Hundred Years’ War

TheHundredYears’Warwas a series of conflicts wagedfrom 1337 to 1453 between the House of Plantagenet,rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House ofValois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, for control ofthe latter kingdom. Each side drew many allies into thewar.For their French possessions, the English kings since theNorman Conquest were vassals of the kings of France.The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, toreduce the possessions of their over-mighty vassals, to theeffect that only Gascony was left to the English. The con-fiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been partof French policy to check the growth of English power,particularly whenever the English were at war with theKingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III wasthe grandson of Philip IV of France, and nephew ofCharles IV of France, the last king of the senior lineof the House of Capet. In 1316, a principle was estab-lished denying women succession to the French throne.When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claimthe French throne for herself, claimed it for her son.The French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabellacould not transmit a right which she did not possess.For about nine years (1328-1337), the English had ac-cepted the Valois succession to the French throne. Butthe interference of the French king, Philip VI, in EdwardIII’s war against Scotland, led Edward III to reassert hisclaim to the French throne. Several overwhelming En-glish victories in the war—especially at Crecy, Poitiers,and Agincourt—raised the prospects of an ultimate En-glish triumph. However, the greater resources of theFrench monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Start-ing in 1429, decisive French victories at Patay, Formigny,and Castillon concluded the war in favor of France, withEngland permanently losing most of its major possessionson the continent.Historians commonly divide the war into three phasesseparated by truces: the Edwardian Era War (1337–1360); the Caroline War (1369–1389); and theLancastrian War (1415–1453). Contemporary conflictsin neighbouring areas, which were directly related tothis conflict, included the War of the Breton Succession(1341–1364), the Castilian Civil War (1366–1369), theWar of the Two Peters (1356–1375) in Aragon, and the1383–85 Crisis in Portugal. Later historians invented theterm “Hundred Years’ War” as a periodization to encom-pass all of these events, thus constructing the longest mil-itary conflict in history.

The war owes its historical significance to multiple fac-tors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely re-placed by professional troops, and aristocratic dominancehad yielded to a democratisation of the manpower andweapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic con-flict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and Englishnationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tac-tics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry haddominated. The first standing armies in Western Europesince the time of the Western Roman Empire originatedduring the war, composed largely of commoners and thushelping to change their role in warfare. With respect tothe belligerents, English political forces over time cameto oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of En-glish nobles, resulting from the loss of their continentallandholdings, became a factor leading to the civil warsknown as theWars of the Roses (1455–1487). In France,civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free-companies of mercenaries reduced the population drasti-cally. Shorn of its Continental possessions, England wasleft with the sense of being an island nation, which pro-foundly affected its outlook and development for morethan 500 years.[1]

1 Background

See also: The Anarchy

1.1 English kings and continental duke-doms: 1066–1357

Further information: Peerage of FranceThe Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England sincethe Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an endwhen the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda,Henry (great-grandson of William the Conqueror), be-came the first of the Angevin Kings of England in 1154as King Henry II.[2] The King of England, in what is nowknown as the Angevin Empire, directly ruled more terri-tory on the continent than the King of France. However,as holders of continental duchies, English kings owedhomage to the King of France. From the 11th century on-ward, the dukes had autonomy, neutralising the issue.[3]

John of England inherited the Angevin domains fromKing Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted de-cisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both

1

2 2 BEGINNING OF THE WAR: 1337–60

Homage of Edward I of England (kneeling) to Philip IV ofFrance (seated), 1286. As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was alsoa vassal to the French King.

legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in tak-ing control of most of the Angevin continental posses-sions. Following John’s reign, the Battle of Bouvines(1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the Warof Saint-Sardos (1324) resulted in the complete loss ofNormandy and the reduction of England’s holdings on thecontinent to a few provinces in Gascony.[4]

1.2 Dynastic turmoil in France: 1314–28

See also: Absolute cognatic primogeniture and Britishclaims to the French throne

The question of female succession was raised after thedeath of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter,and his posthumous son lived only a few days. Philip,Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that"women cannot succeed to the French throne". Throughhis political sagacity he won over his adversaries, and suc-ceeded to the French throne as Philip V of France. By thesame law that he procured, his daughters were denied thesuccession, which passed to his younger brother, CharlesIV, in 1322.[5]

WhenCharles IV of France died in 1328with only daugh-ters as heirs, the nearest male relative was his nephewEdward III of England. Edward had inherited his right

through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead Frenchking, but the question arose whether she should be able totransmit a right that she did not herself possess because ofher gender. The French nobility, moreover, balked at theprospect of being ruled by the English king. The assem-blies of the French barons and prelates and the Universityof Paris decided that males who derive their right to in-heritance through their mother should be excluded. Thusthe nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV’sfirst cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decidedthat he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignonpapacy confirmed that under Salic law males should notbe able to inherit through their mothers.[5][6]

2 Beginning of the war: 1337–60

Main article: Hundred Years’ War (1337–1360)

2.1 Gascony under the King of England

In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France hadbeen incorporated into Aquitaine (also known asGuyenneor Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenneand Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). TheAngevin kings of England becameDukes ofAquitaine af-ter Henry II married the formerQueen of France, Eleanorof Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands wereheld in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th cen-tury the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were vir-tually synonymous.[7][8] At the beginning of Edward III’sreign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine thatremained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. Theterm Gascony came to be used for the territory held bythe Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in south-west France, although they still used the title Duke ofAquitaine.[8][9]

For the first 10 years of Edward III’s reign, Gascony hadbeen a major point of friction. The English argued that,as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards histenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free ofany French suzerainty. However, this line of argumentcould not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 the17-year old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tra-dition demanded that vassals should approach their liegeunarmed with heads uncovered, however Edward demon-strated his reluctance by attending the ceremony by wear-ing his crown and sword.[10] Despite Edward complying,albeit reluctantly, the French continued to pressure theEnglish administration.[11]

Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward’s in-fluential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was anexile from the French court, having fallen out with PhilipVI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start awar to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive

2.4 Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany 3

intelligence on the French court.[12]

2.2 Franco-Scot alliance

See also: Auld Alliance

The Kings of England had been trying to subjugate theScots for some time. In 1295 a treaty was signed betweenFrance and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair.Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promis-ing Scotland that if England invaded then France wouldsupport the Scots. Similarly, the French would find Scotsupport if their own kingdomwas attacked. Edward couldnot succeed in his plans for Scotland if they could counton French support.[11]

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Mar-seilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to theHoly Land. However the plan was abandoned and thefleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved tothe English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threateningEngland.[12] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposedthat the English raise two armies, one to deal with theScots “at a suitable time”, the other to proceed at once toGascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sentto France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[13]

2.3 End of homage

At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was in-vited to meet the delegation from England but refused.The arrière-ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimedthroughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, inMay 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris.It was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectivelyGascony, should be taken back into the king’s hands onthe grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obliga-tions as vassal and had sheltered the king’s 'mortal enemy'Robert d'Artois.[14] Edward responded to the confiscationof Aquitaine by challenging Philip’s right to the Frenchthrone. When Charles IV died, Edward had made a claimfor the succession of the French throne, through the rightof his mother Isabella (Charles IV’s sister), daughter ofPhilip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Ed-ward’s homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived hisclaim and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King ofFrance and the French Royal Arms’.[15]

On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally receivedhomage fromGuy, half-brother of the Count of Flanders.The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges pro-claimed Edward King of France. Edward’s purpose wasto strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. Hissupporters would be able to claim that they were loyalto the “true” King of France and were not rebels againstPhilip. In February 1340, Edward returned to Englandto try and raise more funds and also deal with political

difficulties.[16]

Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wooltrade, since Flanders’ principal cities relied heavily ontextile production and England supplied much of the rawmaterial they needed. Edward III had commanded thathis chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a sym-bol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade.[17] At the timethere were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.[18] Thegreat medieval English monasteries produced large sur-pluses of wool that were sold to Europe. Successive gov-ernments were able to make large amounts of money bytaxing it.[17] France’s sea power led to economic disrup-tions for England, shrinking the wool trade to Flandersand the wine trade from Gascony.[19][20]

2.4 Outbreak, the English Channel andBrittany

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript of Froissart’s Chronicles,Bruge, c.1470

Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June1340, and arrived the next day off the Zwyn estuary. TheFrench fleet assumed a defensive formation off the portof Sluys. The English fleet apparently tricked the Frenchinto believing they were withdrawing. However, whenthe wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attackedwith the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet wasalmost completely destroyed in what became known asthe Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Chan-nel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.[16]At this point, Edward’s funds ran out and the war proba-bly would have endedwere it not for the death of the Dukeof Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between theduke’s half brother John ofMontfort andCharles of Blois,nephew of Philip VI.[21]

In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brit-tany began the Breton War of Succession, in which Ed-ward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charlesof Blois. Action for the next few years focused around aback and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes

4 2 BEGINNING OF THE WAR: 1337–60

changed hands several times, while further campaigns inGascony met with mixed success for both sides.[21]

2.5 Battle of Crécy and the taking ofCalais

Battle of Crécy, 1346

Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crécy

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion acrossthe channel, landing in Normandy’s Cotentin, at St.Vaast. The English army captured the completely un-guarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French.Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, whochose to march northward toward the Low Countries,pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and

hold territory. He reached the river Seine to find mostof the crossings destroyed. He moved further and fur-ther south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found thecrossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed,so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. Hethen continued on his way to Flanders until he reachedthe river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford atBlanchetaque, leaving Philip’s army stranded. Edward,assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flan-ders once more, until, finding himself unable to outma-noeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battleand Philip’s army attacked. The Battle of Crécy was acomplete disaster for the French, largely credited to theEnglish longbowmen and the French king, who allowedhis army to attack before it was ready.[22] Philip appealedto his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attackon England. King David II of Scotland responded byinvading northern England, but his army was defeatedand he was captured at the Battle of Neville’s Cross, on17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat fromScotland.[21][23] In France, Edward proceeded north un-opposed and besieged the city of Calais on the EnglishChannel, capturing it in 1347. This became an impor-tant strategic asset for the English, allowing them to safelykeep troops in northern France.[22] Calais would remainunder English control, even after the end of the HundredYears’ War, until the successful French siege in 1558.[24]

2.6 Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty ofBrétigny

In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris,began to ravage Europe.[25] In 1356, after the plaguehad passed and England was able to recover financially,Edward’s son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, laterknown as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gas-cony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers.[21]During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly,captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed ina forest. The French advance was contained, at whichpoint de Grailly led a flanking movement with his horse-men cutting off the French retreat and succeeding in cap-turing King John II of France (known as John the Good)andmany of his nobles.[26][27]With John held hostage, hisson the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of France)took over as regent.[28]

After the Battle of Poitiers, chaos ruled, as many Frenchnobles and mercenaries rampaged. A contemporary re-port said:

... all went ill with the kingdom and theState was undone. Thieves and robbers rose upeverywhere in the land. The Nobles despisedand hated all others and took no thought forusefulness and profit of lord and men. Theysubjected and despoiled the peasants and themen of the villages. In no wise did they defend

5

their country from its enemies; rather did theytrample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging thepeasants’ goods...From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette[29]

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hop-ing to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne.The Dauphin’s strategy was that of non-engagement withthe English army in the field. However Edward wantedthe crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims forhis coronation (Reims was the traditional coronationcity).[30] However, the citizens of Reims built and rein-forced the city’s defences before Edward and his armyarrived.[31] Edward besieged the city for five weeks, butthe defences held and there was no coronation.[30] Ed-ward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skir-mishes in the suburbs. The French made contact withhim and forced him to negotiate.[32] A conference washeld at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny(8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in Octo-ber. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edwardrenounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine andconsented to reducing King John’s ransom by a millioncrowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crownof France.[26][28][33]

3 First peace: 1360–69

The French king, John II, had been held captive in Eng-land. The Treaty of Brétigny set his ransom at 3 mil-lion crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieuof John. The hostages included two of his sons, severalprinces and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citi-zens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France.While these hostages were held, John returned to Franceto try and raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362 John’sson Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English-held Calais, es-caped captivity. So, with his stand-in hostage gone, Johnfelt honour-bound to return to captivity in England.[28][33]

The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (nearsouthern Gascony) since 1354 and in 1363 the Navar-rese used John II’s captivity in London and the politi-cal weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.[34]Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III sup-ported the Navarrese moves particularly as there was aprospect that he might gain control over the northern andwestern provinces as a consequence. With this in mindEdward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.[35]In 1364, John II died in London, while still in hon-ourable captivity.[36] Charles V succeeded him as kingof France.[28][37] On 6 May 1364, one month after thedauphin’s accession and three days before his coronationas Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat atthe Battle of Cocherel.[38]

4 French ascendancy underCharles V: 1369–89

Main article: Hundred Years’ War (1369–1389)See also: Castilian Civil War

4.1 Aquitaine and Castile

Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin in Dinan

The Franco-Castilian Navy, led by Admirals de Vienne andTovar, managed to raid the English coasts for the first time sincethe beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part

6 5 SECOND PEACE: 1389–1415

ofmodern Spain). The ruler Peter of Castile's forces werepitched against those of his half-brother Henry of Trastá-mara. The English crown supported Peter and the French,Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin,a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginningsto prominence as one of France’s war leaders. CharlesV provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at theirhead, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.[39]

Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine’s Black Princefor help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into ex-ile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreedto support Peter’s claims but concerns over the terms ofthe treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as a represen-tative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led anAnglo-Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored topower after Trastámara’s army was defeated at the Battleof Najera.[40]

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the BlackPrince, they failed to do so. The Prince was sufferingfrom ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine.To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign,the prince instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud-Amanieu VIII,Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince’s side dur-ing the war. Albret, who already had become discon-tented by the influx of English administrators into theenlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be col-lected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lordswho appealed to Charles V for support in their refusalto pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lordand the Black Prince to hear the case in his parlement inParis. The Black Prince’s answer was that he would goto Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War brokeout again and Edward III resumed the title of King ofFrance.[41] Charles V declared that all the English pos-sessions in France were forfeited and before the end of1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt.[41][42]

With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry deTrastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter’sdeath at the Battle of Montiel in March, 1369. The newCastilian regime provided naval support to French cam-paigns against Aquitaine and England.[40]

4.2 English turmoil

With his health continuing to deteriorate, the BlackPrince returned to England in January 1371, where bynow his father Edward III was elderly and also in poorhealth. The prince’s illness was debilitating. He died on8 June 1376.[43] Edward III only just outlived his son anddied the following year on 21 June 1377;[44] he was suc-ceeded by the Black Prince’s second son Richard II whowas still a child.[45] The treaty at Brétigny left EdwardIII and England with enlarged holdings in France, how-ever a small professional French army under the leader-ship of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by thetime of Charles V’s death in 1380, the English only held

Calais.[46]

