CHAPTER I f

llAWACgIAt llWAVlOMl AIlO eWeCT1VltlllSSS

Uhrt do managers do' The questlon has evoked

mixed rerponres. The err1 lest authent lc description of

mrnagerirl w r k can be traced to Fayol (1949). Based on

praonrl rxperlencer he suggested that managers are actively

engaged in planning, organizing, commanding and controlling

on thelr fobs.

Plmnlng. Bv plrnnlng Fayol referred to the

long-term plrnr for operrtlon eade by ernagerr. These are

K O bF based on forecasts envisaged to affect the future

of the ar~rnlzrtlona. Plans also enable the managers

to make rpproprlatc decisions so as to strereline the

Lunctlonln~ o f the organization.

Orernlrln&. Fnsures the judicious corbination

of ~achlnr, mrterir1 and r s n for successful task

rcco~pl 1 rhncnt .

Cor..rndlng. Involves directing subardinace

r c r l v l t y tovrtds sccorpllshmcnt of organicrtldnal goals.

CoMrottlng. t;mphr$izcs prrldlcrl assessment

Of the orgrnlrrtlun structure rs rlso the subordin~tes,

beridem hllhl lghtlng the leportancc of rep1 acing faulty

structure or Lncompetent subordtnates to ensure

organizational performance. The controlling function ensures

that actual performance conforms to plans made.

Changlng environments, expectations and the

complex nature of organlzatlons have questioned Fayol's

obearvatlons. Slgnlficant among these are Drucker's,

Mlzer' and Mlntzberg'r dercrlptlonr of managerial work.

Dmeker'r Dercrlptlon of the Mnalertal Job

Accordlng to Drucker (19749 a manager must be

capable o f oonltorlng the various functions such that

outcomer exceed the Inputs. The performance of each unit of

the orgrnlzatlon should be viewed as corplementary to each

other. As such, rdcquatc and equal attention to each

rrpect is neccmbltrted. %reover, decisions pertaining. to

the prrbcnt rrc r r laportant as chose of long tern nature.

tirncr each of there dcclslons must be taken wlth due care so

thrt the v i a b l e continuance of the organlrrtlon is not

jcopr rdl t ad .

According to Druckrr a manager perfarss flve

dlrtlnct rolrr. He s e t s obJoctlvcs. organizes, ootlvates

rnd comrunlcates, measures, and develops subordinate

perforrrncr. By engaglng In each of these actlvltles, the

mrnrger rnsurer tha t h l r o r g r n l r r t t o n performs r s best as

L t can.

Sotti* object lves. The manager determines the

ob jec t lves o f the o rg rn i z r t l on . The goals t o be

r t t r l n e d and the modus operand1 are decided. These are

then comrunlcrted t o the subordlnrtes so that they may

d l r e c t che l r e f f o r t s towards rccompllrhment o f there

obJect lver .

O r6an l z lq . Through o rg rn l za t l on the manager

f l r r t d l v l d e r the uork l n t o ' ~ r n r g e a b l e r c t L v i t l e s ' .

There are then converted l n t o 'manageable jobs'. They

are then grouped r p p r o p r i r t e l y t o cons t l t u te the

a r g a n l r r t tonal r t ructure.

Mot lv rc lon rnl communlcrtion. The people engaged

In the varloun a c t l v l t i e s are r o t l v r t e d t o p e r f o r r through

the ernrger 'n dec l r lonn pertaining t o pay, p l rceaent

and proro t Lon. i lpurrd, dovnwr r d and 1 ate r r l communlcrtion

1s r r r o r t a d t o t o d i s r a r l n r t c requ l red Informatton.

Ilrrrurtry. Each i n d l v l d u r l I s i n t i m r t e d about

the p o r f o r r r n r r rsqulrements o f h l s job. These I n t u r n

rrr r r l r t d t o tho ove ra l l pe r l n r r rnce o f the o rgan l r r t l on .

The r r n a l r r r v r l u r t r s the p e r f o r r r n c r of rubord lnr tes .

Such evrlurtlon is communicated so that performance

short of expectations Is rectified.

h a l o p i n g . Lastly, since the manager works with

people, he must take interest in their development. The

task requires anrlytlcrl ability, integrity and socirl

*kLlls.

Manrgcrlrl jobs must be derived from

orgrnizrtlonrl objectives. They must have adequate scope,

ruthorlry rnd responslblllty to make r visible niche in the

orgrnlzrt Lon's success. As Drucker observes, "since

r nrnrgrr is someone uho takes responsibility for,

rnd contrlbutcs to, the flnrl results of the enterprise, the

Job should rlurys embody the mrxlmua challenge, carry

the *rxlmum rrrponrlbll lty, and mrke the maximum

contribution."'

Druckcr suggcsts that mrnagerlal jobs should be so

deslgnud rr to ensure pcrmrnance. The manager must be

crprble of arklng slgnlflcrnt contributions to the jobs.

Cffectlvr performance must be credlted 4 t h

rscognltlon. Psrsonrl development of the tndividurl is

'p.~,~rucker Manr e m n t : Tasks Ras nslbil it les and pr.ccis.s, *I P~ ~ x - t t a . ,D*.. I * l b i , m, p.403.

perhaps by far the most rewarding experience in the

organization. Since a manager works with a number of

rubordlnrtes he must be capable of passing on some of the

enthusiasm to work to his subordinates too.

Relrtlonships with sup*riors and with peers are equally

cruclal to r manager. For effective performance these

"oanagerlal relationrhipr" should preferably be as vide

as possible. Soae restriction should however be ioposed

on lateral ralrtlonshlpr rr otherwise they may prove to

be cumbcrvome, time consuming, and of superficial

importance only.

Jobs should be large enough to facilitate the

perronal growth of the incunbents. Since hlerarchlcal

structure in or~anizatlons generally have very feu top level

jobs. orgenlrationa should ensure that the nanagers

learn. develop etd novc up the hierarchy steadily over the

VCkrn. Orgrnitations which facilitate meteoric rise face

i~alnent destruction through frustration and resistance to

chrnge by the managers. nanagcrial jobs should

cs.entially provide rrtirfactlon so as to sustain long

term lntrrert$ of the job Occupant.

