IGAD Sub-regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy · IGAD Sub-regional Disaster Preparedness...

Intergovernmental Authority on Development

IGAD Sub-regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy

Volume I- Strategy Document

1999


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Contents

Contents i

Acronyms iii

Introduction 1

Development of the disaster preparedness strategy 1

Structure of the strategy 2

Overview of the Strategy 3

Rationale for a Sub-Regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy 3 Global approaches to disasters and development 3

Conditions in the IGAD Sub-region 3

Strategic Objectives for Disaster Preparedness in the IGAD Sub-Region 6

Background on Disasters in the IGAD Sub-region 8

Hazard Profiles 8 Drought 8

Conflict 10

Floods 12

Environmental degradation: desertification, deforestation, ecosystem degradation, and

environmental pollution 12

Earthquakes 15

Pest infestations 15

Epidemics 17

Livestock diseases 18

Summary of disaster vulnerability and risks 19

Cross-cutting Factors Affecting Vulnerability to Disasters 19 Social and environmental factors 21

Food security factors 23

Background on Disaster Management Mechanisms in the IGAD Sub-Region 26

Preparedness interventions 29 Disaster preparedness strategies and the contingency planning process 30

Supporting policies, legislation and agreements 31

Focal institutions for coordination of preparedness and response 31

Early warning and food information systems, vulnerability analysis and targeting 33

Mitigation of disasters

Public education and training 40

Response interventions 42 Impact and needs assessment 42

Relief assistance 42

Rehabilitation assistance 47

Resource mobilization 42

Framework for Action 50

Outline of an Action Programme to Implement the Disaster Preparedness Strategy 50

Project Ideas for Implementation of Priority Measures 53

IGAD’s Role in Implementing a Sub-Regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy 50

Revitalization of IGAD 65

IGAD’S Strategic Vision 65

The Function of IGAD’s Departments and Projects 66 Member State linkages 66


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Mechanisms for coordination of assistance and external assistance 67

Relating IGAD project profiles on priority areas to the strategy 67

Follow-Up Actions to Be Taken by IGAD for Endorsement and Implementation of the

Strategy 68

Reference Documents 69


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Acronyms

CILSS Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel

DLCO Desert Locust Control Organisation

DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (Ethiopia)

EMPRES Emergency Prevention System

ERREC Eritrean Relief and Refugee Commission

EU European Union

EWFIS Early Warning and Food Information System

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FIVIMS Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System

GHA Greater Horn of Africa (IGAD Member States plus Burundi, Rwanda and Tanzania)

GHAI Greater Horn of Africa Initiative (USAID)

GIEWS Global Information and Early Warning System for Food and Agriculture

HAC Humanitarian Aid Commission (Sudan)

IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development

INCD Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for the Convention to Combat Desertification

KDMC Kenya Drought Monitoring Centre

KMD Kenya Meteorological Department

NGO Non-governmental Organization

OAU Organisation of African Unity

PARC Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign

REDSO Regional Economic Development Services (USAID)

SADC Southern African Development Community

TCP Technical Co-operation Programme

UN-CCD UN Convention to Combat Desertification

UN-DHA UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (replaced by OCHA)

UN-DMTP UN Disaster Management Training Programme

UN-EUE UN Emergency Unit for Ethiopia

UN-OCHA UN Office for the Coordination of Humantiarian Assistance (replacement for UN-DHA)

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP UN Environment Programme

UNFPA UN Population Fund

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNSO UNDP Office to Combat Desertification and Drought

USAID United States Agency for International Development

WFP World Food Programme


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Glossary of disaster management

The concept of disaster management encompasses all aspects of planning for and responding to disasters

with the objective of managing both the risks and consequences of disasters, including the body of policy

and administrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to various stages of a disaster at all

levels. The study of disaster management has experienced a rapid evolution over the past 15 years and

continues to define its parameters and terms through ongoing debate and research. A recent trend entails

altering the perception of disaster management as a separate discipline from development and is focused

on the merging and symbiosis of the goals as the basis for a sustainable development agenda. This trend is

reflected in IGAD’s strategy framework. Similarly, it may be expected that terminology and concepts

will also evolve.

Since conceptual distinctions are important in planning exercises, some of the terminology and concepts

are clarified here for the purposes of usage in this document.1 First, it is important to distinguish between

hazards, disasters and emergencies:

Hazard: A rare or extreme event or process in the natural or human environment that has the

potential adversely to affect human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a

disaster.

Disaster: The occurrence of a sudden or major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and

normal functioning of a society or community. An event, series of events or process

which gives rise to casualties and/or damage or loss of property, infrastructure,

essential services or means of livelihood on a scale which is beyond the normal

capacity of the affected communities to cope with unaided.

Emergency: An extraordinary situation in which people are unable to meet their basic survival

needs, or there are serious and immediate threats to human life and well-being.

Major emergency: A situation threatening the lives and well-being of a large number

of people or a very large percentage of a population and often requiring substantial

multi-sectoral assistance.

Complex emergency: A humanitarian crisis in a country, region or society where there

is a dramatic disruption in the political, economic and social situation, resulting from

internal or external conflict, perhaps combined with natural disaster, which seriously

disrupts the population’s capacity to survive and the national authorities’ ability to

respond, and which requires a consolidated multi-sectoral international response.

Hazards may exist without causing disasters, and disasters do not always result in emergencies. For

example, drought or an outbreak of migratory pests may or may not result in widespread crop failure,

which would be considered a disaster. The effects of the crop failure may or may not be serious enough to

warrant the declaration of an emergency.

Secondly, the picture is further complicated by three factors:

Disasters take place over a variety of time scales.

