I.Theories of Information-Seeking
Behavior
II.Information-Gathering Process by
Selected Groups
I.Theories of Information-Seeking
Behavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• activities a person may engage in when identifying his or her own needs for information
• searching for such information in any way
• and using or transferring that information (T.D. Wilson 1999)
Information behavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
nested model of the information behavior, information-seeking behavior, information searching behavior areas
•dimension of information behavior studied •methods•purposes and applicationinformation-
searchbehavior
information-seekingbehavior
informationbehavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• interactions between information-searcher and information-provider
• limited to the design of information retrieval (IR) systems
• models of users in interaction with IR systems (Saracevic, Belkin, Ingwersen)
Information-searching behavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• Wilson (1981)• Dervin (1983, 1996)• Ellis (1989); with Cox and Hall
(1993)• Kuhlthau (1991)• Wilson (1996)
5 Models of Information(-Seeking) Behavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
Dervin’s Sense-Making Framework
GAP OUTCOME
SITUATION
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
Ellis’ Behavioral Framework & Kuhlthau’s Stage Process Model
STAGE Initiation Selection/Exploration Formulation Collection Presentation
Recognize Identify / Formulate Gather Complete
ACTIVITY
Starting Chaining Differentiating Extracting Verifying >Ending
Browsing
Monitoring
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• Ellis & Kuhlthau: active search mode of information-seeking behavior
• Dervin: framework for exploring the totality of information behavior (exploration of the context in which information needs arise to the means whereby need is satisfied either through active searching or otherwise)
5 Models of Information(-Seeking) Behavior
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
Wilson’s Model of Information behaviorInformation user
Success
Need
Information-seeking behaviorInformation use
Satisfaction or non-satisfaction
Other people
Failure
Demands on otherinformation sources
Demands on information systems
Information exchange
Information transfer
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• theories are models of methodologies, rather than a model of a set of activities or a situation
• case studies of information-seeking behavior (empirical component) are driven by theories and models of methodologies
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• Quantitative methods not appropriate for the study of human behavior (counting of number of visits to libraries, number of personal subscriptions to journals, citation practices)
positivist tradition (1940s to 1970s)
Theories of Information-Seeking Behavior
• Qualitative methods appropriate for the study of human behavior (from allied work in related areas that have built robust theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches)
• emergence of general models of information behavior in the last 10-15 years)
post-positivist tradition (from the early 1970s)
An Integrated Model of Information-Seeking Behaviors
• iterative model of information-seeking behavior (series of interactions, learning process by the user, implications for design of IR systems)
• two-step flow of communication model and the notion of the “gatekeeper”
• informal transfer of information between individuals (information exchanges)
An Integrated Model of Information-Seeking Behaviors
• uncertainty vs. relevance as focus
II.Information-Gathering Process by
Selected Groups
Information-Gathering by Selected Groups
(information needs of four professional groups)
Decision-makersProblem-solversPeople-centeredSelf-expression
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• politicians, public administrators, judges, managers, supervisors, business people, institution presidents
• scientists, researchers, engineers, architects, philosophers, planners, statisticians, economists, computer programmers
Decision-makers
Problem-solvers
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• doctors, lawyers, police, firefighters, clergy, information specialists, social workers, teachers
• actors, musicians, authors, sculptors, composers, photographers, decorators
People-centered
Self-expression
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
sample questions each group might ask
What must I know about a subject?
What could I know about a subject?
What should I know about a subject?What would I like to know about a subject?