Jobs aust also ensure raooth transition of

ernr$rrlal functions from older to younger managers. This

crn be radr porjlblo only through proper planning. Care

should be taken to see that well experienced, efficient

managcrs are nurtured so as to take over key positions when

the need arises, without creating inbalances or hindrances

in the functlonlng of the organization,

Managerlal jobs s h w l d be capable of retaining

the beat talerit on the lobs. Jobs vhlch prove othervise

s h w l d be redesigned so that the incumbent can derive

s~tiafncclor~ through perfornoncc and achievement, operating

in the way that bcst cults him.

Further, jobs should be compact units such that

each ennrycr Is able to work lndependentlv without having to

rngryiv in Cc)u manv ecctlngs or requiring constant

~ w p c r n t i o r r ur cvordlnrtlon fron others.

\lnce aanagcrlrl jobs are key positions it

11 lncvltab~c that thev rrc designed appropriately so

thrt c f f ~ ~ r t n arc dlrccrcd towards achievement of

orflrnlzat lorro! obfcctlves. Druckcr be1 ieves that the

beat urv 1 % tocntrust thc design of their jobs

t o tht. rarragcrr thrmrclvrs. It ray be approved by the

ruprrior i f thcv satlrfy hlw about the results that

arc llkrlv t o cnbuc, the contribution that the manager Is

to be held rccounrrble for, and the contributions to be

mrdc by the mrna~crr. Based on suggcstlons made by the

supsrlors the Job drscrlpt Lon may bc made authent lc.

Mintzbsrg's Dimcnrional Analysis of Managerial Poles

A conceptually dlfferent treatise on managerial

jobs has been provlded by Hlntzberg 11975). Observations

such as the manager spends most of his time Ln planning and

dclegrclng rather than on social interaction, is more

rellecrlve and systcaatic while planning, derives all

rcqulrrd lnformrtlon froa the formal informaclon set up, and

;ha; mrnrgcment 1s evolving gradually into a science

rnd r profca.lon have been dismissed as mere folklore.

Mintrberg foul& that managers perform numerous

f l~rrr~ic~rr* on thelr f c ~ b * . tach actlvity lastedmosc often

oniy for r feu tlnutcr. Planning, if resorted to, is only

fur b c l l v l t i c x rvqulrltrg Lamediate attention rather than of

l o n ~ tera durrtlon. Inspiti. of the varlety of casks that

arnogcrn rrc rcqutrrd to pcrfors they are unable to delegate

bccruac. t r l rxrcs.ilvr rcllrncr on the verbal sedia as opposed

;a urlttrn co~nunlcatlon. As such they are often

r,vcrbirrdcncd and face tcutc tlrc pressures.

t. ifoct Ivc mrnagers engage constantly in

verbal cnmrunlcat Inn. Thc concept of r strorrg sanageaent

Intorartion ayetee that provldes all inforratlon requlred by

thr mrnrgers Ir ubsnlctr. Most Information IS processed

rnd rtorod In the rrnapcr's brsln. As Mintzberft observes,

"the strrteglc drtr brnk of the orgrnizrtion is not in the

memory of Its computers but in the minds of Its mrnagers."2

Besides performing regular mrnrgerirl duties,

mrnrgers also rctlvely engage in, 'r number of regular

duties, lncludlng rlturl , and ceremony, negotirtion,

and procerrlng of "softn informrtlon, thrt links the

orgrnlsrtlon with its environment ."3 "Soft" informrtion

"erpeclrl I y gossip, hearsay, rnd speculation"' are

cherlrhed by mrnrgerr for its "tlmellness".

Hlntzberg has identified ten mrnrgerirl roles

clrrslfled into three categories vit., interpersonal,

lnfornrtlonal, and declslonrl roles. Though different in

nature, there ten roles are interdependent and contribute

nubntrntlrfly to cffectlve performance.

The figureherd, leader and liaison roles

originate from the nrnrger's formrl ruthorlty and involve

Lnterpersonrl relrtionshlps. The figurehead role refers

to the ceramonlrl dutles thrt mrnrgers have to perform

becruse of the posltlon held by them. Such dutles have to

't+enry Hlnttberg, "The Mrnr ers Job: Folklore and Frct." Hrrvrrd Business Rrvltw. lufy - August, 1915 , p.26.

'z., p.24.

, ~ $ 2 8 .

3 7

be performed, as a matter of routine for the smobth

functioning of the organizrtion. As the organization unit's

head the manager performs leadership roles. Formal

authority glves him power to influence the work of

subordinator. The llalson role arises out of the managers'

nocorslty to interact wlth peers and others outside their

chaln of comaand. The role derives its importance as it

aids the manager to develop an effective external

lnformatlon system for his on, use.

Informatlmrl Roles. Through interpersonal

contacts vlth subordinates and others, the manager

bccomer r repository of information. Acquiring,

proccrstng and dlsscmlnatlng information is a crucial

prrc of arnagerlal work. The monitor, dlsreminator and

rpokeemrn roles fall under this category. Through

contrcte, the ranager 1s able to collect information for

prrformlng the monitor role. Most of the information

Lr in the nature of gosslp, speculation and hearsay.

Howver, such Lnformatlon has its utility for the

ranrgerr. As dlsseslnator, the manager passes on such of

chose lnformatlons rr are required wlthln his organization

co his rubordlnatcs. As rpokesperson, he is the unit's

reprosencatlvr.

DoctstonaI Roles. Entrepreneur, disturbance

handler, resource allocator and negotiator roles arise out

of the declsion maklng function. As entrepreneur, the

rrnrger is responsible for adapting the orgrnlzrtion to

rnvtronmentrl chrnges. He develops new projects, and

expends efforts to make them virble units. As dlsturbrnce

handler, the manager takes correctional steps to rectify

unexpected but serious dlsturbancts ln the functioning of

the organlzrtlon rrlsing out of changes initlrted by him.