Disasters and resulting emergencies are often multi-causal. They may be triggered by immediate

events but they may result from one or many interconnected longer term environmental, social,

economic or political processes. For this reason the distinctions sometimes made between disasters

that are human-induced and natural, or rapid/sudden-onset and slow-onset, can often be misleading,

though these terms can more safely be applied to hazards that might cause disasters.

1 Definitions are adapted from FAO Emergency Preparedness and Response Manual, Draft: 22 March, 2012, Overview of

Disaster Management, UNDP–UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme, 1992, and Inter Agency Standing

Committee (IASC) Xth Meeting - 9 December 1994.


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Disasters and emergencies may be recurrent or prolonged because of the persistence of underlying

causal factors which are not addressed by relief efforts.

Finally, disaster management includes a range of types of activity which can be characterised according to

their objectives as follows:

Prevention refers to measures designed to prevent hazards (natural or socio/political events and

processes) from resulting in disasters.

Preparedness refers to advance measures to establish capacities and mechanisms to minimise adverse

impacts of disasters if and when they do occur, and so reduce the intensity or scale of any resultant

emergency.

Early warning refers to provision of early and relevant information on potential or actual disasters,

and normally involved monitoring hazards, especially in relation to communities or areas known to be

vulnerable to their effects, so that more timely and effective response measures can be taken.

Impact and needs assessment involves assessing the nature and magnitude of a disaster once it occurs,

its impact on affected populations, and the type and extent of emergency assistance that is required.

Relief is the emergency provision of assistance to save lives in the immediate wake of a disaster. This

includes search and rescue, evacuation, distribution of food and water, temporary provision of

sanitation, health care and shelter, and the restoration of immediate personal security. The definition

may include ‘agricultural relief’, referring to agricultural rehabilitation assistance provided on an

emergency basis.

Rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery refer respectively to measures to help restore the

livelihoods, assets and production levels of emergency-affected communities, to re-build essential

infrastructure, productive capacities, institutions and services destroyed or rendered non-operational by

a disaster, and to help bring about sustainable development by facilitating the necessary adjustments to

the changes caused by the disaster and improving on the status quo ante where possible.

These modes of disaster management can be viewed as forming a sequence in that with respect to a given

disaster they might typically be regarded as being undertaken in a certain order: prevention and

preparedness in advance of a disaster, early warning before or as it happens, and impact and needs

assessment and relief in the immediate aftermath. Action to bring about rehabilitation, reconstruction and

sustainable recovery may be undertaken thereafter, in the short, medium and longer term respectively.

However, though the modes of intervention which make up this sequence may each be distinct in their

objectives, they need not be so in time. Indeed, the need for some to run concurrently is now widely

recognised.

The last three modes (impact and needs assessment, relief and rehabilitation, reconstruction and recovery)

are sometimes referred to as disaster response, since they are undertaken only in the event of a disaster

actually occurring.

Other Definitions

Disaster contingency plan: a means to address a disaster or impending disaster within a fairly finite time,

such as from early warning to response to recovery, including mechanisms for generation of disaster-

specific operational plans.

Mitigation: a general term which refers to measures to lessen the seriousness of disasters. It may refer to

reducing the potential of a hazard to cause disaster (eg. 'drought mitigation'), or the potential of a disaster

to cause an emergency, or the scale of an emergency which is already under way. These three cases

would constitute prevention, preparedness and response respectively, and hence the term becomes similar

to 'disaster management'.

Disaster preparedness strategy: a broad exercise which sets out objectives for disaster preparedness in a

country or region, reviews the current status of disaster preparedness capacities in relation to those


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objectives, and identifies what measures must be taken for maintaining and enhancing those capacities for

the objectives to be met.

Risk assessment: combines theoretical and empirical data (often on maps) to determine the nature and

scale of hazards and the likelihood that they will result in a disaster during a specified time period.

Vulnerability: the degree to which an individual, household, community or geographic area is likely to be

affected by a disaster. A vulnerability analysis provides a qualitative and quantitative classification of

physical, social, institutional, political, cultural and economic sources of vulnerability, and takes into

account capacities to respond to disaster on the part of affected people ('coping' behaviour), institutions

and assistance agencies.


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INTRODUCTION

Development of the disaster preparedness strategy

The development of a sub-regional drought and disaster preparedness strategy was initiated at a meeting

of policy makers from Member States of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (lGAD)2 held

in March 1994 in Addis Ababa. The recommendations of this meeting called for a review of the national

preparedness strategies developed by the Member States, a compilation of all information on activities of

institutions engaged in this field, and mobilization of resources to prepare a sub-regional drought and

disaster preparedness strategy.3

In August 1994, a consultation on food security was held in Kampala organized jointly by IGAD,

Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) and Southern African Development Community (SADC). It was

recommended that IGAD play the lead role in disaster and drought management planning for the eastern

sub-region. It was noted that countries in the sub-region were not sufficiently prepared to cope with food

emergencies caused by disasters such as drought. Even when there was advanced warning, the capacity to

respond adequately, including necessary logistics, administrative arrangements, financial resources, and

safety nets, was very limited. It was emphasized that measures should be taken to counter drought

conditions or lessen their impact on food security, and experiences should be shared regarding similar

efforts by other regional organizations such as the Permanent Inter-State Committee for Drought Control

in the Sahel (CILSS) and SADC.

