RESEARCH ARTICLE

Identification of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Tropical DryDeciduous Forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur Plateau,West Bengal, India

Sudip Kumar Das • Aninda Mandal • Animesh K. Datta •

Debadrito Das • Rita Paul • Aditi Saha • Sonali Sengupta •

Sudha Gupta • Sandip Halder

Received: 8 November 2013 / Revised: 3 January 2014 / Accepted: 12 February 2014

� The National Academy of Sciences, India 2014

Abstract Sixteen wild edible mushrooms collected from

tropical dry deciduous forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur

Plateau, West Bengal, India are characterised morpholog-

ically up to generic level considering fruit body and spore.

Nutritional assessment (protein, fat, carbohydrate and ele-

ment contents) of fruiting bodies revealed their utility as

nutritious food supplements. Results of food habit survey

suggest that mushroom consumption (18.0 % of total food

items) is restricted only in mushroom growing period

(June–October). Total of 8 mushrooms (Amanita sp. 2,

Astraeus sp., Termitomyces sp. 1–4, Volvariella sp. and

Lentinus sp.; price range Rs. 40–200/kg) are sold in local

markets. Sub-chronic toxicity test was conducted for Ter-

mitomyces sp. 2 and Lentinus sp. on Wistar rats at different

dosing (0, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg/kg). Assessment of

biochemical and hematological parameters and

histopathological studies of heart, liver, lung and kidney

indicate safe consumption of the mushrooms. A simple and

cost effective in vitro cultivation protocol of Volvariella

volvacea has been developed. Preservation of mushrooms

following salt, mustard oil and sun drying are found to be

effective. Present study suggests significant value of wild

mushrooms towards domestication and commercialisation.

Keywords Economic benefits � Food value �Tropical dry deciduous forest � Wild edible mushrooms

Introduction

Edible mushrooms are fleshy fruit bodies of different

species of macrofungi, which are either hypogenous or

epigenous and can be picked up by hands. Edible mush-

rooms are used worldwide as supplementary food pos-

sessing immense nutritive values. They are also well

known for their medicinal applications [1–3] including

uses as anticancer, anti-diabetic, immune enhancing and

hypolipidemic properties [4]. Mushrooms are great recy-

clers and decomposers [5] and therefore play a significant

role in the ecosystem.

Edible mushrooms are economic mainstay of tribal

people and are essential forest products [6]. An edibility

criterion of a mushroom encompasses absence of poison-

ous effects on human and desirable taste and aroma [7].

This requires proper identification knowledge to ensure

safe edibility. It is well known that poisonous fungi are

frequently confused with edible mushrooms thus are

responsible for mushroom poisoning which lead to fatal

sufferings [6]. In the Sal forest of Eastern Chota Nagpur

Plateau of West Bengal, India, mushroom collection and

selling is an alternative source of income of the study

S. K. Das � A. Mandal � A. K. Datta (&) � D. Das � S. Halder

Cytogenetics, Genetics and Plant Breeding Section,

Department of Botany, Kalyani University, Kalyani 741235,

West Bengal, India

e-mail: dattaanimesh@gmail.com

S. Gupta

Pteridology-Palaeobotany Section, Department of Botany,

Kalyani University, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India

R. Paul

Department of Botany, Charuchandra College,

Kolkata 700029, West Bengal, India

A. Saha

Department of Botany, Narasinha Dutt College,

Howrah 711101, West Bengal, India

S. Sengupta

P.G. Department of Botany, Hooghly Mohsin College,

Hooghly 712101, West Bengal, India

123

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. B Biol. Sci.

DOI 10.1007/s40011-014-0330-y

region. The tribal women (predominantly Santal and Lo-

dha) collect the naturally growing mushrooms, commonly

known as chhatu, from the forest and sell them to local

markets, providing opportunities for cultural, social and

technical education in improving the quality of family and

community life by increasing income.

Despite importance of these mushrooms among the tri-

bal people in the study area, they have been rarely scien-

tifically characterised and documented. Nucleotide

sequence determination using ClustalW software was per-

formed for molecular assessment of eight mushroom

samples (CN 1–CN 8) of the study area (persistent fungal

contamination and DNA degradation were hindrance for

the rest) using Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS; genomic

fragment of rDNA) 1 and 2 primers [8]. Present investi-

gation is undertaken to provide a comprehensive knowl-

edge to the local tribal people regarding the value of 16

naturally growing wild edible mushrooms. The study use

morphological attributes of fruit bodies and spores to

delineate the taxa to genus level. It also covers their

nutritional aspects as well as economic benefits associated

to local people. Furthermore, cultivation, cost effective

preservation protocol and toxic effect for two mushroom

genera are also discussed.