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• task oriented
• goal-oriented
• people-oriented
• expression-oriented
Decision-makersProblem-solvers
information need /goal
People-centeredSelf-expression
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• human-human and human-machine interaction
• aggregated / synthesized / capsulated
• indicators / trends
• “smoothed out” to eliminate aberrations
• assistants and other surrogates
Decision-makers
information modes /resources
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• human-human and human-machine interaction
• factual / quantitative / detailed / specific
• observations and measurements (data)
• browsing
• documents and literature
Problem-solvers
information modes /resources
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• human-human and human-machine interaction
• “who to see,” “where to go,” “when to do”
• coping
• standards and guidelines / laws, rules, regulations
• “how to use,” “where to find”
People-centered
information modes /resources
Information Needs of Four Professional Groups
• human-human and human-machine interaction
• travel / visits
• dreams
• observations
• impressions
Self-expression
information modes /resources
Implications for Information Service, IR System Development
R.T. Morris: Toward a User-Centered Information Service. JASIS 45 (1) 1994
• forms of delivery • resources• role of information
professionals (intermediaries) and end-users
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
conceptual models about information held in a subject domain, by a group of users
user studies focus on information-seeking behaviors of distinct professional groups because these differences among various user populations determine how they organize information for retrieval
•
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
personal information systems (individual’s information handling)
public schemes (depend on convention)
•
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
user’s motivation in storage and retrieval of text is important in how personal information space is organized
•
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
Carol Kuhlthau: The Role of Experience in the Information Search Process of an Early Career Information Worker: Perceptions of Uncertainty, Complexity, Construction, and Sources. JASIS 50(5) 1999
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• longitudinal study of a securities’ analyst
• process of information seeking and decision making are intertwined and in recursive interaction
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS • study of sources of information used,
and of the process of seeking information
• sources: information about events and relationships in a company’s outside environment the knowledge of which would assist top management in its task of charting the company’s future action
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• External Personal• External Impersonal• Internal Personal• Internal Impersonal
categories of sources
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• EP (customers, competitors, government officers, business associates)
• EI (newspapers, periodicals, broadcast media, conferences, industry and trade association publications and communication)
• IP (superiors, board members, subordinate managers, staff)
• II (internal memos, reports and studies, corporate library, and electronic sources)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• Internal Channels • External Channels• Institutional Resources
classification of sources (Baldwin and Rice 1997)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• Internal Channels (newspapers read, magazines read, personal files maintained, and other securities analysts consulted)
• External Channels (company contacts, visits to companies, annual meetings/trade shows, research report recipients)
• Institutional Resources (use of external and internal libraries)
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
environmental scanning
• viewing• nonspecific
information seeking
• undirected or conditional
• searching• problem-driven
information seeking
• informal or formal
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
environmental scanning • viewing
• undirected (casual exposure to information)
• conditional (purposeful but nonspecific such as browsing a newspaper)
• searching• informal (unstructured,
cursory check of current facts or data)
• formal (structured and in-depth, directed to a specific problem)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
INFORMATION WORKERS / MANAGERS
• complex tasks require more varied sources than routine tasks, diversified approaches to information seeking, interpretation and construction of information, and result in increased uncertainty and anxiety
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
Donald Case: Conceptual Organization and Retrieval of Text by Historians: The Role of Memory and Metaphor. JASIS 42(9) 1991
HISTORIANS • Case designs a study of information systems of
historians (teachers and researchers and observes the patterns of behavior with regard to: spatial organization, organization by form, organization by topic)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS • method of research: participant-observation,
interviews
• personal ISAR systems of historians (spatial logic of PIS focuses on offices, how they organize piles of documents, what media they use, how they process information from the information sources and recall / retrieve documents at a later time)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS
spatial organization
organization by form aesthetics as sorting criterion, form over content
(oversized, paperbound, old/new)
keep like things together and close at hand (reminding function)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS
organization by topic
organization by treatment, purpose, quality purpose as sorting criterion
(good and bad books, textbooks and research books, etc.)