From 1995-1997, a project4 was implemented by IGAD in partnership with the Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations (FAO), with the purpose of developing the details of a sub-regional

disaster preparedness strategy. The strategy seeks to identify and build upon progress and projects

underway, and to prioritize and address needs relevant to two or more Member States. The effort utilizes

IGAD’s unique forum for regular discussion between the most senior levels of governments, as well as

the sub-regional network of focal ministries and assistance agencies, to gain institutional support for

implementation of the strategy.5 The draft strategy was reviewed at a “Workshop on IGAD’s Sub-regional

Disaster Preparedness Strategy” held in Addis Ababa in January 1998. Comments and amendments

brought forth by experts from Member States during this workshop have been incorporated into the final

version of the strategy.

A consultative and evolutionary approach was employed to develop the IGAD Sub-regional Disaster

Preparedness Strategy. It is based on reports, refined over a two year period, by national consultants from

IGAD Member States, UNSO supporting development of the initial reports. It refers to IGAD’s official

documents, other publications, and an “Overview of Drought Mitigation Activities in the IGAD Sub-

region” (prepared under FAO-IGAD technical cooperation6 - see Annexes), interviews with

representatives of national and international agencies, discussions and reviews by FAO and IGAD staff,

and the outputs of the aforementioned sub-regional workshop.

The strategy touches on important issues of disaster management particularly as they relate to needs

expressed through the consultative process described above, and IGAD’s organizational structure and

capacities. More in-depth coverage of issues will be possible as the sub-regional disaster management net-

work evolves. Furthermore, the breadth of information is so vast that all programmes are not covered

within this document. On-going analysis and evaluation through a continuous process of refining and

updating information is promoted by the strategy as the basis for planning mitigation efforts.

2 IGAD Member States are Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda

3 IGADD, Development of a Drought/Disaster Preparedness Strategy for the IGADD Sub-Region, Meeting of High Level

Policy Makers from IGADD Member State, 28–30 March 1994.

4 FAO TCP/RAF/6720

5 IGAD Strategy Framework, Djibouti, November, 1996.

6 TCP/RAF/4558: "Assistance to Develop a Drought and Disaster preparedness Strategy in the IGADD region"


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Structure of the strategy

The IGAD Sub-regional Disaster Strategy is comprised of Two Volumes (Volume I and II). Volume I -

Strategy has been formulated in five major sections:

Overview of the Strategy. This first section provides an overview of the IGAD Sub-regional Disaster

Preparedness Strategy, summarizing key hazards and cross-cutting factors that make the IGAD sub-

region disaster-prone, strategic objectives of the strategy and an action programme to achieve these

objectives.

Background on Disasters in the IGAD Sub-Region. This section reviews major hazards threatening

the sub-region, and cross-cutting factors affecting vulnerability to disasters.

Background on Disaster Management Mechanisms in the IGAD Sub-Region. This section describes

and evaluates the prevention, preparedness and response mechanisms by which IGAD Member States

have been dealing with disasters so far. Based on this analysis key sub-regional needs for disaster

preparedness are identified.

Framework for Action. Needs identified in the last section are used as a basis for proposing an action

programme to implement the sub-regional disaster preparedness strategy. A set of ideas for project

activities to implement such an action programme is then provided.

IGAD’s Role in Impelementing a Sub-regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy. This final section

describes the contribution of the major functions and proposed projects of IGAD to implementation of

the proposed disaster preparedness measures.

Volume II -Annexes 'A' and 'B' provide respectively a set of Country Profiles for disaster management in

the IGAD Member States, and an Overview of Drought Mitigation Activities in the IGAD Sub-region.


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OVERVIEW OF THE STRATEGY

Rationale for a sub-regional disaster preparedness strategy

Global approaches to disasters and development

Worldwide experiences in past disasters indicate that disaster management planning can:

prevent disasters

reduce the impact of a disaster; and

reduce social and financial costs of emergencies.

The need for disaster preparedness strategies has taken on greater significance as governments, aid

agencies and donors increasingly emphasize prevention and preparedness as part of a sustainable

development approach.

In the past national planners tended to operate on the assumption that disasters would not occur, and if

they did they could be handled in an ad hoc manner. Development programmes were rarely assessed in

the context of disasters, and disasters were only seen in the context of emergency response. Communities

in distress were not considered as places to promote development, but were usually avoided. There is a

growing consensus that effective planning must consider the interrelationships between disasters and

development, since:7

disasters set back development programming and can destroy years of development initiatives;

disaster prevention, preparedness and recovery programmes provide significant opportunities to

initiate long-term development programmes;

development programmes can increase risk of disaster if not well planned and executed;

development programmes should be designed to reduce vulnerability to disasters.

Conditions in the IGAD Sub-region

IGAD Member States are vulnerable to acute human suffering and loss of development assets brought

about by disasters with both human and natural causes, and frequently by a combination of both. With

nearly half of the sub-region’s population chronically food insecure, disasters threaten food security

through disruption of normal cropping, pastoralist and marketing activities. In recent years, episodes of

drought-induced food shortage and famine associated with conflict have resulted in millions of casualties,

internally displaced persons and refugees, posing dilemmas for long-term solutions. Such conflict-related

or ‘complex’ emergencies can create a need for massive and prolonged relief operations, and require the

heavy use of social and economic assets in mitigation.

Aside from the foremost natural hazard of drought, other 'slow-onset' hazards include environmental

degradation, the consequences of which can be equally disastrous to the food supply. Major 'sudden-onset'

natural hazards such as floods, epidemics, pest infestations and livestock diseases, as well as earthquakes,

severe storms and cyclones also threaten the sub-region.

However, the sub-region possesses many assets with which to fend off disaster effects, such as the

resilience and capabilities of communities, local coping and recovery mechanisms, lessons learned and

infrastructure from past disasters, and in particular opportunities for pre- and post-disaster planning and

development.

