19
I. Waves & Particles (p. 138-141) Ch. 5 - Electrons in Atoms
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I Waves amp Particles(p 138-141)
Ch 5 - Electrons in Atoms
A Waves
Wavelength () - length of one complete wave from crest to crest
Frequency () - of waves that pass a point during a certain time period hertz (Hz) = 1 cycles
Amplitude (A) - distance from the origin to the trough or crest
A Waves
Agreater
amplitude
(intensity)
greater frequency
(color)
crest
origin
trough
A
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
R O Y G B I V
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
A Waves
Wavelength () - length of one complete wave from crest to crest
Frequency () - of waves that pass a point during a certain time period hertz (Hz) = 1 cycles
Amplitude (A) - distance from the origin to the trough or crest
A Waves
Agreater
amplitude
(intensity)
greater frequency
(color)
crest
origin
trough
A
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
R O Y G B I V
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
A Waves
Agreater
amplitude
(intensity)
greater frequency
(color)
crest
origin
trough
A
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
R O Y G B I V
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
R O Y G B I V
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
B EM Spectrum
LOW
ENERGY
HIGH
ENERGY
R O Y G B I V
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
B EM Spectrum
Frequency amp wavelength are inversely proportional
c = c speed of light (300 108 ms) (greek lamba) wavelength (m nm etc) (greek nu) frequency (Hz cyclessec or s-1)
= cHey whatrsquos
nu
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
B EM Spectrum
GIVEN
=
= 434 nm = 434 10-7 m
c = 300 108 ms
WORK = c
= 300 108 ms 434 10-7 m
= 691 1014 Hz
EX Find the frequency of a photon with a wavelength of 434 nm
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
Observed - emission of light from hot objectshellipwhite hot is hotter than red hot
Lead to conclusion that - energy is emitted in small specific amounts (quanta)
Quantum - minimum amount of energy changehellip minimum ldquojumprdquo in energy
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
Planck (1900)
vs
Classical Theory Quantum Theory
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905)
Observed - photoelectric effect in which electrons are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation waves due to specific quanta of energy
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
Einstein (1905) explained the quantum theory of light
Concluded - light has properties of both waves (diffuse location) and particles (finite location)
ldquowave-particle dualityrdquo
Photon - particle of light that carries a quantum of energy
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
Einsteins Miracle Year
Historians still call the year 1905 the annus mirabilis the miracle year because in that year Einstein published four remarkable scientific papers ranging from the smallest scale to the largest through fundamental problems about the nature of energy matter motion time and space
In March 1905 Einstein created the quantum theory of light the idea that light exists as tiny packets or particles which he called photons Alongside Max Plancks work on quanta of heat Einstein proposed one of the most shocking idea in twentieth century physics we live in a quantum universe one built out of tiny discrete chunks of energy and matter
He also ldquoprovedrdquo existence of atoms and developed General Theory and Special Theory of Relativity
Go to httpwwwhyperhistorycomonline_n2History_n2index_n2einstein_theoryhtml for more
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
E energy (J joules)h Planckrsquos constant (66262 10-34 Jmiddots) frequency (Hz or s-1)
E = h
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
Energy is related to the color seen
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength thus different energies are seen as different colors (wavelengths)
Higher energy photons have higher frequencies (proportional) and shorter wavelengths (inversely proportional)
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
The EMS is the full range of energies possible for photons
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
C Quantum Theory
GIVEN
E = = 457 1014 Hzh = 66262 10-34 Jmiddots
WORK
E = h
E = (66262 10-34 Jmiddots)(457 1014 Hz)
E = 303 10-19 J
EX Find the energy of a red photon with a frequency of 457 1014 Hz
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
More Einstein Discoveries
And then in June Einstein completed special relativity - which added a twist to the story Einsteins March paper treated light as particles but special relativity sees light as a continuous field of waves Such a contradiction took a supremely confident mind to propose Einstein age 26 saw light as wave and particle picking the attribute he needed to confront each problem in turn
Einstein wasnt finished yet Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics E=mc2 (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body times the speed of light squared)This equation predicted an evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained by ordinary physiochemical means At first even Einstein did not grasp the full implications of his formula but even then he suggested that the heat produced by radium could mark the conversion of tiny amounts of the mass of the radium salts into energy
