middle of theeighteenth century.

IndustrySystematic production characterised bydivision of labour and extensive use ofmachinery.

Intensive AgricultureFarming in which large amounts of capitaland labour are applied per unit area ofland, in order to obtain high yield.

Inter CroppingIt is a practice of growing two or more cropstogether on the same field in the sameseason

International TradeTrade carried on between nations primarilyto exchange their surpluses and make uptheir deficits.

MetropolisA very large city or agglomeration ofpopulation in a district or a country, and isoften the chief centre or seat of some formof activity— administrative, commercial orindustrial. It generally serves a largehinterland.

MineAn excavation made in the earth fordigging out minerals such as coal, iron-ore

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and precious stones. A mine usuallydenotes underground working except inopen-pit mines.

MineralA substance that is found in the earth’s crust,and which generally has a definitechemical composition unlike most rocks.

Mineral FuelNon-metallic minerals such as coal andpetroleum which are used as fuel.

Mineral OilA mixture of hydrocarbons in solid,gaseous or liquid form found in the earth. Itis commonly known as petroleum. It becamea commercial product only in 1859.

Mineral OreMetals in their raw state as extracted fromthe earth.

MiningAn economic activity concerned with theextraction of commercially valuable mineralsfrom the bowels of the earth.

Mixed FarmingA type of farming in which cultivation of cropsand raising of livestock go hand in hand.Both these activities play an important partin the economy.

Natural ResourcesWealth supplied by nature-mineraldeposits, soil fertility, timber, fuel, water,potential water-power, fish and wild life, etc.

NomadismA way of life of the people who are requiredto shift their dwellings frequently from placeto place in search of pastures for theiranimals— the mainstay of their economy.

Open-cast MineA place where soil and its outward coverare first removed and a mineral or ore isextracted by quarrying. In a way, it is aquarry on a large scale. This method ofmining is known as open-cast mining.

PastoralismAn economy that solely depends uponanimals. Whereas nomadic pastoralism is

practised mainly for subsistence, themodern ranches present an example ofcommercial pastoralism.

Plantation AgricultureA large-scale one-crop farming resemblingfactory production. It is usuallycharacterised by large estate, huge capitalinvestment, and modern and scientifictechniques of cultivation and trade.

PortThe commercial part of a harbourcontaining facilities for embarking anddisembarking passengers, loading andunloading, and some facilities for the storageof cargo.

Primary Activity Activities concerned with collecting ormaking available materials, provided bynature, for example, agriculture, fishing,forestry, hunting or mining.

Quarry An open-air excavation from which stoneis obtained by cutting, blasting, etc.

RanchesLarge stock farms, usually fenced in, whereanimals are bred and reared on acommercial scale. They are foundespecially in the United States.

Rotation of Crops A systematic succession of different cropson a given piece of land carried out inorder to avoid exhaustion of the soil.

Secondary ActivityActivities which transform the materialprovided by primary activities intocommodities more directly useful to man.

Sedentary AgricultureFarming practised more or lesspermanently on the same piece of land,the same as settled agriculture.

Shaft Mine An underground excavation made deepinto the earth for digging minerals like coal,precious stones and iron. Such minescontain vertical and inclined shafts andhorizontal tunnels at various levels.

Shifting Agriculture A method of farming in which a patch ofground is cultivated for a period of fewyears until the soil is partly exhausted oroverrun by weeds, and after which theland is left to natural vegetation whilecultivation is carried on elsewhere. In duecourse, the original patch of land iscultivated again when the natural growthhas restored fertility.

Subsistence AgricultureFarming in which its produce is mainlyconsumed in the farmer’s household unlikecommercial agriculture whose productsenter into trade on a very large scale.

Transhumance A seasonal movement of herdsmen withtheir livestock and from and to themountains or between the regions ofdiffering climates.

TransportThe action of carrying persons and goodsfrom one place to another.

Truck FarmingGrowing of vegetables around the urbancentres to meet the daily demand of thepeople is known as truck farming. It isgoverned by the distance a truck can coverovernight between the farm and the market.

Urbanisation A general movement of people from smallrural or agricultural communities or villagesto larger towns engaged in varied activitiessuch as government, trade, transport andmanufacture. It also indicates theconcentration of an increasing proportionof total population in towns and cities.

Glossary 111

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Notes

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