7 UNDP–UNDRO Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP), Modules on ‘Disasters and Development’, 1991


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Major hazards

The main hazards which cause disasters in the IGAD sub-region are the following:

Drought is considered the foremost threat to the sub-region with six of seven countries being

extremely vulnerable. Uganda does not have widespread drought but has experienced past disastrous

episodes. Climatic changes appear to be responsible for an increase in the frequency of drought in

some parts of the sub-region. Where water resources are underdeveloped or limited as in many of the

drought-prone areas, people and livestock are very vulnerable. Widespread agricultural failure as a

result of drought has combined with effects of conflict in recent complex emergencies in the sub-

region.

Conflict has inflicted heavy economic and social losses in the sub-region and it has become the most

serious cause of food insecurity in the region and exists in all countries. Effects include widespread

human casualties and suffering, abuses of human rights, large numbers of refugees and internally

displaced persons, a need for relief and for demobilization and reintegration programmes, and an

extensive problem of landmines.

Floods are a major threat to the sub-region and damaging floods are becoming more numerous due to

increasing occupation of flood plains, deforestation, lack of preparedness, and weak monitoring.

Recent flood emergencies have occurred in Djibouti, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan.

Environmental degradation includes desertification, deforestation, ecosystem degradation and

environmental pollution, which are all considered to be worsening in the sub-region and rendering the

population more vulnerable to other hazards.

Earthquakes are a particular hazard in Ethiopia, though they have occurred in all other Member

States.

Pest infestations are a major threat and the IGAD sub-region is plagued by a large numbers of pests,

including weeds and crop diseases. While the predictability of Desert Locust outbreaks is improving,

significant constraints are encountered in control, including weak control services necessitating a crisis

management approach, and insecurity in breeding areas affected by conflict.

Epidemics and outbreaks of disease have had major impacts. Malaria affects most of the sub-region

and has a serious social and economic impact. Other threatening diseases include Meningococcal

Meningitis, Yellow Fever, Cholera, and HIV/AIDS.

Livestock diseases pose an important threat because of the vast populations of livestock in the sub-

region. Rinderpest is the key threat as well as Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP).

Other hazards include tropical cyclones, fire, accidents, severe storms and effects of storms such as

hail, wind, and lightening.

Cross cutting factors affecting vulnerability to disasters

Other, cross-cutting factors contributing to sub-regional vulnerability to disasters include extreme

poverty, a high rate of population growth, and high rates of urbanisation in some countries. Rural

populations are dispersed and their development is constrained by lack of access to roads and

communications. Population pressures have resulted in migration and widespread degradation, and

mitigation efforts have been insufficient to stop the cycle. Policy development has not been sufficient to

promote agricultural and economic development in a way which effectively addresses environmental

degradation and land tenure issues. Public infrastructure is limited in the sub-region and road, railroad,

port and communications systems require upgrading. Institutional development has progressed at most

central levels but coordination and implementation capacities are often weak. Community-based

institutional development is even less advanced but decentralised administration in some countries is

confronting this problem. Most countries have limited technically trained staff. Educational development

is constrained by limited institutions and illiteracy rates are among the highest in Africa. Over 40% of

population of the sub-region has no access to modern health services.


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Widespread food insecurity predisposes the sub-region to food shortages and emergencies. Food security

is declining in all IGAD countries, and estimates of the food insecure are close to half of the population.

The causes of food shortages and famine in these situations are interrelated with political factors and

physical insecurity. The main food-insecure groups are resource-poor farmers, urban poor, poor

pastoralists and refugees. The major causes of food insecurity are poor overall economic performance,

poor agricultural performance, prevailing conflicts and insecurities, major droughts and long term

environmental degradation.

Types of disaster to which the IGAD sub-region is prone

The hazards and cross-cutting factors outlined above render the IGAD sub-region prone to disasters which

involve widespread, catastrophic occurrence of one or more of the following:

loss of access to staple foods (for example through failure or destruction of food crops, loss of income,

relative increases in food prices, or loss of access to food markets);

loss of income and productive assets including livestock, land and physical infrastructure;

loss of shelter and homesteads;

loss of access to adequate, safe water and sanitation;

health crises;

loss of personal security or mobility, or abuse of human rights;

loss of institutions, services and ‘social capital’ - ie. mutual trust, norms of reciprocity and networks of

civic engagement

injury and loss of life.

Table 1 shows the hazards which are mainly responsible, directly or indirectly, for these types of disaster

in the IGAD sub-region.

Disaster prevention and disaster preparedness

It is emphased in this Sub-Regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy that the most effective way of

minimizing disasters and their impacts is to tackle their root causes, ie. to prevent natural or human-

induced events or processes occurring or leading to disaster. Only long-term programmes for sustainable

development can provide lasting solutions to the problems of vulnerability to disasters. In the case of

disasters brought about by drought, floods or environmental degradation, for example, long-term

Table 1: Disasters and their main causes in the IGAD sub-region

Hazards responsible:

Disaster type:

Drought Conflict Floods Environmental degradation

Earthquakes Pest infestations

Epidemics Livestock diseases

Loss of access to food

Loss of income & productive assets

Loss of shelter & homesteads

Loss of access to adequate, safe water & sanitation

Health crises

Loss of personal security and mobility; human rights abuse

Loss of institutions, services & ‘social capital’

Injury & loss of life

= probable or direct cause; = possible or indirect cause


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programmes for developing, inter alia, more "drought-proof" agricultural practices, natural resource

conservation through control of soil erosion, watershed management, reforestation, water control and

irrigation development need to be reinforced at national and regional levels as preventive measures.