Material and Methods

Study Area

Sixteen morphologically different types (sample designated

as CN 1–CN 16) of wild edible mushrooms from natural

habitat were collected from tropical dry deciduous forest

(predominantly with Sal vegetation) of Eastern Chota Nag-

pur Plateau of West Bengal, India (Table 1). The study area

comprises of 3 districts (Fig. 1) namely, Paschim Medinipur

(Jhargram: latitude 22�430N, longitude 86�980E, altitude

81 m above sea level; Belpahari: latitude 22�630N, longitude

86�760E, altitude 83 m; Gidhni: latitude 22�450N, longitude

86�880E, altitude 82 m; temperature 20–38 �C, humidity

70–80 %, rainfall 252.4–296.2 mm); Bankura (Khatra: lat-

itude 22�980N, longitude 86�850E, altitude 154 m; Rani-

bandh: latitude 22�860N, longitude 86�780E, altitude 162 m;

Bankura: latitude 23�250N, longitude 87�070E, altitude

78 m; temperature 19–39 �C, humidity 74–90 %, rainfall

265.5–285.3 mm) and Purulia (Baghmundi: latitude

23�200N, longitude 86�050E, altitude 208 m; Barabazar:

latitude 23�360N, longitude 86�650E, altitude 229 m; tem-

perature 19–40 �C, humidity 74–88 %, rainfall

233.6–275.3 mm). Agro climatic attributes are average of

5 months from June to October and are obtained from the

Agro meteorological Department, Bidhan Chandra Krishi

Viswa Vidyalaya, Nadia, West Bengal. All the study areas

belong to red lateritic zone possessing fine to coarse loamy

soil dominated by Santal and Lodha. Mushroom collections

were made during rainy (June–July) and post rainy (August–

October) seasons of 3 consecutive years (2009–2011).

Morphological Studies of Fruit Bodies

Morphological parameters (characteristic features of

pileus, lamellae, stipe, spore morphology and colour) of

each collected mushroom were assessed from fresh sam-

ples. Photographs were taken from natural habitat as well

as under laboratory conditions. Morphological character-

istics were described according to the methodology sug-

gested by Largent and Stuntz [9]. Spore surface of different

mushrooms were studied using Scanning Electron Micro-

scope (EVO�-40, CarlZeiss SMT Ltd.).

Assessment of Nutritive Value

Total protein (extraction following Osborne [10] and esti-

mation as per Lowry et al. [11]), carbohydrate [12] and fat

[13] contents were quantified in each mushroom sample (in

each case 3 replicas were made and average data has been

presented).

Detection of Elements in Fruit Bodies

All mushroom samples were sundried as well as dried in an

oven (80 �C) for 4 h. The dried mushrooms were powdered

homogenously using mortar and pestle. Powdered samples

(2 g for each) were taken in beakers and digested with

concentrated nitric acid and perchloric acid (4:1 ratio). The

mixture was placed on a hot plate, set at 135 �C for 2 h.

The clear digested samples were filtered through What-

manTM filter paper No. 1 and the filtrates made up to 25 ml

each with nitric acid. The digested mushroom samples

were analysed for elements using a graphite furnace and

atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Sensa Xii 75, Aus-

tralia) and flame photometer.

Assessment of Economic Benefits

Food Habit Survey

Survey regarding consumption of food type apart from the

main food rice (during lunch) and roti (dinner) was con-

ducted in the study area from randomly selected 100 families

distributed in Belpahari and Binpur (adjoining to Jhargram)

of Paschim Medinipur, Ranibandh of Bankura and Baghm-

undi of Purulia districts. The selected villages are adjoining

to the forest and predominantly comprise of Santal and rarely

Lodha tribes of people. Families were selected on the basis of

their complete dependency on natural forest products and on

S. K. Das et al.

123

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Value of Wild Mushrooms

123

their willingness to participate in the survey. Each family

comprises of 4–9 members (data collected from each mem-

ber). Age group of family members ranged from 7 to

[70 years. All surveyed families were below poverty line as

per Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of

India (10th Five Year Planning—Rural) and mostly (98.0 %)

did not possess any primary school education.