As resource rllocator the manager 1s concerned with maklng

lmportrnt decirionr about allocrtlon of resources,

destgnlng the structure of the unit, pattern of formal

relrtlonrhlps, dlvlslon, and coordination of work.

Lastly, as negottrtor, the mrnrger represents the

organlzrclon a t ncgotlrtlons.

Minttbtrg'a description of mrnrgerirl w r k thus

crpharlzes on there ten roles which are inseparable from

each other. Two obrervstlons have been stressed in this

context. FlrrL, rlnce time management is the essence of

a l l mrnrgrrlrl work, mrnagtrs should manage it

ryst~matlcally. Moreover, the arnrgtr should be capable

of dlschrrglng obllgrtlonr to his advantage. Next, rs

rrnrgrr's effcctlvenesb 1s affected by his understtndlng of

hlb ovn w r k , I t is plausible that through Lntros$ectlon

r manager vlll be able to improve hls effcctlveness.

llrnr8erlrl Role8 in r Social System

M l z e s (1976, 1980) has identified four roles that

managers must perform to ensure effective functioning of the

organization. Ihe four roles viz., producing, implementing,

innovating, and integrating are related to one of the four

subsyrtems vlz., adminlstratlve/rtructural, economic/

ttchnologica1, Lnformational/dectslon-making, and human/

social.

Productq. The role emphasizes achievement of

result* rupcrior to those of competitors. Activities in the

acunoatc/ccchnologlcal subsystem are the focus of the role.

As kapierrntcrs managers schedule, coordinate, control and

cnrurc dlrclpllnc. trphasls is on the admlnistrativei

~rructural rubsystea.

Implsmcntl~. Tcchnlcal skills alone are not

rufflctrnt to help ranagcrs to perform effectively. They

nurt tw capable of dlrccting subordinates to achieve

orprnlzatlonal goals. While perforring this role managers

rrc engaged in rcheduling, coordinating, controlling and

dlrcipl ining subardlnater' pcrformrnce. The role emphasizes

the ~dmlnirtratlve/rtructural sub-systcm.

t n n w r t l q . Changing environments necessitates

qulck drcirlonr by managers. Often it entails changing

goals or systems to meet outside pressures. Hence they act

as innovators or entrepreneurs. The innovating role

focusrer on informrtional/decision-.rking subsystem.

Integrating. It implies combining indivldual

strrtegles into a g r w p strategy. The role stresses the

human/ soclal system. As Adires observes:

"When a group can operate on its own with J clear direction in mind and can choose its own direction over time without dependin on any one lndlvldurl For a successful optratfon, then we know that the integrating role has been performed adequately. It requires an individual who is rensltive to people's needs. Such m individual unlfles the whole organization behlnd goals rnd strategies".

Alrhough rll four roles have to be performed well

for ~ r n r ~ i n g the organltatlon effectlvely, the most crucial

role t r thrt of lntcgrrtlon. As such, managers must be

erprblc of performing this role approprlrtely.

Conclusions about managerial job behaviour have

thus under~one rlgnlficant rodlfications over the years

*havln$ regbrd to the challenges, environment and emerging

new trends in management. The process is likely to continue

as Ion8 as tha mrnagcrlal myth rerains.

'~chak Adites , "Mismana ement Styles ," Callfernla Manr.ement Review, 19. 110.2, ~ f n t e r 1976. p.6.

Wnrgerial Job Di~enriona

Managerial job behaviours are difficult to define

as they are subject to time, person, and situation

determined changes. In order to evaluate accurately it is

imperative that it should be possible to distinguish

betueen productive and unproductive behaviour. This is

posslble only if the evaluator knows accurately h a t

functions the svaluatee has to perform on the Job. Job

analyses must encompass all core responsibilities of

the jobs belng studied. Campbell G . , suggest

some methods for dcveloplng valid constructs of managerial

jab bchavlours. They are:

Flrst , rvste~rtlc observatlonr, reports, or records of sany managers' job behaviors must be rccumul rtcd. Second, these records of job behavlor surt be analyzed either rationally or strtlstlcally to discover broader behaviorai content crte ortes to deflne relatively similar groupln~s of &havloral components. Third. thc crtcgorits and the behavioral elements defining Lher should be trled out as a means of observing rrnagurlal behavlour and descrlblng the major dlmenslons making up another sample of msna erlrl obs. Fourth, the categories may need to & modllied 4s indicated, by these new observatlons; only then wlll the generality and broad urefulness of the cate8ories (dlnensionsl for dcllnlng the ma or behavioral requiremgnts of different mrna~erlr Jobs have been shown.

". !

'~ohn P. Campbell, Narvln D. Dunnette, Edward E. Iawler I f f , and Karl E . thick Jr., nanr erial Behaviour Serformanco, @ Lf Iectivenoss, ~J~W+C- fP70, p*7Z:

A slgnlflcrnt number of studies have used some of

these technlqutr to arrlve at logical conclusions about

mrnrgerlal behrvlour in the organlzattonal setting (Corlson,

1951; Burns, 1957; Dubin, 1962; Dobin and Spray, 1964;

Stewrrt, 1967; Campbell e., 1970; Hlntzberg,

1973). Obscrvrtions by these theorlsts have dlspclled much

of the mlsconceptlonr about mrnrgerlrl jobs.

Crrlaon (1951) obtrined information about job

rctlonr of ten cxecutlves. The executlve~ uere found to

work for r number of hours. One third of the uorklng tlme

war often spent outslde the flrm. Executive functions

llke Lnsptcting, overseelng, rerdlng and contemplation

were rcldom resorted to due to tlme pressures and

conrtrnt inttrruptlons.

On the basls of crltlcal incidents

method, Flanr~an cl9SL) identifled slx categorles of

job. vlz., hrndlln& admlnlstratlvc details, supervising

pcrronnel , planning and dlrect rctlon, accept ance of

orgrnltatlonrl rcsponslbLllty, acceptance of personal

renponslblllty, and proflclency in allltrry occuprttonrl

apclrllty, rr lmportrnt to officer-txecutlves of the Air

rorc..