Similarly, measures for the prevention of outbreaks of crop and livestock pests and diseases are often

more efficient and effective than measures to address massive losses of crops and livestock from these

causes when they do occur. Where technically possible disease eradication or immunization programmes,

for example for malaria, can offer a very much more effective and cost-effective solution to endemic or

epidemic disease than reactive programmes of treatment. Likewise, quite clearly, preventing social

tensions based on ethnic, cultural, religious, ideological, nationalistic, economic or other identitites

erupting into violent conflict is clearly to be preferred to engagement in resolving or mitigating a conflict

which has already erupted and may have developed its own dynamic and momentum.

Such preventive measures are, or should be, closely related to development interventions and so need to

feature as economic, social and political aspects of long-term development strategies in agriculture,

health, education, governance and other sectors. Indeed, at the regional level they have for this reason

been strongly reflected in the programmes of IGADD prior to 1996, especially in relation to drought and

environmental degradation, and continue to be so across the wider spectrum of programmes under the

three priority areas of the revitalized IGAD's strategic framework (Food Security and Environmental

Protection; Infrastructure Development; and Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, and

Humanitarian Affairs).

To avoid overlap and confusion with these wider regional and national development agendas, this IGAD

Sub-Regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy therefore limits itself to disaster preparedness and does not

cover long-term prevention. It does however make reference to preventive programmes which are under

way and which form part of the context in which preparedness initiatives must be developed.

Strategic objectives for disaster preparedness in the IGAD sub-region

The general objective of disaster preparedness is establish capabilities to ensure that when people are

affected by disasters they can continue to meet their minimum needs for food, water, shelter, health and

security through their own efforts, supported where necessary through assistance which is appropriate in

terms of type, timing, location, method of provision and duration for this purpose. This objective, along

with those of other aspects of disaster management, serves the overall goal of reducing the incidence and

seriousness of emergencies arising from disasters.

In the IGAD sub-region, the objectives of a sub-regional strategy to achieve disaster preparedness are:

1. to promote the development and implementation of suitable national disaster preparedness strategies in

IGAD Member States;

2. to put in place an appropriate framework of principles, policies, legislation and agreements at regional

and national levels which will enable disaster preparedness and response measures to be implemented

effectively by a variety of agencies of different types;

3. to ensure that national, regional and international agencies collaborate effectively in disaster

preparedness and response interventions in the sub-region, having transparent and clear objectives

which are mutually complementary rather than contradictory or overlapping;

4. to develop capabilities to ensure that disaster management interventions are based on adequate, timely

information about:

events and processes likely to result in disasters

the emergence of disasters

who is affected, where and how;


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5. to ensure that communities which may be affected by disasters, and staff of institutions expected to

provide assistance in response to disasters, are aware of disaster hazards and are capable of acting

effectively when disasters strike;

6. to establish mechanisms and infrastucture for the timely identification and mobilization of the

material, human and financial resources required for implementing disaster preparedness and response

measures, and for the tracking of resources that are mobilized;

7. to establish appropriate mechanisms for targeting and timely implementation of necessary food and

non-food assistance for those most in need, including assistance in resolving or mitigating conflicts,

and to promote improvements in disaster management through building into these interventions

monitoring and evaluation components which will enable lessons to be learned from successes and

failures.

The IGAD Member States recognize the need for such a strategy to be elaborated at the regional level, in

order to:

promote the development of disaster preparedness in each Member State, as a key feature of a

sustainable development strategy;

enable Member States to gain advantage from the experiences of those amongst them which are in a

more advanced stage of preparedness;

identify resources for disaster management within and outside the sub-region which could be shared

between Member States, and establish mechanisms for such sharing;

identify and exploit opportunities for disaster preparedness measures which are common to or shared

between Member States.

During the revitalization period in 1996 (see page 65), IGAD moved from drought mitigation as a major

focus to a broader outlook encompassing other developmental issues. In view of IGAD’s new strategy

framework and institutional structure, the disaster preparedness strategy encompasses disasters arising

from causes other than drought, and reflects the linking of disaster management and development in the

context of food security and other priority considerations.


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BACKGROUND ON DISASTERS IN THE IGAD SUB-REGION

This section addresses the need to understand hazards which threaten the IGAD Sub-region, and in

particular the factors which render societies or individuals more vulnerable to adverse consequences if a

disaster occurs, and which increase the likelihood that a disaster will result in an emergency. The section

is divided into three parts:

hazard profiles: synthesis of hazards, types of hazard and their relative importance in terms of risk, as

well as their causes, effects, and predictability;

cross-cutting factors contributing to the vulnerability of people to disasters;

disaster management mechanisms for prevention, preparedness and response in the sub-region.

Hazard profiles

The eight most important hazards in the IGAD sub-region are described below in terms of causes,

characteristics, effects, factors affecting vulnerability, and predictability. ‘Sub-regional hazard summary’

tables are used to summarize basic information about the major hazards faced by the sub-region.

Information was provided by the reports of the national consultants except where otherwise noted. Table

18 at the end of this sub-section provides a summary overview of the major hazards. The 'Country

Profiles' found in Annex 1 provide more details.

The management of hazards requires an assessment of specific risk, including the probability of an event

or process occurring and the potential resulting disasters. In the IGAD Sub-region, many of the effects of

past disasters have not been precisely and comprehensively quantified. For example, it is not always

accurately known how many persons died in recent complex emergencies, and the parts played by to war,

drought or disease in these deaths. The intangible losses, such as psycho-social effects, cultural losses,

stress and health risks have been addressed only minimally. For these reasons ranking of hazards in the

sub-region is difficult.