keep like things together and close at hand (reminding function)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS
• number of filing cabinet drawers and other storage devices, linear footage of books, journals and notebooks in offices and how arranged
• number of stacks of material lying around the office (19-49) -- physical scheme of organization, not categorical!• sometimes used spatial orientation and other times space in combination with specific labels
spatial organization
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS • subjects’ decisions on how to organize documents is
individual not based on document characteristics (Kwasnik: order of importance determined by context, form, use, topic, location, circumstance)
• levels of information storage determine organization of documents: action, personal work files, archive
• examples of movement in these 3 levels: once a semester we clean up our working spaces to be able to reuse information not needed now)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS • metaphorical use of space: proximity to the chair
denotes urgency
• spatial clues -- interaction needed to remember and recall (appropriate only for immediate action, reminder of what to do)
• weakens as interaction with documents decreases
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS • problems with retrieval in systems organized around
space (losing files, misplacing information, need to rely on memory for recall)
• memorizing possible through visualization of details (facts in physical structures)
• spatial logic of elements is less vital while knowledge of category structures becomes more important as information is moved from action, personal working files, to archived files
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS • crowding does not hinder but improve cognitive recall
(although historians apologized for their offices being untidy); arrangement otherwise would destroy links and patterns and associations that are mnemonic
• card is a powerful metaphor for historians who are trained to collect information in card-like chunks (conceptual nature of the card as unit of information, a single, multiple instance of ideas, evidence, question, quotation, document)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS
organization by topic
sporadic efforts to build and maintain indexing / elaborate filing systems which are abandoned
labeling is difficult because tied to physical object (objects fall into more categories) -- need to produce a card system that would be access to the location of items which are in different formats or make duplicates (impractical to index that way)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS organization by topic
reasons for abandoning filing systems is that indexing in paper-and-pencil environment entails high costs for the benefits received in later retrieval
indexing card system used by historians: systems to aid writing (detailed chronologies in case of historians), keeping track of literature
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS implications of findings
How to implement spatial dimensions in computer interface and to enrich temporal and physical retrieval cues for electronic files?
Evidence of inadequacy of existing display and manipulation devices for historians.
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
HISTORIANS implications of findings for system development
1. Thoughts / ideas are knowledge spaces in search of a physical location for storage
2. Historians use chronological and geographical facets for information rather than standard vocabulary for topics (display devices needed: maps, chronological)
3. Tactile associations with the material (sensory gloves for document manipulation)
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
Susie Cobbledick: The Information-Seeking Behavior of Artists: Exploratory Interviews. Library Quarterly 66(4) 1994
ARTISTS • method of research: in-depth
interviews with 4 artists (sculptor, painter, fiber artists, metalsmith)
• neglected group of information professionals
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
ARTISTS
• inspirational information (sources of ideas, moods, emotions, general or suggestive visual information)
• technical information • information about current developments in the
visual arts• shows, commissions, and sales• technology, books
sources
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
ARTISTS
• artists make substantial use of libraries and print materials
• much of this material is not art related• they typically find this material by browsing
within specific subject areas• they make substantial use of interpersonal
sources to obtain technical information and information about developments in the local art scene
sources
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
ARTISTS
• survey instrument designed to aid data collection from this group
• age, educational background, medium of creative expression, geographic location
• sources of visual and inspirational information• sources of technical information• sources of information about current developments in the visual arts• shows, commissions, and sales• library use, technology use, book use• reliance on gatekeepers and invisible colleges
information needs profile
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
ARTISTS
• libraries for artists need to be heavy on print materials whose verbal and visual content covers a wide array of topics without an undue emphasis on art
• portability of materials is important (need to take visual information to the studio)
• high-quality photocopying should be available on the premises, and material should be circulating; access to hardware and software for multiplication
Implications for building libraries for artists
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
ARTISTS
• size of the collection: small but concentrated• sources: technical manuals, visual arts journals,
art monographs• MARC records should be enhanced to include
information about illustrations• development of visual databanks
Implications for building libraries for artists
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
P. Sandstrom: An Optimal Foraging Approach to Information Seeking and Use. Library Quarterly 64(4) 1994
SCIENTISTS
• foraging theory
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
John Agada: Inner-City Gatekeepers: An Exploratory Survey of Their Information Use Environments. JASIS 1999
SOCIAL GROUP: AFR0-AMERICANS • disadvantaged
groups and communities
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
SOCIAL GROUPS
• cf. Metoyer-Duran: developed set of profiles based on study of ethno-linguistic gatekeepers in the American-Indian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Latino communities in California; Agada: African-American community gatekeepers
community information need profile
Information-Gathering Process by Selected Groups
B. Hjoerland and H. Albrechtsen: Toward a New Horizon in Information Science: Domain-Analysis. JASIS 46(6) 1995
DISCOURSE COMMUNITIES
• domain analysis --social aspects of information-seeking process