It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a childmonarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, whonominally exercised the power of kingship from the dateof his accession in 1377.[45] However, between 1377 and1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of coun-cils. The political community preferred this to a regencyled by the king’s uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gauntremained highly influential.[45]

Richard faced many challenges during his reign, includ-ing the Peasants’ Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, anAnglo-Scottish war in 1384–85. His attempts to raisetaxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protec-tion of Calais against the French made him increasinglyunpopular.[45]

5 Second peace: 1389–1415

See also: Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Bur-gundiansThe war became increasingly unpopular with the English

Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orléans

public largely due to the high taxes needed to sustain it.These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peas-ants revolt. [47] Richard’s increasing disinterest in the wartogether with his preferential treatment of a select fewclose friends and advisors angered an alliance of lords thatincluded one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords

7

Appellant, managed to successfully press charges of trea-son against five of Richard’s advisors and friends in theMerciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able togain control of the council in 1388 and tried, unsuccess-fully, to reignite the war. Although the will was there,the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumnof 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations withthe French crown, beginning on 18 June 1389 with thesigning of a three-year truce at Leulinghen.[47] [48]

In 1389, Richard’s uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt,returned from Spain and Richard was able to rebuild hispower gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his au-thority and destroyed the principal three among the LordsAppellant. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, RichardII disinherited Gaunt’s son, the exiled Henry of Boling-broke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his support-ers and deposed Richard and had himself crowned HenryIV.[48][49][45]

In Scotland, the English regime change prompted bor-der raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 andthe defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of HomildonHill.[50] A dispute over the spoils between Henry andHenry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in along and bloody struggle between the two for control ofnorthern England, resolved only with the almost completedestruction of the Percy family by 1408.[51][52]

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Waleson 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the mostserious andwidespread rebellion against English authorityinWales since the conquest of 1282–3. The rebellion wasfinally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.[53]

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descendinginto madness and an open conflict for power began be-tween his cousin John the Fearless and his brother, Louisof Orléans. After Louis’s assassination, the Armagnacfamily took political power in opposition to John. By1410, both sides were bidding for the help of Englishforces in a civil war.[49] In 1418 Paris was taken by theBurgundians, whomassacred the Count of Armagnac andabout 2,500 of his followers.[54]

Throughout this period, England confronted repeatedraids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy.There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalisedpiracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. Heused such privateering campaigns to pressure enemieswithout risking open war.[55] The French responded inkind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raidedmany English coastal towns.[56]

The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by Englandand France in this period quieted the war for a decade.[56]

Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced byhis eldest son Henry V. Charles VI of France’s mental ill-ness allowed his power to be exercised by royal princeswhose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry

V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploitthem. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he re-ceived ambassadors from Burgundy.[57]

Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clearhis territorial claims in France; he also demanded thehand of Charles VI’s youngest daughter Catherine of Val-ois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry toprepare for war.[57]

6 Resumption of the war underHenry V: 1415–29

Main article: Hundred Years’ War (1415–1453)

6.1 Burgundy alliance and the taking ofParis

6.1.1 Battle of Agincourt (1415)

Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt.

Main article: Battle of AgincourtIn August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with aforce of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. Thecity resisted for longer than expected, but finally surren-dered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpecteddelay, most of the campaign season was gone. Ratherthan march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raid-ing expedition across France toward English-occupiedCalais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he foundhimself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had tofight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agin-court, north of the Somme. Despite the problems andhaving a smaller force, his victory was near-total; theFrench defeat was catastrophic, costing many of the Ar-magnac leaders. About 40% of the French nobility waskilled.[58] Henry was apparently concerned that the largenumber of prisoners takenwere a security risk (there were

8 6 RESUMPTION OF THE WAR UNDER HENRY V: 1415–29

Clan Carmichael crest with broken spear commemorating the un-seating of the Duke of Clarence.

more French prisoners than the entire English army) andhe ordered their deaths.[57]

6.1.2 Treaty of Troyes (1420)

Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning NormandyEnglish for the first time in two centuries. A formal al-liance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which hadtaken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fear-less in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI.They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry fi-nally married Charles’ daughter Catherine of Valois andHenry’s heirs would inherit the throne of France. TheDauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henryformally entered Paris later that year and the agreementwas ratified by the Estates-General.[57]

6.1.3 Death of Clarence (1421)

On 22 March 1421 Henry V’s progress in his Frenchcampaign experienced an unexpected reverse. Henryhad left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Dukeof Clarence in charge while he returned to England.Clarence engaged a Franco-Scottish force of 5000 men,led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle ofBaugé. Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants,before his army had been fully assembled, attacked witha force of no more than 1500 men-at-arms. He then, dur-ing the course of the battle, led a charge of a few hundred

men into themain body of the Franco-Scottish army, whoquickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing melée, theScot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lanceunhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground,the duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan.[57][59] Thebody of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from thefield by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, whoconducted the English retreat.[60]

6.2 English success

Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then vis-iting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris.From there he decided to attack the Dauphin-held townof Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcomethan first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421,and the town held for seven months before finally fallingon 11 May 1422.[57]

At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen andtogether with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis.While there it became apparent that he was ill (possiblydysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire he di-verted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, wherehe died on 31 August 1422.[57] The elderly and insaneCharles VI of France died two months later, on 21 Oc-tober 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine-month-oldson, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[61]

On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bed-ford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI wasonly an infant). The war in France continued under Bed-ford’s generalship and several battles were won. The En-glish won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil,(17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, Clarence hadrushed into battle without the support of his archers. AtVerneuil the archers fought to devastating effect againstthe Franco-Scottish army. The effect of the battle wasto virtually destroy the Dauphin’s field army and to elim-inate the Scots as a significant military force for the restof the war.[61][62]

6.3 Joan of Arc and French revival

Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of Frenchspirit and the tide began to turn against the English.[61]

In 1428, the English laid siege to Orléans. Their forcewas insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan con-vinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying shehad received visions from God telling her to drive out theEnglish. She raised the morale of the troops and they at-tacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift thesiege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several Englishstrongholds on the Loire.[63]

The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued bya French army. Near the village of Patay, French cav-alry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that

7.2 French resurgence 9

Joan of Arc (c.1450–1500)

had been sent to block the road, then swept through theretreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men,and the commander John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsburywas taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for theDauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as CharlesVII (16 July 1429).[63][64]

After the coronation, Charles VII’s army fared less well.An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew back to theLoire Valley.[65]

7 French victory: 1429–53

7.1 Henry’s coronations and the desertionof Burgundy

Henry VI was crowned king of England at WestminsterAbbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at Notre-Dame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.[61]

Joan was captured by the Burgundians at the siege ofCompiegne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians trans-ferred her to the English, who organised a trial headedby Pierre Cauchon, a pro-English clergyman. Joan wasburned at the stake on 30 May 1431.[63](She was rehabil-itated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III).

The first Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege ofOrléans in 1429.

After Joan of Arc’s death the fortunes of war turned dra-matically against the English.[66] Most of Henry’s royaladvisers were against making peace. Among the factions,the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, theDuke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereasCardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiationsstalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the sum-mer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator,the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few daysafter the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke ofBurgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty ofArras that returned Paris to the King of France. This wasa major blow to English sovereignty in France.[61] TheDuke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was re-placed by a lesser man.[66]

7.2 French resurgence

The Battle of Formigny (1450)

Burgundy’s allegiance remained fickle, but the English fo-cus on expanding their domains into the Low Countriesleft them little energy to intervene in France.[67] The longtruces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise

10 8 SIGNIFICANCE

the French state and reorganise his army and government,replacing his feudal levies with a more modern profes-sional army that could put its superior numbers to gooduse. A castle that once could only be captured after a pro-longed siege would now fall after a few days from cannonbombardment. The French artillery developed a reputa-tion as the best in the world.[66]

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen and in 1450 theCount of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl ofRichmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III,Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting torelieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it.The English army had been attacked from the flank andrear by Richemont’s force just as they were on the vergeof beating Clermont’s army.[68]

7.3 Fall of Gascony

Charles “the Victorious”.