YlIIlr~r 11956) rrrlved rt slx critlcrl areas of

mrnrg@rlrl jobs. These are planning, organlzrcion

and execution of policy, relations with associates,

technical competence, coordination and integration of

activities, work habits, and adjustments to the job.

Burnr ( 1 9 5 7 ) studied couunlcation patterns of

seventy sLx Britlsh managers working in eight middle sized

companlrs. fop level managers in firms committed to large

scale exprnslon spent about 80% of their wrking tine in

dlscurrlons. Since sost of the information obtained was

closely guarded by the top management, information flow

across the hlerrrchical levels war restricted.

Hcaphlll 11959, 19601 developed the Executive

Punltlon Dercrlptlon Questionnaire (EPLQ) based on the

rcrponrca of nlncty three executlver. The instrusent

frc~lltrrer ~ h c prcdlctlon of ranagerial effecflveness 6s

I t glvcn an advanced Indlcrtlon of those perforaances that

arc erphrslrcd by a prrrlculrr executive position. It

rlro provlder rpproprlrte procedures for understanding

srnrgarlrl Jobs and lob behrvlours. Personal and

organlzrtlonrl qurlltlcs leadlng to effective performance

on the job hove ~ l a o been ldentlfled.

The I:PW consists of ten clustcrs of jobs obtained

through factor anrlysls of five hundred and seventy flvc job

element*. Thr clusters rre - providlng staff service

in nonaperational rrrrs, rupcrvlsion of w r k , lnternal

business control , technical aspect8 with products and

market, human community and social affairs, long range

planning, exerclse of broad power and authority, business

reputatlon, personal demcinds, end preservation of assets.

Rubin and Spray (196rO found that face to face

dlscusslon w a s the most frequently used form of interaction.

Hlgher level executives interacted more with people outside

the orgrnlzatlon. Moreover, most of these discussions were

initiated by the executives rather than others. Lower level

executives on the other hand interacted .ore vith persons

ulrhln the ~ r ~ a n l t a t l o n .

Kelly 119641 adopted the activity sampling

rechnlquc cu andlyte urnagcrlal behavlour. Results showed

that arnrgsrs spent two-thirds of their tlme with other

n Dnc thlrd of which ras spent with peers, and one

hall with bubordinrter. Further, one half of the activities

pcrtalncd to planning or programlng vhlle about a qtsarter

lnvulvrd trchnicrl Batters and machine malntalnence. Just

aver ten percent of the tlme was spent on personnel

rdalnistrotion. The study supported the vler that personal

rtyir Is not 46 lrportant to effective manrgcaent as is

utll lrrt ion of resources and techniques 'for completing a

job.

According to Horne and Lupton (1965) the "typical"

middle manrgers rpent a consLderable portion of their time

ln givlng and taklng Informatlon directly at their own

offlces. Informal dlscusslons were confined to a few

oucrlderr. Bchavloural patterns ' were also found to be

slmllar across organizations differing in size and

technology.

Stewart (1967) obtained r record of all job

bchavlour lncldents excctdlng flve minutes duration of 160

managers. The study showed that managers dlffered in the

way they rpent rhclr tlme. The managerla1 job was often

conflned L O tht wanagcr's own office. Informatlon

b u s transelttcd through direct dlscusslons. Stewart found

t h a t jab# could be clustered lnco flve tategorles,

drpcndlng on r l w spent and slcllarltles to other jobs In

rhe clu~ter. Jobs in each cluster differed from those In

v L h ~ r rlustcrr. Managers In each cluster differed in

rhclr use of tlnc as corpared ta those ln other clusters.

Ths study also shoved chat they lnteract dlfferentlv to

develop dlffercrrl "stylcs" of tlme expendtrure.

Of the rtudlcs mentioned hlcherto Stewart's and

Hcmphlll's studlcs 4rc consldcred lnportanc as they

reveal Level and function differences in ~anagerlal

jobs. Top level managemant 1s nnre concerned with

personal requirements, planning, and power. On the other

hand mlddle management is concerned with products,

markets, and supervision. Sales, marketing and general

managers rpenc relatively sore time outslde their

offices as compared to prodwtlon and financial

services.

One of the more recent studles on managerial

behrvlor job description i s that by Luthans d., (1988). They studled four hundred and fifty seven managers at work.

Bared on the s t u d y , they categorized managerial activities

as cosrunlcation, networking, husan resource management, and

trrdltionrl rrnrgcrlal work such as planning, organizing,

cut1tru11 etc .

Yuki ~ 1 9 8 9 1 attespced to integrate the numerous

.oncrptr of lcadrrshlp devrlopcd hitherto with managerial

work and bchrvlor. t h e approach is largely based on

drclrlut' r r k t t t ~ , rxchrnping inforration, influencing others

n d dcvcloptng r~lrtlonshlpb within the organization.

According to Forwlas 11992) managerial jobs should

be thou~ht of In nnntrrdltlonal terms 1.r. not on the basis

of functlans rnd lerclr. The ~ u p ~ c s t l o n 1s in the light of

changcn thrt hsvc bccn notlced in recent years in the work

place. The behavloural job descrlpclon emphrslzes on

different types of interpersonal contacts (i.e. with peers,

subordinates or external people), and the need toinflwnce

people through different techniques.

Dlscusslons uere based on 6 years of research on

the behavlour and wrking strategies of managers. The

sample Included tuenty flve heads of functional areas,

eleven general rrnrgers, three group executives and tuenty

nine chlef business officers. 7he research compared

managers Ln the same or simllar jobs. Ihe aim vas to sttdy

how these dlfferent managers differed considering such

rspectr of nrnrgcrlal behaviwr as influence tactics, inter

perronrl contrctr, and strategic initiatives.

