Identifying Different Types Identifying Different Types of Researchof Research

Identifying Different Types Identifying Different Types of Researchof Research

(Paradigms) Intended Use, Treatment of Time & Units of

Measurement

Ways of using literature reviews to develop ideas for topics

• Literature review = Survey of research done on your topic replicate a project (exactly or with variations)

• previous research may inspire you (Baxter & Babbie, p. 20), for example :– explore unexpected findings– follow suggestions for further research– extend explanation or theory to new topic or

setting or context– challenge findings-- try to refute conclusions– look for new variables, relationships not treated

in literature

Note incomplete literature coverage : Note incomplete literature coverage : “Lost Science in the Third World”---“Lost Science in the Third World”---

Scientific American (1995) Vol 277, No. 7.

Recall: Research Paradigms

• Sets of shared patterns in a scholarly community about what constitutes worthwhile research (Thomas Kuhn, The structure of scientific revolutions) – What problems are worth investigating?– What constitutes an answer?

• Different views on how approaches are grouped

Developing research topics

Identifying Styles of Research: Example of Quantitative vs. Qualitative Approaches

(common about 20-30 yrs ago but still used)Neuman (2000: 16)

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Objective SubjectiveVariables Processes and eventsReliability

AuthenticityValue-Free Explicitly Stated ValuesIndependent of Context Aware of ContextMany cases or subjects Few cases or subjectsStatistical Analysis Other qualitiesDetached Researcher Involved Researcher

Another idea: Four Paradigms (Burrell & Morgan)

radical humanist radical structuralist

interpretive functionalist

Conflict/radical change

Order/stability/regulation

subj

ecti

ve

objective

““Dimensions” of ResearchDimensions” of Research

Neuman (2000: 37)

Purpose ofStudy

Intended Use of Study

Treatment of Time in Study

Data Collection Technique (examples of common types associated with approaches)

ExploratoryDescriptiveExplanatory

BasicApplied -Action -Impact -Need AssessmentEvaluation

Cross-sectionalLongitudinal -Panel -Time series -Cohort -Case Study -Trend study

Quantitative(survey, content analysis, existing statistics, experiment)

Qualitative(field research, historical comparative, etc.)

Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research

• When not much is known about topic

• Surprises (e.g. Serendipity effect)• Familiarity with basic concerns and

develop a picture• To explore feasibility of additional

research• To develop questions

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

• Focuses on “who”, “what” and “how”

• Background information, to stimulate new ways of thinking, to classify types, etc.

Explanatory ResearchExplanatory Research

• To test theories, predictions, etc…

• Idea of “advancing” knowledge

Intended Uses of StudyIntended Uses of Study

• Basic or fundamental research– Depends on paradigm– Inner logic & relation to theoretical or methodological issues in field– Concerns scholarly community

• Applied research (practical applications)– action research (We can make a difference)– evaluation research (Did it work?)

• Methods:• formative (built in)• summative (final outcomes)

• Research goals– needs assessment (Who needs what?)– cost-benefit analysis (What is it worth?)– social impact assessment (What will be the effects?)

Treatment of TimeTreatment of Time Cross-sectional(one point in time)

Longitudinal (more than one point in time)

Main Types of Longitudinal Main Types of Longitudinal StudiesStudies

• Panel study– Example: same people, at least twice

1990 2000

40-49 40-4950-59 50-5960-69 60-6970-79 70-79

80+

Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

• Cohort analysis– same category of people (but not exactly same

individuals) at at least two times or over a period– Not necessarily age cohorts, can be groups of

people, (ex. class of 2007)– Term usually used for people but principles can

also apply to non-humans: ex. implementation of homeland security policies 9/11 2 years and 5 years after, etc…

Main Types of Longitudinal Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)Studies (cont’d)

Main Types of Longitudinal Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)Studies (cont’d)

Source: Babbie (1995: 99)

Main Types of Longitudinal Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)Studies (cont’d)

• Time-series– same type of info., not exactly same people,

multiple time periods, e.g. Same age groups

1990 2000

41-50 41-50

51-60 51-60

61-70 61-70

71-80 71-80

Source: Babbie (1995: 99)Back to table To next slide

Main Types of Longitudinal Main Types of Longitudinal Studies (cont’d)Studies (cont’d)

• Time-series (other examples)– same type of info., not exactly same

people, multiple time periods, e.g. Same place

1985 2000

Capital Hill residents Capital Hill residents

Lexis Diagram: longitudinalLexis Diagram: longitudinal

Source: http://demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality/lexis.html (May 15, 2000)

Du

rati

on (

in y

ears

)

1970

5

10

15

20

75 80 85 90Year (Date)

Main Types of Longitudinal Studies Main Types of Longitudinal Studies

(cont’d)(cont’d) D

ura

tion

(in

yea

rs)

20

15

10

5

1970 75 80 85 90Year (Date)

Source: http://demog.berkeley.edu/wilmoth/mortality/lexis.html (May 15, 2000)

– Cross-Sectional Study (Lexis diagram)

Case StudiesCase Studies

• Both cross-sectional and longitudinal types, but often over duration of time

Units of Analysis (Individual)

Units of Analysis (Families)

Units of analysis:( Households)

Artifacts as “Units” of Analysis• Non-human elements (like technologies) as

subjects (Actor-Network Theory) in communication studies– Communications media (radio, television, mobile

phones etc…)

– Media Messages & Uses

Importance of Choosing Appropriate Unit of Analysis

• example: Ecological Fallacy (cheating)

Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

Ecological Fallacy (cheating Box 6.3)

Ecological Fallacy & Reductionismecological fallacy--wrong unit of analysis

(too high)reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)

reductionism--wrong unit of analysis (too low)

The Research Wheel

ChooseTopic

FocusResearchQuestion

DesignStudy

CollectData

AnalyzeData

InterpretData

InformOthers

The“Research Wheel”

Source: Neuman (1995: 12)

Steps in theresearch process

Babbie (1995: 101)

The Research Process