After Charles VII’s successful Normandy campaign in1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony, the lastprovince held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony’s cap-ital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies ofthe Gascon people this was reversed when John Talbotand his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. How-ever, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castil-lon on 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to en-gage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. Dur-ing the battle the French appeared to retreat towards theircamp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out byCharles VII’s ordnance officer Jean Bureau and this wasinstrumental in the French success as when the Frenchcannon opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the

English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and hisson.[69]

7.4 End of the war

Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last bat-tle of the Hundred Years’War,[69] England and France re-mained formally at war for another 20 years, but the En-glish were in no position to carry on the war as they facedunrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years’War, English landowners complained vociferously aboutthe financial losses resulting from the loss of their conti-nental holdings; this is often considered a major cause ofthe War of the Roses, that started in 1455.[66][70]

The Hundred Years’ War almost resumed in 1474, whenthe duke Charles of Burgundy, counting on English sup-port, took up arms against Louis XI of France. Louismanaged to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IVof England off with a large cash sum and an annual pen-sion, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny(1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years’War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne ofFrance. However, future Kings of England continued tokeep the lilies of France (Fleur-de-lis) on their coat ofarms and even bore the title, until 1803, when they weredropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence,titular King Louis XVIII of France, who was living inEngland after the French Revolution.[71]

Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed atthe Battle of Nancy in 1477,[72] leaving a daughter, Mary,who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy andBurgundy to Louis XI’s armies.[72]

8 Significance

The Hundred Years’ War was a time of rapid militaryevolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the so-cial meaning of war all changed, partly in response tothe war’s costs, partly through advancement in technol-ogy and partly through lessons that warfare taught.Before the Hundred Years’ War, heavy cavalry was con-sidered the most powerful unit in an army, but by thewar’s end, this belief had shifted. The heavy horse was in-creasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later,another long-distance weapon: firearms). Edward III wasfamous for dismounting hismen-at-arms and having themand his archers stand in closely integrated battle lines; thehorses only being used for transport or pursuit.[73] TheEnglish began using lightly armoured mounted troops,known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been developedagainst the Scots, in the Anglo-Scottish wars of the 14thcentury. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, en-abling them to move through difficult or boggy terrainwhere heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight

11

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while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engagethe enemy.[74][75][76]

By the end of the Hundred Years’ War, these variousfactors caused the decline of the expensively outfitted,highly trained heavy cavalry and the eventual end of thearmoured knight as a military force and of the nobility asa political one.[76]

The war stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastatedFrance as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism.TheHundred Years’War accelerated the process of trans-forming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralisedstate.[77] In 1445 the first regular standing army since Ro-man times was organised in France partly as a solution tomarauding free companies. The mercenary companieswere given a choice of either joining the Royal army ascompagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, or be-ing hunted down and destroyed if they refused. Francegained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, whichwas sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining merce-naries who insisted on operating on their own. The newstanding army had a more disciplined and professionalapproach to warfare than its predecessors.[76]

The conflict developed such that it was not just betweenthe Kings of England and France but also between theirrespective peoples. There were constant rumours in Eng-land that the French meant to invade and destroy the En-glish language. National feeling that emerged from suchrumours unified both France and England further. TheHundred Years’ War basically confirmed the fall of theFrench language in England, which had served as the lan-guage of the ruling classes and commerce there from thetime of the Norman conquest until 1362.[77]

Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders).

shape England’s early modern political culture. Althoughanti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to in-fluence outcomes at the time, they had a long-term im-pact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conflictdeemed not in the national interest, yielding only lossesin return for high economic burdens. In comparing thisEnglish cost-benefit analysis with French attitudes, giventhat both countries suffered from weak leaders and undis-ciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French understoodthat warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occu-pying their homeland. Furthermore French kings foundalternative ways to finance the war – sales taxes, debas-ing the coinage – and were less dependent than the En-glish on tax levies passed by national legislatures. En-glish anti-war critics thus had more to work with than theFrench.[78]

Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population num-bers throughout Europe during this period. France losthalf its population during the Hundred Years’ War.[58]Normandy lost three-quarters of its population, and Paristwo-thirds.[79] The population of England was reduced by20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.[80]

9 Timeline

12 12 NOTES

9.1 Battles

Further information: List of Hundred Years’ War battles

10 Important figures

11 See also

• Timeline of the Hundred Years’ War

• French military history

• British military history

• Anglo-French relations

• Medieval demography

• Second Hundred Years’ War- this is the name givenby some historians to the near-continuous series ofconflicts between Britain and France from 1688–1815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution andending with the Battle of Waterloo.

• List of battles involving France in the Middle Ages

12 Notes[1] As noted in, e.g., Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and

the American Approach to Foreign Policy, Bucknell Uni-versity Press, 1989; p. 87 (“the English Channel gavethe nation a sense of geographical remoteness”, while its“navy fostered a sense of physical unassailability” thatlasted until the early 20th century).

[2] Bartlett 2000, p. 22

[3] Bartlett 2000, p. 17

[4] Gormley 2007 Ohio State University

[5] Brissaud 1915, pp. 329–330

[6] Previte-Orton 1978, p. 872

[7] Harris 1994, p. 8

[8] Prestwich 1988, p. 298

[9] Prestwich 2005, pp. 292–293

[10] Wilson 2011, p. 194

[11] Prestwich 2005, p. 394

[12] Prestwich 2005, p. 306

[13] Sumption 1991, p. 180

[14] Sumption 1991, p. 184

[15] Prestwich 2003, pp. 149–150

[16] Prestwich 2005, pp. 307–312

[17] Friar 2004, pp. 480–481

[18] R.E.Glassock. England circa 1334 in Darby 1976 NewEdition, p. 160

[19] Sumption 1991, pp. 188–189

[20] Sumption 1991, pp. 233–234

[21] Rogers 2010, pp. 88–89

[22] Prestwich 2005, pp. 318–319

[23] Rogers 2010, pp. 55–45

[24] Grummitt 2008, p. 1

[25] The BlackDeath, transl. & ed. RosemayHorrox, (Manch-ester University Press, 1994), 9.

[26] Le Patourel 1984, pp. 20–21

[27] Wilson 2011, p. 218

[28] Guignebert 1930, Volume 1. pp.304–307

[29] de Venette 1953, p. 66

[30] Prestwich 2005, p. 326

[31] Le Patourel 1984, p. 189

[32] Le Patourel 1984, p. 32

[33] s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brétigny.

[34] Wagner 2006, pp. 102–103

[35] Ormrod. Edward III. p. 384

[36] Backman 2003, pp. 179–180 – Nobles captured in bat-tle were held in “Honorable Captivity”, which recognisedtheir status as prisoners of war and permitted ransom.

[37] Britannica. Treaty of Brétigny. Retrieved 21 September2012

13

[38] Wagner 2006, pp. 86

[39] Curry 2002, pp. 69–70

[40] Wagner 2006, p. 78

[41] Wagner 2006, p. 122

[42] Wagner 2006, pp. 3–4

[43] Barber, Richard (2008). “Edward , prince of Wales andof Aquitaine (1330–76) in Oxford Dictionary of NationalBiography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn.Subscription Required”. Retrieved 3 October 2012.