A Behrvlourrl Job Descrlptlon (AID) was developed

far use ln the study. Behavioural dlmensions used by

rrsrrrchcrs i n crrller stodles to differentiate among

managers in slmllrr jobs was used rs the basis for the

development of the BJD. The BJD clrsrlfles fob behavloural

demands into 3 broad areas vir., Impact of the managers'

rctlvitles, thelr lnterprrsonrl contacts, tnd approaches to

accomplishing w r k .

t h e st* found that the vlce presidents of

flnancr and marketing have slrllar profllas. Both are

onurged in mrintalnencc and operrtlonr. Both jobs requite

the incucbents to maintain good contact wlth people at least

for some time. However, contacts are usually initiated by

others. The first posltion necessitates less contact with

others. Moreover, it requires more contact with members of

other companies and wlth the superior. The first manager

also delegates more than the second. Both use rewards and

legltlmrte authority. However, the purpose for which they

use the two differs. C(oreover, they differ in the way they

~ccompllrh thelr work. The marketing manager does vork

wtthwt enlisting euch help fror others. Fondas recommends

the use of the BJD in organlzatlons. It is contended that

the BJD will be urcful for practising managers for making

rrrcsrernts abut areas of vork requiring attention.

Profcrslonrl dcvclopacnt personnel w u l d find It useful for

indlulduallring aanagcmcnt training prograrmes.

Evaluating I(.nrgerlal Performance

Job dcscrlpcions give evaluatees a clear

undcrstrndlng of &re 11 expected of them. Appraisals play

a vltal part in ensuring that performance Ls commensurate

vtth there otganitattonal expectrtlons. As Porter

fi. observe :

tvrlustlon is an tnevltable consequence of the way or~rntcatlonr are rtructurad and jobs are drrl8n.d. The asrtgnmrnt of responslblllty to

prrticular individuals for the performance of cercrtn tasks maker the assessment of how an individual performs both possible and necessary. It mrkes it possible because it identifies the resulce. for which the person is responsible. It mrkes it necessary b e c a w in order to operate, complex, dlfferentirted orgrnisrtions n e q information on how well fobs are being performed.

The process of evrluation is generally continuous.

Intormrtion derived from formal appraisals is usually used

to determine organizrtlonal rewards. It also acts as a

control mearure, by infusing disciplinrry actions, and can

be regarded as the first step in correcting behaviour

[Robblnr, 19821.

Perforrrnce appraisals pose severe problems

bccrue.~ of dlvergrnt view points held by evalurtees about

the crlterlr to h evrlurced. To avoid such

dlscreprncicr, bchrvlourrl scientists have suggested that

output *errores should include behrviourrl trrits and job

rcqulreoents that rre essential for proper job

performance. Such oerrures should preferably be

ob)ectivc In nacure rnd crprble of influencing

behaviour. Corls for future performrnce should be jointly

set rnd they should be maderrtely difficult. Evaluations

must k done at regular intewrls, living the concerned

'tYman U. Porter, Edward E. Lrwler 111, and J.Rlcharb Hackaan, khavlour & Oreanirrtions, ~ r a u Hill, New York, 1975.

managerr a chance to participate in the process. Reward

schcncs rhould adequately reflect the apprafsal report.

Appraisal measures are seldom capable of meeting

the foregoing requireaents as the process is cumbersome

rnd the organizational climate is not conducive.

Horc important1 y , constant conflicts are noticeable

berueen indlvldual and organlzatlonal objectives.

Supcrlor and subordinate perceptions differ so widely

chat rtrolutlon becoses Impossible at times.

Such dyrfunctlonal consequences can be overcome

through clearer definltlon of the managerial job, the

process fa r bccoeplirhing objectlves, and constructive

feedback through lntrraction. The critical question then is

knagerial Effectiveness Defined

Ptrhryr the flrst deflnltlon of ornagerial success

could k traced to that provlded by Cuion:

f h ~ success of an executive lies largely in rec;lng major organlzrtlon goals through the coordlnrtcd efforts of hls orgrnlrrtion; in part, r t lerst, there efforts depend upon the kind of influence the rriccutive has upon those whose work his own behavlor touches.... The executive's

behavior contributes to the achievement of or~rnlgatlonrl goals only by its influence on the ptceptLans, rttttudrr, and motives of other

~ o p l e lngthe organization and on their subsequent havior.

Gufon, in his definition of effectiveness,

scrcsrer on the attainment of organlaational goals, Goals

affect task performance by focussing on a particulrr

rspccc for acconplishment. It say take the form

of profit maximization, organizational efficiency,

stablllry, hlgh eaployee morale, organizational commitment

etc. Efforrb are then directed towards achieving these

goal r , through appropriate performance strategies.

Ptotivatlon of the employees Is a crucial factor for

goal accorpl lshrerrt . Since jobs are interlinked

organlxation.1 goals can be attained only through the

coordinated efforts of ell people engaged in it. As

such, i t is lsperetlve that the successful executive

nust neccsserllv be capable of manoeuvring subsequent

bchavlour, attitudes, motives and perceptions of others in

the or~nnltation.

Carpbell F_L aJ., have defined effective managerial

job behaviour as:

Any set of rrnagerlal actlons believed to be oprlmrl for identifying, assimilating, and utlllzlng both Intern81 and external resources

'R,u, Gulon, Personnel Testlna, NcGrau Hill, New York, 1965, p.666.

toward sustaining, over the long term, the functlonlng of the organizational unit for which a manager has some degree of responsibility.9

According to Campbell 1. the effective manager 1s engaged in optimizing the use of all resources for the

successful functloning a$ continuance of the organizrtion

for r long cerm. Optlmlzation of resources requires the

pcrfornancc of a n u ~ b e r of actlvitles. Different managers

nry use dlffcrent techniques to accompllsh similar levels

of pcrforsance.

tvrluetlon of managerial behrviour should reflect

thv rxtc5nt t o uhlch the I r i d l ~ p ~ d u a l canager performs on the

job to ensure optl~lzatlun. Most often the

t n d i v l c l c i r l ' ~ pcriurndncc is dependent on a number of

L r u * r l varlrblcs llkc Chc ranager's qualities, human,

f lnrntirl and netcriel resources at his and the

orgrnirrt~oti'r disposal. In addition, effectiveness of

o t h r r arnagcrs ulll elscj affect the perceived

cffect~vancsr of r ranrpcr. Finally, if the manager's

rrspotrsi b l l ltv spreads over a number of organizational

unlts, then hi* rctlons ulll affect all of them.

tonssqucntly, h i s pc.rformancr evaluations should take

rccnunt 01 this aspect too.