In the IGAD Disaster Preparedness Strategy Workshop, held in January 1998, experts from the Member

States ranked the hazards based on six criteria:

frequency of occurrence

economic impact

number of people affected

environmental impact

predictability

social impact.

Using these criteria, three levels of risk were decided upon. Drought, followed by conflict, rank as the

foremost hazards and are described first below. The hazards considered to be of secondary importance

include floods, environmental degradation, earthquakes, and pest infestations, and those of tertiary

importance are epidemics and livestock disease.

Drought

Drought is the foremost hazard affecting the sub-region with six of seven countries being extremely

vulnerable. Uganda does not experience consistent or widespread drought but occasional episodes of

drought, some combined with other hazards, have had disastrous effects in the past. Droughts have

historically caused widespread agricultural failures across the sub-region, resulting in millions of

casualties and massive loss of assets. The presence of large tracts of arid and semi-arid lands and other

factors which contribute to vulnerability to drought, such as widespread reliance on subsistence farming


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and pastoralism, weaknesses in farming and livestock management systems, population pressures, and

water scarcity, similarly contribute to desertification, environmental degradation and deforestation. Use

and effectiveness of traditional coping mechanisms have been weakened due to repeated stresses and

population pressures.

Due to climatic change, the chances of drought occurring in some areas of the sub-region appear to be

increasing. Two changes in long-term weather patterns have been noted. First, there has been a mean

decrease in annual rainfall in the Sahelian zone of Sudan and second, inter-annual variability of rainfall is

increasing in the crescent from Kenya to Sudan, including parts of Ethiopia. Consequently, across the area

known as the ‘Greater Horn of Africa’ (GHA) comprising the IGAD Member States plus Rwanda,

Burundi and Tanzania, the frequency of drought has increased from one in six to one in three years. 8

Table 3 shows that more than 40 percent of the IGAD population live in semi-arid to hyper-arid zones.

In Djibouti, severe drought occurs approximately every 10 years. In Eritrea, 12 drought years were

recorded during the period 1970-1989 (ERA, 1989). Ethiopia has been exceptionally vulnerable to

drought and drought-related famine throughout its history, experiencing ten major drought/famine

episodes in the last four decades. Recent severe droughts occurring in 1972/73, 1984, 1987 and 1994

affected the entire country.

In Kenya, drought patterns indicate a severe drought every twenty five to thirty years and a less severe

drought every ten to fifteen years. There is another moderate drought which is normally followed by a

good amount of rain every five to seven years. In Somalia, the drought and famine of 1973/75 was the

most devastating in the country's history, drought with moderate severity occurred in 1980, 1984 and

1990, and severe drought occurred in 1991 and 1992. Drought affected the north in 1996 and the southern

regions in 1997.

8 USAID, “Building a Foundation for Food Security and Crisis Prevention in the Greater Horn of Africa; a Concept Paper for

Discussion”, November 1994.

Table 2: Sub-regional hazard summary - drought

Definition No globally agreed-upon definition, generally defined as a temporary reduction in water or moisture availability, impact results from the shortage of water or discrepancies between supply and demand for water.

Causes Natural causes: rainfall deficit, sea-surface temperature anomalies (SSTAs) possibly linked to El Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) events, poor timing of rains for crop production.

Human causes: poor land use practices causing desertification, deforestation resulting in greater persistence of drought; farming on marginal lands due to population pressures; reduction in use of traditional coping mechanisms.

Characteris-tics

Droughts can be classified as meteorological (shortfall in precipitation measured against regional norms), hydrological (reduction in catchment and ground water resources), agricultural (insufficient moisture to maintain plant growth and yields), and socioeconomic (shortages of goods and services due to drought). Severity depends on demands made by human activities and vegetation on the water supply, and societal vulnerability.

Effects Difficult to quantify over widespread area.

Economic effects: extensive damage to vegetation and water supply points, loss of livestock, loss of economic growth and development, income loss for farmers and pastoralists, increased food prices, losses from tourism;.

Environmental effects: soil erosion, plant damage, reduction in water quantity and quality, increases in dust and pollutants, followed by pest outbreaks.

Social effects: food shortages, malnutrition and famine, loss of human life, health problems, increase in communicable diseases, decline in living conditions, population migration, conflicts over resources

Factors contributing to vulnerability

Presence of arid and semi-arid lands; climatic instability; dependency on weather systems for subsistence; lack of roads and communications to remote areas; yearly food deficits; areas of high population density relative to arable land; low agricultural output; poor agricultural practices; farming on marginal lands; chronic malnutrition; water scarcity; poor water quality; presence of conflict; breakdown of traditional coping mechanisms due to repeated stresses; insufficient grazing land; late and insufficient delivery of relief assistance resulting in migration

Predictability Slow onset disaster allows short-term prediction, long-term prediction difficult due to lack of compre-hensive, historical rainfall data; severity and impact estimates difficult; early warning systems and technologies effective but hampered by poor communications to and from remote areas.


10

Severe droughts affecting Sudan were in 1886, 1967-1973, and 1980-1984. Also successive years of

drought in certain parts of the country in 1985-1993 caused severe shortages of food, social disruption

and widespread health and nutritional problems. Drought affects Uganda, mainly in or near the Karamoja

region: due to a combination of dry spells and high temperatures in June-July, Karamoja experiences

serious crop failures every five years. Droughts occurred during the war of 1979-80, in 1984-85 in

Karamoja, and in 1988-89 affecting West Nile, Lira, Kitgum, Gulu and Apac. The 1993/94 drought was

the most extensive and affected 16 districts.