Foods consumed were broadly classified into categories

namely, pulses (seeds of lentil, gram, pea, pigeon pea etc.),

tubers (potato, yam, arum etc.), leafy vegetables (different

leaves specifically arum), fruit vegetables (brinjal, tomato,

pumpkin, fig, gourd, etc.), legumes (beans, yard long beans

etc.), mushrooms (fruit bodies of the collected mushrooms

under investigation) and animal products (fishes, egg,

chicken, snails, wild animals and birds). The chief objective

of the survey was to constitute an idea regarding the signif-

icance of mushroom consumption in relation to other foods

by taking local inhabitants in account. Data were collected

during mushroom growing season (June–October) as well as

during pre- (April–May) and post (November–March)

mushroom growing seasons in the year 2009, 2010 and 2011.

Market Survey

Eight markets namely, Jhargram, Belpahari and Gidhni of

Paschim Medinipur, Khatra, Ranibandh and Bankura of

Fig. 1 Map of West Bengal

depicting the study area (1)

Jhargram, (2) Belpahari, (3)

Gidhni, (4) Binpur, (5) Khatra,

(6) Ranibandh, (7) Bankura, (8)

Baghmundi, (9) Barabazar

S. K. Das et al.

123

Bankura and Baghmundi and Barabazar of Purulia districts

were surveyed each day during mushroom availability

period for 3 consecutive years. During market survey it was

specially noted about the type, quantity and price variation

of mushroom sold. Data was directly obtained from

mushroom selling vendors of the markets. Vendors as well

as consumers both represent ethnic group of people who

are below poverty line.

Toxicity Analysis

Experiment

Sub-chronic toxicity test (28th day from dose initiation) was

conducted for two mushrooms (CN 5—Termitomyces sp. 2

and CN 12—Lentinus sp.) with Wistar rats in accordance to

the schedule Y of drugs and cosmetic act (1940) to assess,

the adverse effects caused due to mushroom consumption.

The two most frequently found and widely consumed

mushrooms Termitomyces sp. and Lentinus sp. were

assessed. Both mushrooms are sold in market at relatively

low to moderate price rate (Rs. 40–100/kg). The experiment

involved 24 male and female rats (6–8 weeks old). Doses of

0, 1000, 2000 and 4,000 mg/kg in the dose volume of 1 ml/

100 g body weight (6 animals/sex/dose) were administered

orally. The animals were allowed 7 days period to accli-

matise with laboratory conditions prior to dosing. Rats were

grouped into six per cage, sex wise and the individual

animal was fur marked with picric acid. The females were

nulliparous and not pregnant. The cages were polycarbon-

ated and provided with husk bedding (temperature

20–24 �C; humidity 30.0–70.0 %; 12 h dark and 12 h light

cycles maintained).

Investigation

All animals were observed twice daily for mortality during

the period of study. Blood samples were collected in the

morning (fasted over night) from orbital sinus using hep-

arin as anticoagulant.

Necropsy

All animals were sacrificed on 29th day from dosing using

CO2 asphyxiation technique. Necropsy of heart, liver, kid-

neys, and lungs was carried out on all animals. The organ

weights were recorded as absolute values and their relative

values (i.e. percent of the body weight) were also calculated.

Histopathology

Heart, liver, kidney and lungs of control and higher dose

animals (4,000 mg/kg) were examined histopathologically

(tissues were preserved in 10 % formalin) to assess any

abnormalities associated with them.

Mushroom Cultivation

Mycelia were developed from fruit bodies (pieces of

5 mm 9 2 mm samples were taken from internal portion

and grown under aseptic condition) for all samples in malt

agar media (2 % malt extract and 2 % agar powder). The

mycelia of each mushroom were inoculated in sterile wheat

media (grains mixed with 2 % calcium sulphate and 4 %

calcium carbonate in 1:3 ratio, pH 7.8) for spawn devel-

opment in polythene bags as well as in glass containers.

Paddy straw was used as the substrate material for fruit

body development. For this purpose 2.5 kg fresh dry paddy

straw was cut into pieces of 18 inch length. The straw was

then soaked in sufficient fresh water for 12 h. Excess water

from the straw was removed by spreading on sieve made of

fine wire mesh. One bed with four layers was prepared by

the soaked straw. The straw pieces were placed in opposite

direction in each layer. The bed was placed on a clean

polythene paper in a shaded semi-dark condition (temper-

ature 27 ± 1 �C, relative humidity 70–80 %). The small

pieces (10–15 g) of spawn were placed (inoculation) in

each layer through the side line of the bed. Total 200 g

spawn was inoculated in a bed. The bed was covered by

transparent polythene. The growth of the mycelium was

observed. After 15th day of inoculation the polythene was

removed. Mature fruit body was developed after

25–27 days of inoculation.