[44] Omrod, W. M (2008). “Edward III (1312–1377) in Ox-ford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Univer-sity Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required”. Re-trieved 3 October 2012.

[45] Tuck, Richard (2008). “Richard II (1367–1400 in Ox-ford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Univer-sity Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required”. Re-trieved 3 October 2012.

[46] Francoise Autrand. Charles VKing of France inVauchéz.Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Volume 1. pp. 283–284

[47] Baker 2000, p. 6

[48] Neillands 1990, pp. 182–184

[49] Curry 2002, pp. 77–82

[50] Mortimer 2008, pp. 253–254

[51] Mortimer 2008, pp. 263–264

[52] Bean, J.M.W (2008). “Percy, Henry, first earl ofNorthumberland (1341–1408) in Oxford Dictionary ofNational Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; on-line edn. Subscription Required”. Retrieved 8 October2012.

[53] Smith, Llinos (2008). “Glyn Dŵr , Owain (c.1359–c.1416) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Ox-ford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Re-quired”. Retrieved 8 October 2012.

[54] Sizer, Michael (2007). “The Calamity of Violence: Read-ing the ParisMassacres of 1418”. Retrieved 29December2013.

[55] Ian Friel. The English and War at Sea. c.1200-c1500 inHattendorf. War at Sea. pp. 76–77

[56] Nolan. The Age of Wars of Religion. p. 424

[57] Allmand, C.T (2008). “Henry V (1386–1422) in Ox-ford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Univer-sity Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required”. Re-trieved 8 October 2012.

[58] Turchin 2003, pp. 179–180Historical dynamics: whystates rise and fall

[59] Wagner 2006, pp. 44–45

[60] G. L. Harriss, ‘Thomas , duke of Clarence (1387–1421)’,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford Uni-versity Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2010 accessed 14May 2013 Subscription required.

[61] Griffiths 2004

[62] Wagner 2006, pp. 307–308

[63] Davis 2003, pp. 76–80

[64] “Sir John Fastolf”. Norwich: Norfolk Record Office. Re-trieved 20 December 2012.

[65] Jaques, Tony. 2007. Westport, Connecticut: GreenwoodPress. p. 777. Retrieved January 21, 2015.

[66] Lee 1998, pp. 145–147

[67] Sumption 1991, p. 562

[68] Nicole 2012, pp. 26–35

[69] Wagner 2006, p. 79

[70] Webster 1998, pp. 39–40: “Every version of the com-plaints put forward by the rebels in 1450 harps on thelosses in France.”

[71] Neillands 1990, pp. 290–291

[72] Charles Derek Ross, Edward IV, (University of CaliforniaPress, 1974), 249–250.

[73] Powicke 1962, p. 189

[74] Colm McNamee. Hobelars in Rogers 2010, pp. 267–268

[75] Jones 2008, pp. 1–17

[76] Preston, Wise & Werner 1991, pp. 84–89

[77] Holmes, Urban & Schutz 1948, p. 61

[78] Lowe 1997, pp. 147–195

[79] Ladurie 1987, p. 32The French peasantry, 1450–1660

[80] Neillands 1990, pp. 110–111

13 References

• Baker, Denise Nowakowski, ed. (2000). Inscribingthe Hundred Years’ War in French and English Cul-tures. NewYork: NewYork University Press. ISBN0791447014.

• Backman, Clifford R (2003). The Worlds of Me-dieval Europe. New York: Oxford University Press.ISBN 0-1953-3527-9.

• Bartlett, Robert (2000). J.M.Roberts, ed. EnglandUnder the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075−1225.London: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-925101-8.

14 13 REFERENCES

• Brissaud, Jean (1915). Garner, James W. Tr, ed.History of French Public Law. The Continental Le-gal History series. Vol 9. Boston: Little, Brown andCompany.

• Curry, Anne (2002). The Hundred Years War1337–1453. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-269-5.

• Darby, H. C. (1976) [1973]. A New Historical Ge-ography of England before 1600. Cambridge, Eng-land: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29144-5.

• Davis, Paul K (2003). Besieged: 100 Great Siegesfrom Jericho to Sarajevo 2nd. Ed. Santa BarbaraCA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-521930-9.

• “Encyclopædia Britannica Online”. EncyclopædiaBritannica. Retrieved 21 September 2012.

• Favier, Jean (1980). La Guerre de Cent Ans. Paris:Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-00898-1.

• Friar, Stephen (2004). The Sutton Companion to Lo-cal History. Sparkford, England: Sutton. ISBN 0-7509-2723-2.

• Froissart, Jean (1895). Macaulay; George Camp-bell, ed. The Chronicles of Froissart. JohnBourchier Translator; Lord Berners Translator.London: Macmillan and Son. Retrieved 24 Septem-ber 2012.

• Gormley, Larry (2007). "eHistory:The HundredYears War: Overview”. Ohio State University. Re-trieved 20 September 2012.

• Griffiths, R.A (2004). “Henry VI (1421–1471) inOxford Dictionary of National Biography; onlineedn, Sept 2010; Subscription required”. OxfordUniversity Press. Retrieved 9 October 2012.

• Grummitt, David (2008). The Calais Garrison:War and Military Service in England, 1436–1558.Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-398-7.

• Guignebert, Charles (1930). A Short History of theFrench People. Vol 1. F. G. Richmond Translator.New York: Macmilan Company.

• Harris, Robin (1994). Studies in History 71: Val-ois Guyenne. Woodbridge, Surrey: Boydell Press.ISBN 0-86193-226-9.

• Hattendorf, John B; Unger, RichardW, eds. (2003).War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-903-6.

• Holmes, Jr, Urban T; Schutz, Alexander H (1948).A History of the French Language, Revised ed.Columbus, OH: Harold L. Hedrick.

• Jones, Robert (2008). “Re-thinking the origins ofthe Irish Hobelar”. Cardiff: Cardiff School of His-tory and Archaeology. Retrieved 8 April 2013.

• Lambert, Craig L. “Edward III’s siege of Calais:A reappraisal,” Journal of Medieval History (2011)37#3 pp 231–342

• Lee, Cristopher (1998). This Sceptred Isle:55BC-1901. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-140-26133-8.

• Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy (1987). The Frenchpeasantry, 1450–1660. Alan Sheridan Translator.Berkeley and LA: University of California Press.ISBN 0-520-05523-3.

• Lowe, Ben (1997). Imagining Peace: Historyof Early English Pacifist Ideas. University ParkPA: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN0271016892.

• Mortimer, Ian (2008). The Fears of Henry IV:the Life of England’s Self-Made King. London:Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-1-844-13529-5.

• Neillands, Robin (1990). The Hundred Years War,Revised ed. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26131-7.

• Nicolle, David (2012). The Fall of English France1449–53. Colchester, Essex: Osprey Publishing.ISBN 978-1-84908-616-5.

• Ormrod,WMark (2001). Edward III. London: YaleUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-30-011910-7.

• Le Patourel, John (1984). Jones, Michael, ed.Feudal Empires:Norman and Plantagenet. London:Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 0-907628-22-2. Re-trieved 26 September 2012.

• Powicke, Michael (1962). Military Obligation inMedieval England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 0-198-20695-X.

• Preston, Richard; Wise, Sydney F.; Werner, Her-man O. (1991). Men in arms: a history of warfareand its interrelationships with Western society. 5thEdition. Beverley MA: Wadsworth Publishing CoInc. ISBN 0-03-033428-4.