And after 1905 Einstein achieved what no one since has equaled a twenty year run at the cutting edge of physics For all the miracles of his miracle year his best work was still to come
In 1907 he confronted the problem of gravitation Einstein began his work with one crucial insight gravity and acceleration are equivalent two facets of the same phenomenon
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
More Einstein Discoveries
Even the minor works resonated For example in 1910 Einstein answered a basic question Why is the sky blue His paper on the phenomenon called critical opalescence solved the problem by examining the cumulative effect of the scattering of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere
Then in 1915 Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity - the product of eight years of work on the problem of gravity In general relativity Einstein shows that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and the flow of time What we feel as the force of gravity is simply the sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved four-dimensional space-time It is a radical vision space is no longer the box the universe comes in instead space and time matter and energy are as Einstein proves locked together in the most intimate embrace ( Look at a scenario designed by HHO to explain of why time varies according to general relativity theory - see Time variations )
In 1917 Einstein published a paper which uses general relativity to model the behavior of an entire universe Einsteins paper was the first in the modern field of cosmology - the study of the behavior of the universe as a whole Returning to the quantum by 1919 six years before the invention of quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principle Einstein recognized that there might be a problem with the classical notion of cause and effect Given the peculiar dual nature of quanta as both waves and particles it might be impossible he warned to definitively tie effects to their causes
In 1924 and 1925 Einstein still made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory His last work on the theory built on ideas developed by Satyendra Nath Bose and predicted a new state of matter (to add to the list of solid liquid and gas) called a Bose-Einstein condensate The condensate was finally created at exceptionally low temperatures only last year
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
More Einstein Discoveries
Einstein always had a distaste for modern quantum theory - largely because its probabilistic nature forbids a complete description of cause and effect But still he recognized many of the fundamental implications of the idea of the quantum long before the rest of the physics community did (In Albert Einstein Creator and Rebel by Hoffmann the author describes that Max Planck himself was sceptical of his own quantum hypothesis which was highly distasteful to him and introduced merely as an act of desperation Between 1900 and 1905 the quantum concept remained in limbo In all the world there seems to have been in those years only one man to dare take it seriously That man was Einstein who immediately sensed the importance of Plancks work and used the idea in his own paper about the theory of light) After the quantum mechanical revolution of 1925 through 1927 Einstein spent the bulk of his remaining scientific career searching for a deeper theory to subsume quantum mechanics and eliminate its probabilities and uncertainties He generated pages of equations geometrical descriptions of fields extending through many dimensions that could unify all the known forces of nature None of the theories worked out It was a waste of time and yet
Contemporary theoretical physics is dominated by what are known as String theories They are multi-dimensional (Some versions include as many as 26 dimensions with fifteen or sixteen curled up in a tiny ball) They are geometrical - the interactions of one multi-dimensional shape with another produces the effects we call forces just as the force of gravity in general relativity is what we feel as we move through the curves of four-dimensional space-time And they unify no doubt about it in the math at least all of nature from quantum mechanics to gravity emerges from the equations of string theory As it stands string theories are unproved and perhaps unprovable as they involve interactions at energy levels far beyond any we can handle But they are beautiful to those versed enough in the language of mathematics to follow them And in their beauty (and perhaps in their impenetrability) they are the heirs to Einsteins primitive first attempts to produce a unified field theory
Between 1905 to 1925 Einstein transformed humankinds understanding of nature on every scale from the smallest to that of the cosmos as a whole Now nearly a century after he began to make his mark we are still exploring Einsteins universe
![Index [] · Hill, Lauryn 25–26 historically black universities (HBUs) 137–138, 139, 140 historically white universities (HWUs) 137–138, 141, 157, 181 HIV and AIDS 46, 149, 152](https://static.documents.pub/doc/80x56/5f7d61fee463c528c7798ba2/index-hill-lauryn-25a26-historically-black-universities-hbus-137a138.jpg)