Mushroom Preservation

For preservation of wild mushrooms 3 cost effective

methods were followed (1) mushrooms were preserved

directly in powdered salt and in different concentrations (5,

10, 15 and 20 %) of NaCl, (2) preserved in 100 % pure

mustard oil in glass bottle and exposed under sunlight

during day time and (3) collected mushrooms were dried

under direct sunlight. Quality of the preserved mushroom

samples was assessed by organoleptic method following

cooking at an interval of 10–12 days.

Results and Discussion

Morphology

Sixteen (CN 1–CN 16) mushrooms are described based on

morphological features of fruit bodies and spores and

presented in Table 1 (Figs. 2a–p, 3a–f).

Morphologically CN 3 and CN 10 are characteristically

different from other samples. The mushroom sample CN 3

Value of Wild Mushrooms

123

showed globose, sub-epigenous, sessile fruit body,

2.5–3.0 cm in diameter, splitting to become star shaped,

covered with thin, white mycelial layer when unexpanded; it

tears away at maturity, often partly encrusted with soil debris;

with slight odour when fresh. Fruit body of CN 10 was sub-

globose, cushion shaped to turbinate, 4.0–6.0 cm tall,

6.0–8.0 cm broad, abruptly tapered towards the base, some-

times with a root like attachment to the substrate. Both the

mushroom samples possessed outer peridium, endoperidium

and gleba. On the basis of morphological characterisation, it is

concluded that CN 3 and CN 10 are Astraeus sp. (Family:

Diplocystaceae) and Calvatia sp. (Agaricaceae) respectively.

Morphological characterisation of mushroom samples

indicate that some samples belong to same genus (CN 1,

CN 2 and CN 11—Amanita spp.—family: Amanitaceae;

CN 13–16—Russula spp.—Russulaceae; CN 4–7—

Fig. 2 Fruit bodies of mushrooms. a CN 1: Amanita sp. 1, b CN 2:

Amanita sp. 2, c CN 3: Astraeus sp., d CN 4: Termitomyces sp. 1,

e CN 5: Termitomyces sp. 2, f CN 6: Termitomyces sp. 3, g CN 7:

Termitomyces sp. 4, h CN 8: Volvariella sp., i CN 9: Agaricus sp.,

j CN 10: Calvatia sp., k CN 11: Amanita sp. 3, l CN 12: Lentinus sp.,

m CN 13: Russula sp. 1, n CN 14: Russula sp. 2, o CN 15: Russula sp.

3, and p CN 16: Russula sp. 4

S. K. Das et al.

123

Termitomyces spp.—Lyophyllaceae). They could be different

at species level. From the ecological point of view Amanita sp.

1 and 2, Astraeus sp., Calvatia sp., Amanita sp. 3, and Russula

sp. 1–4 show ectomycorrhizal association with Shorea

robusta; while, Termitomyces sp. 1–4 are symbiotic with

termites. Sample CN 8 (Volvariella sp.—Pluteaceae) and CN

12 (Lentinus sp.—Polyporaceae) are lignicolous and CN 9

(Agaricus sp.—Agaricaceae) is saprotrophic in nature. Roy

and Samajpati [14] reported 4 Russula spp. and A. hemibapha

(white form) from Bankura district, West Bengal, adjoining to

the location of present study. CN 1 identified as Amanita

species (pileus orange at centre, yellow at margin) resembles

A. hemibapha morphologically excepting pileus colour. Jana

and Purkayastha [15] collected R. delica from a market of

Medinipur. Edible fleshy fungi were also reported and

described earlier [16–20]. CN 6 and CN 8 are found to match

with the morphological description provided by Johnsy et al.

[21] for T. microcarpus and Volvariella volvacea respectively.

Although modern identification is quickly becoming molec-

ular, the standard method for identification up to genus level

may still be accomplished by using morphological guidelines,

and can easily be disseminated among people.