• Prestwich, Michael (1988). English Monarchs: Ed-ward I. Berkeley and LA: University of California.ISBN 0-520-06266-3.

• Prestwich, Michael (2003). The Three Edwards:War and State in England 1272–1377. London:Routledge. ISBN 0-203-60713-9.

15

• Prestwich, Michael (2005). J.M.Roberts, ed. Plan-tagenet England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-922687-0.

• Previte-Orton, C.W (1978). The shorter CambridgeMedieval History 2. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 0-521-20963-3.

• Rogers, Clifford J, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclo-pedia ofMedievalWarfare andMilitary Technology.Vol. 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-533403-6.

• Sumption, Jonathan (1991). The Hundred YearsWar I: Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1655-5.

• Turchin, Peter (2003). Historical dynamics: whystates rise and fall. Princeton: Princeton University.ISBN 0-691-11669-5.

• Vauchéz, Andre, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of theMiddle ages. Volume 1. Cambridge: James Clark.ISBN 1-57958-282-6.

• de Venette, Jean (1953). Newall, Richard A, ed.The Chronicle of Jean de Venette. Translated by JeanBirdsall. New York: Columbia University Press.

• Wagner, John A (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hun-dred Years War. Westport CT: Greenwood Press.ISBN 0-313-32736-X.

• Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars of the Roses.London: UCL Press. ISBN 1-85728-493-3.

• Wilson, Derek (2011). The Plantagenets. The Kingsthat made Britain. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-0-85738-004-3.

14 External links• The Hundred Years War and the History of Navarre

• Timeline of the Hundred Years War

• The Hundred Years’ War (1336–1565) by Dr. LynnH. Nelson, University of Kansas Emeritus

• The Hundred Years’ War information and game

• The Company Of Chivalry: Re-enactment Societyat the time of the 100 Years War

• Jean Froissart, “On The Hundred YearsWar (1337–1453)" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook

• Online database of Soldiers serving in the HundredYears War

16 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text• Hundred Years’ War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20Years’{}%20War?oldid=647501076 Contributors: AxelBoldt,