Peddin defines managerial effectiveness as:

The extent to vhich managers acpbeve the output requirements of their positions.

The def initlon makes the concept of managerial

effectLvcners the central focal point in management,

emphasizing performance rather than personality.

The various models of managerial effectiveness are

dlscusscd in the following section.

Hanagerlal Effectiveness Nodels

The heroic and post heroic models of managerial

c~fcctlvencar arc dlscussed below.

Heroic modelr of the manager. The traditional

rolr uf the ranrgcr centered around the three distinct

casks crf asslgnlng, monitorinp, and coordinating.

Sutwrdlnrtc's tasks were designed and a1 located

acrordlng t o superlor's perception. Se 1 dom was

prrttciparlvr decision maktng resorted to. As such, all

rcclvlty came to be centered around the manager. Success

war cvldrnccd by the capacity to control the unit under

the mrnrger. Thlr unltary concept of the herolc nodal ---

''u.J. Rcddln, Elfrctlve Mana emenc Tata bkGraw Hll l Pub1 lmhlng Conpany. Rcw Delhf,*i.

evolved lnto two distlnct models - manager as technician and manager as conductor models as a result of specific

orgrntzatlonal needs and managerial rethinking. The

baslc assuaptlon underlying [her+ models is that the

manager is a problee solver replete with technical

corpetcnce, ulsdom, and deft at artlculating subordinate

performance i Bradford and cohen 1987).

Manager as master technician. The model derives

itlr credence from its emphasis on knowledge of

technlcal aspects for success in the organization.

Bradford and cohen opine that:

In this s t v i e of leadcrshlp the relatlonshlp betvren the leader and subordinates tends to be personal and partlcularlstlc, governed less by rules and procedures and more by the particular rrl atlonrhlp,, betwecn the manager and each nubordtnatr.

The style vorks best when the ranager has vide

ltdepth knoulcdgc, vhcrc interpersonal relations are

mlnlral, or in caaerr vhcre differences of opinion aar

declrlon raking. It is also useful where subordinates

rrc unco8eltttd, not cnopcrat ivc or hlghly dependent. The

style vorkn bcrt durlnf tlres of cmcrgcncy.

av avid 1.. Bradfard and ~ l l a n R.Cohen, Mana in far Excrll.ncr, Wlley Eastern Limited, Ncu Delhl, g4---

-7-w

Problems arise vhen objectlve solutions are

ignored thereby undermining subordinate's confidence and

vhen organlzotlonal systems and procedures are overlooked.

Manager as Conductor. The prlaafacie motive of

Lhe s d c l is resolution of conflicts between aanagerial

and mubardlnatc thinking through involvement of

suhorcllnates at each st age of task performance. Control

over subordlnatcs is exercised, but acceptance by the

suburdlnrtes precedes it. This is achieved by using

the Crltlcal Path Analysis, Performance Appraisals,

\(rnry.vac.nc Infornation Svstess etc. (Bradford and Cohen

1 Iriv~lucnen; a l d r good huaan relactons and helps galn

accr;>l.arkcc, but n a y clot arake good use of huaan resources

; . r a,hieve gualltv solutions [Yiles and Rirchip, 1971).

c'oordlnat l ~ > n i5 achieved by ninlmlsing concern

f r ~ r nukx~rdlrrotrs, supprcsrlrlp subordinate development and

cxerci~lng cxcesslvc control. These aodels mar effective

pertorsrncc as ruhrdinatc potential is underuti1ized.

i f tflcetiut performance 1s to result, it is imperative that

wutx,rdinater rrr. induced to cxpcnd thc requlblte ef forts.

This c w l d hc: rchlrvcd through appropriate notivation. Job

Chrllengr needs to be Infused to stimulate desired

actlon (Bradford and Cahen. 19071.

Changes i n o r g a n l z a t l o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and a t t i t u d e s

of peop le necessitated changes In t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s of h e r o i c

r a n r g e r s . Th l s change i n ou t took gave b i r t h t o t h e new

' d e v e l o p e r ' t r a g c of t h e r a n a g e r .

The manager a s deve lope r . Th i s model i s a n

r p p r u p r l a t e a l t e r n a t e t o t h e h e r o i c models d e a l t w i t h s o

f a r .

D e v c l o p c r - ~ a n a g e r s l e a r n t o have impact w i thou t e x e r t i n8 t o t a l c o n t r o l , t o be h e l p f u l w i thou t hav tn a l l t h e answers , involved w i t h o u t deaan!tnp c e n t r a l t t y , tr Kt p m c r f u l w i thou t needing t o dominate a d t o a c t r e s p o n s i b l e wi thou t s q u e r r l n ~ o t h e r s o u t .

S u b o r d t n ~ t c s a r e o r t e n t c d t o s h a r e both manager ia l

and t a s k r r s p o r : s ~ b l l i t i c s t hus e n s u r i n g h ighe r q u a l i t y .

I J r n t 1 1 I ( r t t u ~ l $rf rirv o p p o r t u n i t i e s uncovers i n h e r e n t

p r~b!emb a t t h e t n l t t e l ScaKc t t s e l f t he reby p r e v e n t i n g i t s

a a t l l f ~ b t a ~ l o n i n t o e c r t s t s . Shared knovledge and e x p e r t i s e

<r,u;>l 'd wi th cosol tment i tpro\ .e5 t a s k performance th rough

j ~ b c h a l l c n g r , pe r sona l l e a r n i n g in f l u e n c c , and neu

o p p ~ > r t u n l L l r . i (Brati lrrrd a n d Cohen, 19871.

The wcxlcl c o n s i s t s of t h r e e i n t e r a c t i n g

components. The f t r a t Is conccrncd wi th deve lop ing a team

v h l c h v r l u q s b h ~ r i n g r c s p o n s l b t l l t i e s . The second -----.- "-- -.