Fig. 3 Scanning electron micrographs of different mushroom spores a CN 6: Termitomyces sp. 3, b CN 9: Agaricus sp., c CN 11: Amanita sp. 3,

d CN 13: Russula sp. 1, e CN 15: Russula sp. 3, and f CN 16: Russula sp. 4

Value of Wild Mushrooms

123

Nutritional Aspects

Protein, carbohydrate and fat contents analysed on dry

weight basis (mg/kg) in mushroom samples are presented

in Table 2. Protein content ranges from 15.78 % (Calvatia

sp.) to 29.34 % (Termitomyces sp. 2); while, amount of

carbohydrate varies from 35.25 % (Agaricus sp.) to

45.34 % (Lentinus sp.). Fat content ranges from 1.15 %

(Termitomyces sp. 4) to 2.97 % (Russula sp. 2). Johnsy

et al. [21] analysed the nutrient content of 10 edible

mushroom species from Western Ghats of district Kan-

yakumari, out of which 2 namely, T. microcarpus and V.

volvacea were reported to possess 46.53 and 43.53 %

carbohydrate, 29.40 and 30.57 % protein and 2.33 and

2.04 % fat respectively. Results obtained in the present

study for V. volvacea are nearly comparable with those of

Johnsy et al. [21]. However, the maximum amount of

carbohydrate, protein and fat contents analysed in Ter-

mitomyces spp. (Table 2) are different from those of T.

microcarpus.

Table 2 Protein, carbohydrate

and fat content (g/100 g dry

weight) in the studied

mushrooms

Sample no. Mushroom Protein Carbohydrate Fat

CN 1 Amanita sp. 1 18.35 42.56 1.78

CN 2 Amanita sp. 2 19.35 41.95 1.86

CN 3 Astraeus sp. 18.67 40.24 2.06

CN 4 Termitomyces sp. 1 28.45 42.44 1.49

CN 5 Termitomyces sp. 2 29.34 40.33 1.23

CN 6 Termitomyces sp. 3 22.45 39.95 1.45

CN 7 Termitomyces sp. 4 23.32 41.54 1.15

CN 8 Volvariella sp. 28.92 44.67 2.46

CN 9 Agaricus sp. 26.89 35.25 1.95

CN 10 Calvatia sp. 15.78 38.45 1.24

CN 11 Amanita sp. 3 18.57 38.76 1.58

CN 12 Lentinus sp. 23.76 45.34 1.85

CN 13 Russula sp. 1 20.65 38.35 1.74

CN 14 Russula sp. 2 23.34 41.34 2.97

CN 15 Russula sp. 3 19.55 38.45 1.46

CN 16 Russula sp. 4 20.68 37.66 1.67

Table 3 Elements present in fruit body (mg/kg dry weight) of different mushrooms

Sample no. Mushroom Cu Fe Zn Na K Mg Ca Pb Cd As

CN1 Amanita sp. 1 13.2 268.6 15.27 63.63 668.1 532 120 0.38 0.47 0.14

CN2 Amanita sp. 2 14.5 228.7 14.51 153.72 394.9 296 173 0.52 0.77 0.55

CN3 Astraeus sp. 4.2 159.1 13.38 244.65 427.3 280 276 0.28 0.04 0.65

CN4 Termitomyces sp. 1 15.2 327.5 12.70 539.50 458.8 630 252 0.17 0.26 0.24

CN5 Termitomyces sp. 2 16.7 476.0 12.36 573.90 180.9 610 350 0.57 0.43 0.27

CN6 Termitomyces sp. 3 21.3 241.0 10.18 475.13 150.8 495 214 0.42 0.50 0.52

CN7 Termitomyces sp. 4 20.4 350.0 9.04 483.23 110.9 456 245 0.46 0.47 0.45

CN8 Volvariella sp. 14.4 170.8 10.06 571.40 190.7 602 420 0.77 0.12 0.62

CN9 Agaricus sp. 14.7 144.0 9.56 277.56 170.6 502 390 0.47 0.11 0.52

CN10 Calvatia sp. 4.5 146.7 14.50 203.45 418.6 265 234 0.23 0.03 0.56

CN11 Amanita sp. 3 16.3 345.9 18.16 378.20 486.4 520 150 0.19 0.32 0.60

CN12 Lentinus sp. 7.9 397.3 10.13 512.78 190.9 501 125 0.33 0.37 0.50

CN13 Russula sp. 1 20.3 386.6 15.45 430.20 482.5 280 190 0.16 0.32 0.93

CN14 Russula sp. 2 13.5 135.4 7.73 347.08 444.3 320 180 0.15 0.35 0.91

CN15 Russula sp. 3 18.6 180.8 13.04 443.10 488.6 480 210 0.11 0.26 0.80

CN16 Russula sp. 4 16.5 201.3 12.06 360.73 355.7 380 220 0.37 0.12 0.70

S. K. Das et al.

123

Elements in Fruit Bodies

Assessment of elements (mg/kg dry weight) present in fruit

bodies of collected samples are made and summarised in

Table 3. Amount of copper ranges from 4.2 mg/kg (CN

3—Astraeus sp.) to 21.3 mg/kg (CN 6—Termitomyces sp.