Mav, The Anome, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Deb, Roadrunner, Ben-Zin, Ktsquare, Dieter Simon, KF, Olivier, Rickyrab,Stevertigo, Zocky, Kku, Liftarn, SGBailey, Menchi, Dramatic, Davejenk1ns, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Arwel Parry, Muriel Gottrop,Александър, Djnjwd, Ghewgill, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Nevdka, Grover, Shizhao, Ironman419, Dcsohl, Wetman, John-leemk, Camerong, Veghead, Jeffq, Robbot, TomPhil, KeithH, PBS, Simonf, Donreed, Naddy, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Lowellian, May-ooranathan, Bkell, Wally, Hadal, Kent Wang, Cutler, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Cobra libre, Treanna, Nadavspi, Lethe, RealGrouchy,Zigger, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, NeoJustin, Joconnor, Dsmdgold, Nkocharh, Siroxo, Grant65, Auximines, Dvava-sour, Gdr, Hawo1701, Quadell, Ralphspikyhair, Sendervictorius, Antandrus, Madmagic, Sproctor, Robert Brockway, Cb6, OwenBlacker,Neutrality, Willhsmit, Imjustmatthew, Grunt, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Ultratomio, Ma'ame Michu, Kathar, Discospin-ster, Rich Farmbrough, Ericamick, Roybb95, SpookyMulder, Stbalbach, ESkog, Jaberwocky6669, Kaisershatner, Swid, Violetriga, El C,Hayabusa future, CJWilly, Constantine, Bobo192, Smalljim, Ygfperson, Man vyi, Sam Korn, Ogress, Conny, Wereldburger758, Alan-sohn, Gary, Enirac Sum, Eixo, Duffman, Ryanmcdaniel, CyberSkull, Fornadan, Bz2, Mailer diablo, Spangineer, Ledrug, Lejend, Jheald,RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Axeman89, Dryman, Tiger Khan, Oleg Alexandrov, Brookie, Jackhynes, Stemonitis, OwenX, Woohookitty,Xover, Sandius, TigerShark, ScottDavis, Adamov, LOL, Merlinme, Edgerunner76, Brunnock, Miaow Miaow, Pol098, WadeSimMiser,Ardfern, Trapolator, HHornblower, Schzmo, Grika, Abel29a, GregorB, M412k, SDC, Plrk, Hughcharlesparker, Duf Davis, Gimboid13,Palica, SzymonS, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Wraybm1, DavidCane, BD2412, Solace098, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan,Coemgenus, Markkawika, T-Dub, Vary, Bob A, Tangotango, Bruce1ee, Feydey, Tawker, Funnyhat, Lendorien, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp,FlaBot, Old Moonraker, AdnanSa, Billdorr, Catsmeat, Nivix, Wsk, RexNL, Gurch, Choess, CoolFox, Pevernagie, Wingsandsword, Grub-bybest, Skin, Valentinian, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Mhking, VolatileChemical, Peter Grey, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength,Sceptre, Hairy Dude, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, WAvegetarian, Chroniclev, Center-for-Medieval-Studies, FrisoHoltkamp, Kirill Lok-shin, KevinCuddeback, Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Shreshth91, MiracleMan2, ONEder Boy, Topper-falkon, Rjensen, Nick Roberts, Howcheng, Arrigo, Cenedi, Rmky87, Snarius, Mysid, Alexius Manfelt, Bota47, Elkman, 1717, Blacksand,AnnaKucsma, Sandstein, Mev532, Capt Jim, Laszlo Panaflex, Paul Magnussen, Phgao, Warfreak, Barryob, Nikkimaria, Arthur Rubin,Pietdesomere, Josh3580, NYArtsnWords, Suredeath, De Administrando Imperio, Mercenary2k, Aeon1006, JoanneB, LeonardoRob0t,BME, Cheezykins, Allens, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, RG2, Jenda, GrinBot, Samuel Blanning, Highest-Authority-on-Joan-of-Arc-Related-Scholarship, DVD R W, NetRolller 3D, Blastwizard, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Rob110178, Roger Davies, Thierry Caro, Cubs Fan, NSLE,KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Stretch 135, Pgk, C.Fred, Iopq, Rrius, Davewild, Delldot, Canthusus, Mauls, Alsandro, Srnec, MadBill, Xaosflux, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Betacommand, Skizzik, RobertM525, ERcheck, Durova, Bluebot, Keegan, DStoykov, Jprg1966,Papa November, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Jeff5102, Ctbolt, Monkeycheetah, Paladin2005, DHN-bot, Colonies Chris, MaxSem, Reikishika, Sudar, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Tamfang, Alphathon, OrphanBot,Boxersoft, Stevenmitchell, Dharmabum420, Aldaron, Krich, Downtown dan seattle, Jediwannabe, Nakon, Lucius funk, Kntrabssi, Blake-,JanCeuleers, Shadow1, BinaryTed, Louis Do Nothing, S@bre, Salamurai, Cbriens, Richard0612, Pilotguy, Kukini, Drmaik, Ohconfu-cius, SashatoBot, Esrever, ArglebargleIV, Swatjester, Zahid Abdassabur, ThomasHoughton, UberCryxic, Lapaz, Marco polo, Kipala,Bucksburg, Mon Vier, Hotel Caliphate, Goodnightmush, Majorclanger, IronGargoyle, PseudoSudo, Cwiki, A. Parrot, Nbatra, BillFlis,Gerrynobody, Hvn0413, Hikoto, Lampman, Optimale, Publicus, AxG, Maksim L., Waggers, Martian.knight, In defense, UserNameless,Neddyseagoon, Markjdb, RMHED, CJ DUB, Tonster, Hu12, Mike Doughney, DabMachine, Iridescent, NEMT, Clarityfiend, Shoeofdeath,Boreas74, GDallimore, Igoldste, FubarDac, Majora4, Courcelles, English Achilles, O0pyromancer0o, Tawkerbot2, Asteuartw, Absolut-Dan, Lahiru k, JForget, TORR, Twipie, Texans37sox9, Texans37sox, Banasisaboxofrocks, CmdrObot, NKSCF, Kthor, John RiemannSoong, Michaelsanders, Basawala, Chopbox, Dgw, Halbared, Lyoko is Cool, Logical2u, Stormx2, ONUnicorn, Doctorevil64, Andkore,Tim1988, Editor Mike, Equendil, Cydebot, Nqa, Peripitus, Ejconard, Jackyd101, Nick Wilson, Cristian Cappiello, Heff01, Xxanthippe,Ttiotsw, Adolphus79, Tawkerbot4, Demomoke, DumbBOT, Yellowriver, Garik, Inkington, Martin23230, Lewisskinner, UberScienceNerd,Satori Son, Aldis90, Saintrain, Greblord, Dmtni67, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Lord Hawk, Biruitorul, Captain Pedant, David from Downun-der, SeNeKa, N5iln, Gamer007, Id447, Ushionna, Octoberdan, Marek69, West Brom 4ever, John254, SomeStranger, S0mepers0n, Yet-tie0711, Spanish Inquisition, Wikiturk, My name, Sam42, Insiriusdenial, Orfen, Haha169, Mercutio.Wilder, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot,Konman72, Majorly, PARA19, MatthieuN, Jayron32, Brendandh, Iarnell, Dylan Lake, LibLord, Trumpkin, Lfstevens, James Fargher,Bjenks, Myanw, Ghmyrtle, Leuqarte, Darrenhusted, GWhitewood, DuncanHill, Ljhliesl, MER-C, Speculoos, Arch dude, Tca achintya,Sigurd Dragon Slayer, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Bearly541, LittleOldMe, Tavn8r, Magioladitis, Pharillon, Thasaidon, Bongwarrior, VoABotII, Bakken, CattleGirl, SineWave, AegisEditing, Cyktsui, Cliché Online, Imeisel, Allstarecho, DerHexer, Edward321, Poopsmells, John-brownsbody, Archipoeta, Cocytus, MartinBot, Eternal Pink, Brickie, Rettetast, Charles Edward, Agnello99, Wylve, Kostisl, R'n'B, Com-monsDelinker, TraderJack, Halo715, Aikenator, Lilac Soul, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Jamespeterka, Sasajid, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1,Kimse, Ralphnovy, Yonidebot, Kudpung, Em1212, Acalamari, Xbspiro, It Is Me Here, BrokenSphere, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno, John-bod, Mr Rookles, McSly, Gmchambless1, Bailo26, Mjb1981, Scott318, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Moosetophat, TomasBat, NewEng-landYankee, NoodlePowa, Ndunruh, Ohms law, Kansas Bear, 2help, Cometstyles, Ledenierhomme, DH85868993, Smiter, Trip Johnson,Abhoravacuum, AndyMarchbanks, Bully25, TheNewPhobia, CardinalDan, Spellcast, ChaosNil, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, CWii, Ryn78,Jeff G., Correctory, Jennavecia, AlnoktaBOT, TheOtherJesse, Gpeilon, FergusM1970, Tdbndtb, Landisdesign, Philip Trueman, TXiKi-BoT, DeeKenn, Bob00001111, A4bot, Miranda, Anonymous Dissident, Sean D Martin, JayC, Someguy1221, Autobogg, Stop plz, Arc-ticflea, Mark Miller, Andrei nacu, Melsaran, DennyColt, Bass fishing physicist, Martin451, BotKung, JCDixon, Terrymacro, Zipola, Wenli,Andy Dingley, Cantiorix, Strangerer, Burntsauce, TrickOfTheLight, Insanity Incarnate, Matth8 18, Skarz, Monty845, Jimmi Hugh, Logan,Sfmammamia, EmxBot, Trey, Chessgrand, Itfcnut, Roberto123, EJF, Lylefor, StAnselm, Arpad13, Mikemoral, Ipankonin, Hertz1888,Nangboy20, DavisGL, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Triwbe, Yintan, SuzanneIAM, Sockettome, Marikong, Francish7, Keilana, Bentogoa, OdaMari, Oxymoron83, Tefalstar, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, Smilesfozwood, AngelOfSadness, Rob101abc, Adam37, Gariak, Light-mouse, Techman224, Ealdgyth, Wlegro, Int21h, Hamishseb79, Paul Clapham, Samlax16, Svick, Duae Quartunciae, Alefbe, AnchorLink Bot, Mygerardromance, Iaroslavvs, Misiu mp, Escape Orbit, Kanonkas, Dancingwombatsrule, ClueBot, Phoenix-wiki, PipepBot,Cencini, Snigbrook, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rsternfels, Shark96z, XPTO, Optimus82, Senzangakhona, Whs295, Daneef-pedreira, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Nearly Human, 32 Osama B1n Laden 10, Mdlawmba, Estevoaei, Blanchardb,P. S. Burton, Dylan620, Great shining light of nerdy truth, Piledhigheranddeeper, Edknol, Auntof6, Boneyard90, Excirial, Sheled Um-lal, Jusdafax, Arundel39, Ketchum789456, Hunterjake2000, Arcot, Abrech, Leonard^Bloom, Bukk4k3, Khaolian, Sublime5891, Gui-tartennis, Audaciter, Ottawa4ever, Thehelpfulone, Aitias, Versus22, Berean Hunter, SoxBot III, SF007, Toxicbreakfast, SuddenFrost,Hotcrocodile, Asste, Ursutraide, Jovianeye, Rror, BuzzardBait, NellieBly, CapnZapp, Badgernet, Alexius08, Vianello, Davidsthebest,