" l b i d , - , p.62.

espha*! r e s con t iriuous development of i n d i v i d u a l

s k i l l s through work a s s lgnmcn t s , d i s c u s s i o n s and

t e c h n i c a l t r a l n l n g . The deve lope r p e r s p e c t i v e a i d s t h e

manager i n b a l a n c i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n ' s needs v i t h

l n d l v l d u a l ' s i n t e r e s t s t h rough s u b o r d i n a t e l e a r n i n g ,

Ifivol\,emcnt and growth. The t h i r d a spec t d e t e r m i n e s a

common goal which w i l l e n a b l e expending of e f f o r t s o f t h e

whole t e a * i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . The goal must be un ique and

d I f l i c u l t t o ach leve s o a s t o engage t h e i n t e r e s t of t h e

mcrb'rs, b c s l d c s s e r v i n g t h e r o l e of a g u l d e l i n e f o r

d c c i s l o n maklng. The t h r u s t of t h e post h e r o i c model i s

i t \ o r i e n t a t to t ? towards t h e f u t u r e (Bradfo rd and Cohen,

19.1: 1 .

Thc t a n a g e r a s dcvc lope r i s s o r e a c t i v e t h a n t h e

hcrr7lc s a n a g c r . gives g r e a t c r autonooy t o s u b o r d i n a t e s

l n \ p l t c of p r r a t i * r c o n t r o l s , and d e r i v e s pover th rough

d i n h z ~ r s r n e n t o f p o w r t o s u b o r d i n a t e s . The manager

c a p h ~ r l r c s t c a s b u l l d l n g e n s u r i n g r e t e n t i o n of

l n d l v l d u a l l t v , l o s t l l l s o p t i m l s r In ~ u b o r d i n a t e c a p a b i l i t i e s

u l t h o u t s a c r l f 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ~ on work, and inp roves manager ia l

p c r f ( > r a n n c c t h r n u ~ h emphasls on o t h e r ' s needs ( B r a d f o r d

and Cohrn, 1987) .

A more comprrhcnslvc model o f managcrlal behav lour

has b r a n p rapor sd by Csmpbcll G .

Campbell c. 11970) relate the complex

concepts of "person" (individual manager's traits and

abllitles), "procerrn (organlzrtionrl results) and "product"

(manager's on the job behaviour and activities), to the

heurlstlc model of managerial behavlour.

The model is s schematic representation of

mrnagerlrl behrvlour to be reckoned vith in predicting

managerial effectiveness. lhe manager's job behaviour is

dlrccrned as a function of ability, motivation and

opportunlty In the organlzrtionrl environment. The model is

rlmllar to that of Halcr'r ( 1 9 5 5 ) . Maier contended that

the ruItiplLcrt1ve relationship between ability and

rotlvrtlon rpproprlrtely explalns the subjective

proporrltioc~ that either of the two variables by itself

cannot posltlvsly influence behavlour. As such, both

notlvrtlon and ablllty in reasonable measure are

prarequlrltea for cffecctve performance. The present model

rsrumer chat:

Executive behavlour - or more importantly, cffectlve executive behavlour - is a function of complex interactions between individurl or personrl characterlstics; the demand and oxpeccatlons placed upon persons by the physical. admlnlstrrtlve, rnd social environments of their organiratlon; and the nature of the feedback, incentive, and reward systems devpfoped by organlratlonal pollcles and practices.

The individual is conditioned by innate

differences, skills, aptitudes, intelligence a d

personality, all of which influence role behaviour.

Borrowing from motlvation literature they posit that the

three varirbles - expectancy 1, expectancy 2 and valence

act In unision to result in productive behavlour.

Expectsncy 1, Is the subjective probability estimate that

a porson wlll accomplish a particular task goal.

Expectancy 2, refers to the perception that accowplishwent

of the task goal will be followed by certain rewards.

Valence indicates the strength of preferences among

compet lng revrrds.

The lndlvldurl ' e perception of abilities

Lnfluences task optlons, goals and effort expended.

lndlvldurl differences apart, task demands including

rltuatlon constraints represent objectlve realities that a

manager hrs Lo reckon wlth. Availability and preference for

rewrrds alro influence job khaviour and performance,

Rewards may be categorized into extrinsic and intrinsic.

Extrlnslc revards are given by the organization and

include such thlngr as pay, promotions status etc.

Intrinalc rewards are self given. Included in it are

feel lngs of accowpl lshment and satisf action. Htre

exlstrnce of rewards docs not ensure performance. It is

important that the individual knows of its availability as

wll a6 the weans to secure it. Besldes these, the reward

hra to be poaitlvely valued by theindividual if it

is to induce performance.

Training and development improve performance by

moderating cask behaviour in the desired direction. The

assuaptlon underlying trainlng and development is that

lndivldual behavlour can be modlfled according to

organirationri require8ents. Hence selection programmes

must include plans for developlng managers. Jennings (1959)

had observed chat industrial group distinguish and hence

prefer either the "llfe process" i.e., managers are born

or the "nktll development" i.e., managers are made theories.

Campbell t_~ c . , do not make any such assumption in their

theory. T?iey oplne that:

To assure optimally effective managers, it is necessary to obtain as much information as porslblc on what crainlng can rccompllsh and to design jobs, orpanlratlonal environments, and relcction programs accordin to the Igondltions specified by training reserrc! results.

Managcrlal behaviour 1 s difficult to predict

becaunc of constant changes in the organizational

environment. T a ~ k demands too change frequently as a result

of cnvlronmental changes and feedback. In turn, feedback

affects lndlvldurl expectancies about task accomplishment,

reward contingencies and preferences for specific rewards

and perceptlonr of the orgrnlzattonal climate. Often,

feedback from performance and feedback from organizational

outcomes differ wldely because lndividual perceptions and

organlzrtlonal perspectives are divergent.