3); while, for zinc it varies from 7.73 mg/kg (CN 14—

Russula sp. 2) to 18.16 mg/kg (CN 11—Amanita sp. 3).

Amount of iron (476 mg/kg) and sodium (573.9 mg/kg) in

Termitomyces sp. 2, calcium (420 mg/kg) and lead

(0.77 mg/kg) in Volvariella sp., potassium (668.1 mg/kg)

in Amanita sp. 1, cadmium (0.77 mg/kg) in Amanita sp. 2,

magnesium (630 mg/kg) in Termitomyces sp. 1 and arsenic

(0.93 mg/kg) in Russula sp. 1 was maximum. Present

investigation suggests that the collected mushrooms are

nutritious and may be important dietary products for peo-

ple. Alofe et al. [22] in Lentinus subnudus, Psathyrella

atroumbonata, Termitomyces striatus; Adejumo and Aw-

osanya [23] in T. mammiformis, Russula vesca, Lactarius

triviralis, Lentinus tigrinus; Lee et al. [24] in Pleurotus

eryngii, Flammulina velutipes, Hypsizigus marmoreus;

Ayodele and Odogbili [25] in Lentinus squarrosulus,

Pleurotus tuberregium, P. atroumbonata; Manjunathan and

Kaviyarasan [26] in Lentinus tuberregium; Uzun et al. [27]

in 45 wild edible mushrooms among others also analysed

the nutritional aspect of different mushrooms. According to

their findings cadmium and lead were not detected among

the analysed mushroom samples; while, the amount of

other elements were variable in relation to present study.

Further the presence of lead, cadmium and arsenic in trace

amounts (Table 3) possibly indicate the probability of

biomagnifications upon prolonged consumption.

Economic Benefits

Food Habit Survey

Results indicate that during mushroom growing period they

are valuable resource and major food supplement (about

18 % of the total supplementary food consumed) in the

study area (Fig. 4a–c). Further, mushrooms are not at all

consumed during non-mushroom growing seasons possibly

due to lack of preservation practices, which highlights the

necessity of mushroom preservation.

Market Survey

Out of 16 mushrooms, 8 are sold in market (Fig. 5a). They

are Amanita sp. 2 (local name: Modhal chhatu), Astraeus

sp. (Putka chhatu), Termitomyces sp. 1–4 (Bara bali chhatu,

Karang chhatu, Chhoto bali chhatu and Tila chhatu

respectively), Volvariella sp. (Poyal chhatu) and Lentinus

sp. (Sal chhatu). Their price ranges from Rs. 40 to 200/kg.

Price of Termitomyces sp. 1 (Rs. 100–200/kg) and Termi-

tomyces sp. 4 (Rs. 200/kg) are recorded to be higher; while,

the rest are sold at an average rate of Rs. 40–100/kg. Ast-

raeus sp. is found to be highest selling mushroom in terms

of quantity. Manna and Roy [4] studied the economic

benefits of different wild edible mushrooms from eastern

part of India associated with different ethnic groups like the

Santal, Lodha, Dhangar among others and suggests that the

wild edible mushrooms may be an alternative economic

resource for tribal people. Economic benefits of wild edible

mushrooms from other rural areas are also described by

some workers [28–30].

Cultivation

Ten samples (Amanita sp. 1 and 2, Termitomyces sp. 1–3,

Volvariella sp., Agaricus sp., Lentinus sp., Russula sp. 1

and Russula sp. 3) out of 16 produced mycelia in malt agar

media and subsequently spawn in sterile wheat media but

fruit bodies are produced only in Volvariella sp. (Fig. 5b).

About 200 g of spawn yielded 500 g of fruit bodies.

Fig. 4 Pie diagram showing consumption of mushrooms along with

other supplementary foods by local tribal people a pre-mushroom

season, b mushroom growing season, and c post mushroom season

Value of Wild Mushrooms

123

Culture raised fruit bodies of Volvariella sp. resemble

phenotypically to the described [30] paddy straw mush-

room V. volvacea. Thiribhuvanamala et al. [31] reported

maximum yield (927.8 g/bed; biological efficiency of

23.8 %) of V. volvacea in circular compact bed method.