15.2 Images 17

Thatguyflint, Kram Ecir, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Anderscj, Jojhutton, Hda3ku, PC-Cat, Jncraton, Metsavend, Yelizandpaul, Canadi-anLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Fluffernutter, Le frontage, Glane23, * and Obelisk, Mecjmr, Favonian, Userloginname, LinkFA-Bot, TheQuill, Mrtsqurt, Numbo3-bot, Alanscottwalker, Tide rolls, Bfigura’s puppy, Lightbot, Spartanmongol, Luckas Blade, Arbitrarily0, Quantu-mobserver, Ben Ben, Wajwoda, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Victoriaearle, SwisterTwister, Eric-Wester, Synchronism,AnomieBOT, Kmp109, Quirq, True as Blue, Tucoxn, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Mugginsx, Nick UA, Flewis, Materialscien-tist, ImperatorExercitus, Er Cicero, Madras Cuddy, Mattsibson, Toad rules, ArthurBot, Oftopladb, Xqbot, Platewq, Estlandia, Gilo1969,RedKiteUK, GrouchoBot, Homyakchik, Cruz-iglesia, Polishroyalty69, Wizardist, Alexscara, Herefordnuthouse, Anotherclown, Ribot-BOT, SassoBot, Sabrebd, Colinward1970, Williamli94, GhalyBot, DITWIN GRIM, Joaquin008, Vlastimil Svoboda, Green Cardamom,პაატა შ, Huntrt789467, Hunter789467, FrescoBot, Wilfridselsey, Tobby72, Urgos, LavenhamHistorian, Igna, Weetoddid, Drew R. Smith,HamburgerRadio, Hchc2009, Prettysmartideas, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Hamtechperson, Codwiki, Nobart, SpaceFlight89, James-Grimshaw, Jandalhandler, B-Machine, Full-date unlinking bot, Alarichus, Jauhienij, Tim1357, Abc518, Kgrad, Thestraycat57, Clarkcj12,Drlf, Specs112, Diannaa, Tbhotch, Bobert2011, Jfmantis, VernoWhitney, Thesmatestguy, Slon02, DASHBot, EmausBot, PG9515611,Never give in, Dewritech, DarthVader12, Lesviolonsdautomne, GoingBatty, RA0808, Vanished user zq46pw21, Slightsmile, Tommy2010,Connor1138, Jbower47, Wikipelli, TeleComNasSprVen, John of Lancaster, ZéroBot, Fæ, Traxs7, Adelbrecht, Wayne Slam, UltimaRa-tio, L1A1 FAL, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Kranix, Reigen, Donner60, 2tuntony, Andercm,Damirgraffiti, Orange Suede Sofa, BobM3, Shvybzik, TRAJAN 117, Alexandrevennes, ClueBot NG, Sherlock701, Onegoodone, Hjvesey,Piast93, Name Omitted, Bright Darkness, ConconJondor, Primergrey, Barbeau87, MrBurglarMan, PukiBunz81, Duderush, Widr, AndrewThomas 2, Limestone93cmb, Renee91, Mt2489, Helpful Pixie Bot, DmitryKsWikis, Tidus360, Calidum, Calabe1992, Buffboy1954, Low-ercase sigmabot, Justintbassett, Athomas.wadh, Krenair, Mouloud47, Northamerica1000, Ouikimedia, Wiki13, ISpinksy, Chris the Paleon-tologist, Mark Arsten, Ramma re, Fed0ras, Dainomite, Lapipette, Zilla And LeGit, Writ Keeper, WyzimaXIV, Mishmiceter, Achowat, Ll-lloooovvvveeee, Cormag100, Justincheng12345-bot, Paddy1234, I1990k, Betterbinder, Aldwynson, GoShow, Khazar2, Milhisfan, JYBot,Symphonic Spenguin, Platopete, Mr Timeline, Dexbot, Mogism, Doyler182, Dechrwr, Yahoo12123, Lugia2453, Jdmcclain1212, Frosty,Kevin12xd, CSorBb, Radarm, Blaue Max, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Jan Haseler, Ljoenf, Ghousd, Pauline1965, LordWiltshire1529,MaestroEditador, Faithwashere, Aragotton, Iloveobama69, Ginsuloft, Sam Sailor, Theo'reillyfactor, Noyster, P.p.japonensis, The toadlicker, Steelersfan1031, Walz47, Thebestmotherflippinghistorianever, Dameon.Crago, Jiltsedge, Lmfame, Fposting, Craymsh1, SamWil-son989, Gemerrty, FourViolas, BUjjsp, Jacopo machetti, Jambler98, Ll Da Mo ll, Fifi1029 and Anonymous: 1502

15.2 Images• File:Agincourt_miniature.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Agincourt_miniature.JPG License: Pub-

lic domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:Assassinat_louis_orleans.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Assassinat_louis_orleans.jpg License:

Public domain Contributors: Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF) -Banque d'images du département de la reproduction Original artist:Anonymous

• File:BattleofSluys.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/BattleofSluys.jpeg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Blason_France_moderne.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Blason_France_moderne.svg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Blason_fr_Bourgogne.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Blason_fr_Bourgogne.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg'class='image' title='Image:Meuble héraldique Fleur de lys.svg'><img alt='Image:Meuble héraldique Fleur de lys.svg'src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/20px-Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png' width='20' height='26' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/30px-Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/40px-Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png 2x'data-file-width='711' data-file-height='919' /></a> (Yorick )Original artist: English: Picture made for the Blazon Project of French-speaking Wikipedia

• File:Bubonic_plague_map.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Bubonic_plague_map.PNG License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

• Translation of this: de-Wikipedia German map into English Original artist:• Original by Roger Zenner (de-WP)• File:Charles_VII_by_Jean_Fouquet_1445_1450.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Charles_VII_by_

Jean_Fouquet_1445_1450.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: ?• File:Clan_member_crest_badge_-_Clan_Carmichael.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Clan_

member_crest_badge_-_Clan_Carmichael.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader. The crest is adapted froman image from a book that is out of copyright - Armorial Families : A Directory of Gentlemen of Coat-Armour, volume 2, published in1905. Original artist: Celtus (Celtus @ english wikipedia)

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Crécy_-_Grandes_Chroniques_de_France.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Cr%C3%A9cy_-_Grandes_Chroniques_de_France.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Grandes Chroniques de France, British Library Cotton MSNero E. II pt.2, f.152v Original artist: Copiste inconnu

• File:Du_Guesclin_Dinan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Du_Guesclin_Dinan.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Edward_III_counting_the_dead_on_the_battlefield_of_Crécy.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Edward_III_counting_the_dead_on_the_battlefield_of_Cr%C3%A9cy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Jean Froissart,Chroniques (Vol. I) Original artist: Virgil Master (illuminator)

18 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Hommage_of_Edward_I_to_Philippe_le_Bel.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Hommage_of_Edward_I_to_Philippe_le_Bel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Les Grandes Chroniques de France, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.Reproduction in “Les Rois de France”, Hachette. Original artist: Jean Fouquet

• File:Hundred_Years’{}_War_montage.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Hundred_Years%27_War_montage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: See images below. Original artist: See images below.

• File:Joan_of_arc_miniature_graded.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Joan_of_arc_miniature_graded.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

• Colour-graded to reveal more detail using GIMP software “curves” tool Original artist: Miniature from the 15th century• File:Map_France_1477-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Map_France_1477-en.svg License: CC-

BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work. Image renamed from Image:Map France History XVe.svg. Data: # Map “France in the late 15thcentury”, from Muir’s Historical Atlas: Medieval and Modern, Londres, 1911 (digitized copy at Internet Medieval Sourcebook). # Legend (seebelow): #*Ibid.; #*Grand Atlas Historique, Éditions du Livre de Paris, Paris, 1968; #*Wikipedia. Original artist: Zigeuner (original), KaiserTorikka (translation)

• File:Ofensivas_Tovar-Vienne_contra_Inglaterra_01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ofensivas_Tovar-Vienne_contra_Inglaterra_01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Coats of arms included: England, Castile and France.Original artist: Luis García (Zaqarbal)

• File:Royal_Arms_of_England_(1399-1603).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Royal_Arms_of_England_%281399-1603%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sodacan

• File:Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Royal_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:

• Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg Original artist: Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg:Sodacan

• File:Siege_orleans.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Siege_orleans.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:TimeLine100YearsWar_(cropped).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/TimeLine100YearsWar_%28cropped%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This file was derived from: TimeLine100YearsWar.png <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TimeLine100YearsWar.png' class='image'><img alt='TimeLine100YearsWar.png' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TimeLine100YearsWar.png/50px-TimeLine100YearsWar.png' width='50' height='35'srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TimeLine100YearsWar.png/75px-TimeLine100YearsWar.png1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TimeLine100YearsWar.png/100px-TimeLine100YearsWar.png 2x'data-file-width='1123' data-file-height='794' /></a>Original artist: TimeLine100YearsWar.png: Mr Timeline

• File:Vigiles_du_roi_Charles_VII_32.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Vigiles_du_roi_Charles_VII_32.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.histoire-fr.com/valois_charles7_4.htm Original artist: Unknown

15.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0