Table 4 summarizes the impact of some of the most severe droughts experienced by IGAD Member States

in the past.

Conflict

Wars and insecurity have become the most serious cause of food insecurity in the sub-region, disrupting

food production and marketing activities, rendering populations more vulnerable to the effects of drought,

pest infestations, epidemics, and livestock diseases and causing migration of large numbers of persons

who lose many of their assets and must rely on assistance to survive.

Eritrea and Ethiopia are recovering from three decades of war, while conflicts in Sudan and Somalia are

ongoing. Although recovery is progressing in Somalia, insecurity persists with the absence of a

recognizable state in central and southern Somalia and the de facto separation of the north as Somaliland.

Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda host refugees from neighbouring countries and have areas

of insecurity within their own borders. Due to insurgency in the north of Uganda, over 300,000 occupy

displacement camps, and require relief assistance. The growing availability of weapons has increased the

Table 3: Population per aridity zone (%) in the IGAD Sub-region***

Hyper-arid Arid Semi-arid Dry Sub-humid

Moist Sub-humid

Humid Population (000s)*

Djibouti 3% 97% - - - - 436

Ethiopia <1%** 7% 19% 16% 42% 17% 56,717

Kenya - 3% 22% 14% 47% 14% 25,503

Somalia 8% 60% 32% - - - 9,551

Sudan 13% 39% 37% 6% 5% - 27,621

Uganda - - 2% 14% 81% 4% 18,125

% of total IGAD population

3% 16% 22% 12%

38% 10% 137,953

(100%)

* Based on population figures from 1994

** 31,000

*** Modified from UNDP-UNSO “Aridity Zones and Dryland Populations: An assessment of Population Levels in the World’s Drylands with Particular Reference to Africa”, June 1997.

Table 4: Impact of selected drought disasters in the IGAD Sub-region*

Djibouti Drought of 1987-88: migration of rural populations to urban areas; thousands of animals perished; severe reduction in groundwater reserves.

Eritrea Drought of 1985: 1.7 million people affected; 60-70% of livestock lost

Ethiopia Drought of 1984/5: estimates of deaths for Eritrea and Ethiopia 250,000 - 1 million people; losses of over 10 million MT foodcrops; migration; insecurity; disease.

Kenya Drought of 1984: affected nearly all of country; widespread famine averted by food imports.

Somalia Drought of 1973/75: 200,000 people died; 6.5 million livestock lost; losses of over 120,000 MT cereal crops; migration; outbreaks of communicable diseases.

Sudan Drought of 1984: 8.5 million people affected; 7.8 million livestock lost.

Uganda Drought of 1994: 340,000 people affected; migration; cattle rustling; insecurity.

*Information provided by reports of national consultants


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incidence of cattle-rustling in parts of Uganda and Kenya creating general insecurity and impeding

assistance programmes. Another legacy of conflict in Somalia, Eritrea and Sudan is landmines. Mine

hazards are particularly serious in Somalia where their presence is hampering rehabilitation efforts,

causing causalities and reducing the area cultivated. About half-a-million landmines are estimated to

cover the country, in addition to large quantities of live ammunition. Removal efforts are progressing but

will be required over many years.

International and internal conflicts have inflicted heavy economic and social losses in the sub-region.

Relief and recovery measures needed to support millions of displaced persons (Table 5) detract from use

of resources for national development. Finding durable solutions to displacement often poses problems.

Due to scarce income generating possibilities in Somalia, many returnees require relief support. Similarly

in Eritrea, many require relief assistance until livelihoods can be restored. In Ethiopia, thousands of “de-

settlers” returning to their homelands, most of whom were forcibly moved from the northern highlands to

the southwest in the mid-1980’s, as well as many returned refugees, have found that their lands were

Table 5: Status of refugees, internally displaced people, and returnees

Refugees (hosted)* Internally displaced ** Returnees in past 4 years

Djibouti 30,000 Somali and Issa 25,000****

Eritrea 2,800 Somalis 25,000 assisted and 127,000 spontaneous from Sudan

Ethiopia 285,000 Somalis, 78,000 Sudanese, 8,000 Djiboutians, 8,600 Kenyans

98,017 assisted ***

105,297 “de-settlers” **

Kenya 131,000 Somalis, 38,000 Sudanese, 4,400 Ethiopians

100,000****

Somalia 250,000**** 2,600 from Ethiopia assisted

Sudan

349,000 Eritrean (134,000 assisted by UNHCR), 50,000 Ethiopian

Up to 4 million**** 50,000 from Uganda, spontaneously

Uganda 224,000 Sudanese 300,000** (estimated)

Refugee: a person who has left his/her country due to fear and seeks protection in another country

Internally Displaced Person: a person who has fled from fear within the same country

Returnee: a person who is repatriating to his/her country of origin, or returning to a homeland

* Source unless otherwise noted: UNHCR website: http:/www.unhcr.ch/world/afri/htm; updated May and June, 1997

** Source: national consultants’ reports

*** 31,617 from Djibouti, 62,000 from Sudan, 4,400 from Kenya

**** World Refugee Survey, US Committee for Refugees, 1997 (data from end 1996)

Table 6: Sub-regional hazard summary - conflict

Causes The causes of war, civil unrest, and generalized insecurity may lie in social tensions arising from failures of governance, competition for scarce resources, or factors originating in the regional or global polity and economy. Such tensions may become polarised around social, politicial, ideological, religious, cultural, gender, ethnic or national identities, and their eruption into violent conflict may be precipitated, deliberately or otherwise, by internal or external acts or events. Areas of conflict often correspond with areas of environmental degradation, chronic food insecurity and overpopulation.