Oil palm waste in combination with rice straw or alone

recorded significantly higher yield of the mushroom. Yield

of fruit bodies was also enhanced by spraying bed with

micronutrient booster VVB1 (CaCO3 400 ppm ? CaCl2

50 ppm ? KH2PO4 50 ppm). In the present investigation,

it is rather surprising that fruit bodies of Agaricus sp. and

Lentinus sp. did not develop. Colak et al. [32] reported

wheat straw and waste tea leaves based compost for cul-

tivation of Agaricus bisporus. Reddy et al. [33] suggested

water hyacinth to be a good substrate for white button

mushroom (A. bisporus) production. Atri and Lata [34]

reported that Lentinus cladopus could be successfully

cultivated using wheat straw, paddy straw and mixture of

Fig. 5 a Mushroom selling in

local market. b Cultivation of V.

volvacea and preservation

methods (c powdered salt,

d different concentrations of

NaCl, e mustard oil, and f direct

sunlight)

S. K. Das et al.

123

both (1:1); however, yield of fruit bodies is poor in paddy

straw. Mushrooms with ectomycorrhizal and termite asso-

ciations mostly develop spawn but failed to produce fruit

bodies in culture conditions possibly due to lack of external

factor(s). Successful cultivation of wild mushrooms

namely, Pleurotus sp. [35], Stropharia rugosoannulata

[36], Pluteus cervinus [37], Pleurotus ostreatus [38], Cal-

ocybe indica [39] among others has been reported using

different culture media.

Preservation

As cultivation of most of the collected mushrooms is rather

difficult, an efficient and cost effective preservation pro-

tocol is of utmost importance for sustainable use of the

fungal species.

Seven mushrooms (Amanita sp. 2, Astraeus sp., Termi-

tomyces sp. 1–4 and Volvariella sp.) are found to be pre-

served successfully in mustard oil (Fig. 5e) and consumed

Table 4 Biochemical and hematological parameters in two mushrooms

Toxicological test

Parameters Termitomyces sp. 2 Lentinus sp.

Male Female Male Female

Dosage (mg/kg) Dosage (mg/kg)

Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000 Control 1,000 2,000 4,000

Hematological investigation

Hb (g%) 13.9 13.9 13.4 13.4 13.5 13.7 13.9 14.1 14.3 14.6 13.6 13.5 14.7 14.5 13.1 14.0

Total RBC (9106/

cmm)

6.4 6.3 6.0 6.2 6.5 6.4 6.1 6.6 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.1 5.8 5.7 6.0 6.2

Rt (%) 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3

HCT (%) 40.2 40.6 39.9 39.3 39.5 38.8 40.5 41.8 42.8 44.3 41.5 41.2 44.2 43.8 39.8 42.4

MCV (lm3) 64.0 65.3 67.2 64.3 62.0 61.7 67.2 63.7 76.3 80.2 75.8 81.1 77.7 77.6 67.7 70.4

MCH (pg) 22.1 22.3 22.6 21.9 21.1 22.0 23.1 21.4 25.5 26.4 24.9 26.6 25.7 25.6 22.4 23.2

MCHC (%) 40.2 34.2 33.7 34.1 34.2 35.5 34.3 33.7 42.8 33.0 32.8 32.8 33.1 33.0 33.0 32.9

Platelets (9105/

cmm)

5.8 6.4 6.2 6.8 6.1 6.6 6.5 6.8 7.2 7.1 7.3 7.7 7.4 7.1 7.7 7.7

Total WBC

(9103/cmm)

6.4 6.6 6.8 6.6 6.7 6.4 6.7 6.6 6.9 6.7 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.2 6.5 6.3

Neutrophils (%) 23.5 25.0 24.3 27.2 24.3 22.8 24.2 24.8 20.8 21.7 21.3 21.7 21.5 22.5 22.5 22.2

Eosinophils (%) 2.0 2.2 1.5 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.2 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2

Lymphocyte (%) 73.2 71.7 73.0 70.2 71.5 74.8 73.3 72.5 76.7 75.3 75.5 75.0 75.8 74.7 75.0 74.2

Monocyte (%) 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Biomedical investigation

Total serum

protein (g%)

6.2 6.2 6.1 6.1 6.3 6.1 6.5 6.2 6.3 6.6 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.6 6.4 6.4

BUN (mg%) 27.2 30.2 28.7 26.7 26.8 25.5 29.3 26.3 20.2 22.7 24.3 26.7 20.8 21.5 24.3 26.5