The end result 1s the output of the mrnagerial

role, as determlned by the collective action of experience,

lndlvldurl differences, training and development,

orgrnlrrclonal circumstances, and procedures. Managerial

cffectl~rn~bs Is posited to be:

... r function af complex interactions between ability, sotlvatlon, and opportunity variables and thc nature of fccdbrck, incentive, and reward crvrtems dcv loped by organizational policies and piacticcr.lf

Ih. Nanagerlal Crld

The srnrgerirl grid 1s a stgnlficant contribution

by Rlakc and nouton (19851 in ldentifylng leadership

styles of managers. In the grld concern for people 1s

denoted along the verclcal axis and concern for production

along the horizontal axls. Concern for production refers to

''H&l., p.12.

the key executives' initiative for growth and development of

the organlzatlon. "Since managers exercise leadership with

and through people, the assumptions they make about people

are important in determining manrgufal effec~iveness."~~

both these dimensions are represented by a scale running

from 1 to 9. 1 , represents mlnimum concern, 5, average and

9, maxlmum concern. The lntervenlng numbers from 2 to 4 and

6 to 8 denote intermediate degrees of concern. The five

brslc styles represent varylng combinations of concern for

people and production.

The 1.1 manager (impoverished style), has minimum

concern for productlon and people while the 9.9 manager

(team approach), has maximum concern for both dimensions.

The 5 , ) nanrger Is at the "middle of the road"., While the

1.9 manager has least concern for production and a maxlmum

concern for people. The 9 , l aanager has great concern for

productlorr ~ l t h a slnimun concern for people. The former is

referred to as the "country club" manager while the latter

"cask" manager.

Cach monapcr shows a greater tendency tovards one

of these styles. The doalnant mrnrgcrlrl style of a

lbllabert, R.Blrke and Jane, S.Mouton, The New Hana~erlal C S , Jalco Publishing House, Bombay, 1 9 6 p a

manager is influenced by several conditions such as the

organlzatlon, situatlon, values, personality and chance.

Blake and Mouton opine that the most effective leadership

style is that of the 9,9 team builder (Blake and Mouton,

1978). Further, empi rlcal evidence provided by them

substantiates their view that:

The lnteractlve notion of leadership style (that la, concern for people interacting with concern for productton) has more predictive validity than addlt lve situational approaches.17

lh Three Diwnelonrl hnagerial Ef fectivenesr Model

'be 3-D model propounded by Reddin ( 1987) makes

rYgnlflcrnt concrlbutlon to managerial effectiveness. In

thls model, Reddln has included the effectiveness dimension

co the concern for cask and concern for relationship

dlmenalons. The conceptual framework developed was

envlraged to help managers derive meaningful

expl rnrtions of managerial attitudes and performance.

Research has Identifled L W key elements in managerial

bchaviaur concurrent with treks to be performed and

rclrtlonnhlpr wlth rolcvant others. Rcddin observes:

Often, managers tend to emphasize either of the

"~obert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton. "Planagemerit by Grid Prlclpler or SLtuatlonal ism: Which?" G t w p fi Organization Studies, December 1981, pp.639-455.

two b e h a v i ~ r a l elements, or a combination of the two in varying proportions. Also, both behaviours could be used to ether (the 3-D term is lntegrated style), task coufd used alone (dedicated style) relationship, could be used alone (related style) or each could bele used to only a small degree (separated style).

Inclusion of the effectiveness dlmensfon to each

of the four basic managerial styles yields corresponding

lese effective styles, viz., Compromiser, Autocrat,

Ulsslonrry and Deserter. The corresponding more effective

styles rre termed Executive, Btnevolent Autocrat, Developer

and Bureaucrrt.

Effectlvcness is dependendent on the situation.

Further, research has establlshed that each style in itself

vlrldr results in certain situations, though not in yet

othcrs. Insplte of the fact that no clear demarcation

of behavloura into either of the four basic styles 1s

pornlbie, the utility of the theory cannot be underrated.

Prcferec~cr for a prrtlculsr style of operation 1s dependent

on it6 utllltv in achieving higher outputs in the prevalent

condl t ions. The model coupled with Mrnrgenent by

Object lves, ckrnncl ires efforts towards neetin8 output

rcqui rementr.

Two methods may bc adopted In the context.

"~.~.~cddin, q.*., 1987, p.71.

They are style flexibility and style drift. While "style

flexibillcy" meets situational requirements, "style

drift" implies maintaining balance within oneself and with

respect to others, through style modification. The

latter does not indicate effective behavlour. Reddin

also refers to "style resillence" and "style rlgidityn.

The former 1s 8 positive quality aimed at maintaining

appropriate style under conditions of stress, while the

latter indicates continuance of inappropriate style.

In the theory, eephasis is laid on "the

situation", whlch 1s considered a composite of five elements

vtc., the organlzatlon, technology, superior, coworkers

and subordtnetcs.

The organizarion's operating mechanisms,

promottons and systems deslgn, are external to the

ranagrr's work Itself but lnf luence his behaviour

dlrrctly. Technological aspects deterrine the nature of

performance, and 1s vital to effective execution of work.

Superior, covorkers and subordinate styles are

other erJor lnflucnces on effectiveness. Superior's style

i s inlluentirl at the higher levels vhere the number of

subotdlnacts 1s less, and inter level tnteractions are more.

Subardlnrta styles are fnfluentlal where there are few

rubordinates and they interact frequently with the manager.

Usually subordinates are represented through groups. In

cases where jobs are interdependent, interaction with co-

workers 1s inevitable. Hence in all three cases flexibility

Ln expectatlons and operating styles is an iaportant

factors to be reckoned wlth.

The use of the aodel enables the manager to

identify the sltuatlon a5 it is, and the changes likely to

be encountered ulth in future. I t is thus possible to take

appropriate actions at the precise time. The use of the

grid ha6 been found to stimulate thinking, direct action and

ensure cnnpllance ;Weddln, 1 9 8 7 ) .

Theoretical models have induced researchers to

explore thC uvth of the managerial job. Several

proposlt Ions have been put forth and empirically tested.

Slp,nlflcarrt studlea in chls area have been documented in the

folloulnr~ chapter, under flve classlfications viz.,

global ratings, prcdlctlve studies, objective personality

tnd interest invcntorles, leadership ability tests and

rarer pcrccptlons. Soec overlap within these classifications

Is uncvoidrblc. However, a modest attempt is aade to retain

tho distlnctlvcncss of cach category.