SGPT (IU/l) 50.7 58.8 58.5 58.2 44.2 68.8 63.2 34.7 53.3 55.0 67.0 66.7 56.3 60.0 67.0 63.0

SGOT (IU/l) 85.3 100.5 92.3 96.2 113.5 104.0 99.0 97.5 93.3 95.3 98.0 98.2 91.8 97.0 98.1 103.0

SAP (IU/l) 331.7 312.3 289.3 319.3 291.7 308.3 343.7 309.5 269.5 294.2 310.7 324.7 291.2 301.5 310.7 327.8

Blood sugar

(mg%)

101.8 99.8 94.0 91.8 95.8 83.8 97.0 94.0 90.7 91.0 94.8 92.8 93.3 93.8 93.3 95.2

Organ weight

Bodyweight (g) 109.5 110.7 111.2 110.9 112.2 111.3 109.3 112.4 106.5 106.9 104.0 105.5 107.0 105.1 106.1 105.2

Liver (g) 5.0 4.7 4.3 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.2 4.4 4.5 4.4 4.9 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.7

Kidney (g) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8

Heart (g) 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Hb Hemoglobin, RBC red blood corpuscles, Rt reticulocyte, HCT hematocrit, MCV mean corpuscular volume, MCH mean corpuscular

hemoglobin, MCHC mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, WBC white blood corpuscles, BUN blood urea nitrogen, SGPT serum glutamic

pyruvic transaminase, SGOT serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase, SAP serum alkaline phosphatase

Value of Wild Mushrooms

123

up to 6 months without any bad odour and taste. Mushrooms

(Amanita sp. 2, Astraeus sp., Termitomyces sp. 1–4) can also

be preserved in powdered salt (Fig. 5c) and in salt concen-

trations (Fig. 5d) up to 3 months without affecting their

taste; however, depending on salt concentrations they are

slightly salty. Sun drying (Fig. 5f) of mushrooms (Termito-

myces sp. 2 and Lentinus sp.) is also found to be effective for

preservation up to 6 months without any deterioration.

Therefore, simple and cost effective measures of mushroom

preservation may boost consumption of mushroom as an

important food resource for common people. Martinez-

Carrera et al. [40, 41] reported acidified Mexican recipes and

canning in glass containers as preservation techniques of

wild edible mushroom from central Mexico.

Toxicity Analysis

All animals from control and different dose groups survived

throughout the dosing period (1–28 days) showing no mor-

tality. Animals from control (Termitomyces sp.—male:

93.32–109.52 g, female: 93.13–112.20 g; Lentinus sp.—

male: 101.42–106.53 g, female: 102.43–107.03 g) and the

different dose (1,000–4,000 mg/kg) groups (male:

97.60–99.13 to 110.67–110.85 g, female: 98.22–98.52 to

109.33–112.43 g; male: 102.97–102.85 to 106.92–105.47 g,

female: 100.65–102.53 to 105.08–105.15 g) exhibit normal

body weight gain throughout the dosing period (data recor-

ded at an interval of 7 days).

Data scored for hematological and biochemical param-

eters of both male and female rats following consumption

of mushrooms on termination of dosing have been pre-

sented in Table 4. As compared to control, the data scored

from dosing animals did not show any significant changes

and are within normal biological and laboratory limits.

The gross pathological examination of necropsy

revealed no abnormality associated to treatment. Further,

histopathological examination of heart, liver, kidney and

lungs of both sexes of animals at high dose group showed

normal architectural and cellular arrangement without any

cellular damages or necrosis (Fig. 6a–d). Although only

two mushrooms are studied, results indicate the safe con-

sumption of mushroom as food supplement/major food.

Thus, proper knowledge regarding wild edible mush-

rooms among the poor, uneducated local tribal people may

Fig. 6 Histological

preparations of a heart, b liver,

c lung, and d kidney in Wistar

Rat showing normal cellular

architecture at high dosing

(4,000 mg/kg) under light

microscope (CV central vein,

HC hepatic cell, KC kupffer

cell, A alveoli, DT distal

tubules, G glomerulus)

S. K. Das et al.

123

be significant for understanding the value of the mush-

rooms in their socio-economic life. However, natural and

anthropological declination in forest area seems to be

hindrance in this regard. In this context, Government pol-

icy must be framed regarding domestication and commer-

cialisation of wild edible mushrooms in collaboration with

non-governmental organisations to harvest benefits of the

tribal people.

Acknowledgments The research is grant aided by Science and

Society Division, Department of Science and Technology, Govern-

ment of India.

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict

of interest.

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