Characteristics and Effects

General effects: deaths, injuries, social disruption, loss of skilled work force, loss of property, abuses of human rights; exacerbates disasters and interferes with preventive measures such as those for drought, pest infestations, epidemics, livestock diseases and environmental degradation; quantification of economic, environmental, and social costs, upon which to assess future risks, is difficult.

Migration: can be prompted by presence of armed factions, destruction of crops or economic assets, food shortages, collapse of agricultural systems or the economy; rural people most likely to migrate but urban populations may leave due to the violence or effect on the economy; quantification of numbers of displaced persons and refugees difficult as emergency settlement is often dispersed.

Landmines, buried explosives and stored live ammunition hamper relief efforts, cause causalities and reduce cultivated land; require skilled removal.


Populations unable to defend themselves and their possessions; unprotected or isolated populations; inability to secure basic needs and services; communities vulnerable to other hazards; insufficient conflict resolution; growing availability of weapons; gender.

Predictability Social tensions normally build up over time, making the likelihood of violent conflict amenable to assessment although its timing, form and outcome may be largely unpredictable. Recent awareness of the adverse effects of conflict on development efforts in the sub-region and the contribution of conflict to other disasters has led to intensification of monitoring and conflict resolution efforts.


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reallocated in their absence.

Floods

Flood is a major sudden-onset disaster affecting the sub-region and occurs mainly seasonally from intense

rainfall, rapid runoff, riverine or urban flash flooding. Damaging floods in the IGAD Sub-region are

becoming more numerous. Most of the sub-region lacks flood control facilities, and settlement in the

flood plains is not accompanied by land-use policies, or studies of the flood hazard potential. Increasing

occupation of the floodplains, deforestation and soil and land degradation, sedimentation, lack of

preparedness, and lack of maintenance of flood control devices, and weak hydrological networks, have

contributed to the effects. Information on recent major floods and their impact is contained in Table 8.

Table 7: Sub-regional hazard summary - floods

Definition Occurs when surface water covers land that is normally dry or when water overflows normal con-finements.

Causes Natural causes: mainly from excessive rainfall, seasonally or in localized storms; sometimes attributed to el Niño southern oscillation (ENSO) or strong jet streams.

Human contribution: settlement on floodplains; urbanization; deforestation; failure to maintain drainage systems, dams and levee bank protection

Types of floods and characteristics

Mainly river floods caused by precipitation over large catchment areas ó may build up slowly, or flash floods which occur within six hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall also in urban areas; some coastal flooding may occur associated with severe storms. Damage potential is dependent on the magnitude of the flood, speed of onset and duration of the event in relation to the source of the water, characteristics of the drainage basin and the velocity of the water flow.

Effects Crop losses; destruction of irrigation, loss and damage of pumps and machinery; loss and damage to houses and infrastructure; death and injury of people and animals; outbreaks of water borne diseases immediately following the flooding; contamination of water supplies; loss stored foods or fishing equipment. Benefits of floods include preservation of the wetlands, recharging groundwater and resilting of soil.


Location of settlements on flood plains; lack of or insufficient land use regulation; increasing incidences of floods; lack of or poorly maintained flood control measures; lack of protective and response measures to save lives, crops, and infrastructure; shortages of boats and rescue equipment and trained personnel; lack of awareness of the flood hazard and evacuation procedures; insufficient warning

Predictability Satellite data through national early warning systems and national weather systems combined with knowledge of local runoff conditions allow detection of flood conditions, although flash flooding may be difficult to predict and intensity and magnitude of floods is sometimes unpredictable. Although warnings should be possible well in advance of seasonal floods, systems are not in place in some countries to allow timely warnings to be issued to the public. Warnings may not be received by populations in remote areas or not heeded due to lack of understanding of the flood risks and knowledge of actions to take in an emergency.

Table 8: Recent flood disasters in the IGAD Sub-Region*

Djibouti 1994: Ambouli Oasis, seasonal flooding, 100,000 people affected, 130 deaths; damages over several billion Djibouti Francs.

Ethiopia 1996: Awash river valley, Wonji area along the middle and lower Awash, in Gambella, and in Fogera plains east of Lake Tana; seasonal flooding and high dam discharge; extensive damages.

Kenya 1997/1998: torrential rains, North Eastern and Coast Provinces; major roads washed out, cutting off populations and refugee camps from services; 500,000 people affected; 400 deaths from related epidemics.

Somalia 1995: Middle and Lower Shabelle and Middle and Lower Juba River areas, torrential seasonal rains in Somalia and Ethiopia; lack of maintenance of river embankments, reservoirs, dams and irrigation canals; looting of hardware such as headgates, pipes and pumps; serious maize crop destruction.

1996: Juba Valley, 34-50,000 people affected;

1997/1: 500 people killed, 230-300,000 people displaced

1997/98: torrential rains, Middle Juba, Lower Shabelle; major roads washed out; 670,000 people affected; 1,980 human deaths; 33,500 livestock deaths; 31,000 MT food stocks and 61,000 ha of food crops destroyed.

Sudan 1996: Kordofan and Darfur, seasonal excessive rainfall; 19 deaths, damage to 12,000 houses and infrastructure/ provision of food, water, health care and shelter by GOS and assistance agencies.

Uganda Yearly: peri-urban areas and slums around Kampala; seasonal rainfall; sometimes severe damage and deaths.

1993-94: Kasese, Karamoja and Soroti, seasonal, crop damage.

* Information provided by reports of the national consultants

Table 9: Sub-regional hazard summary - environmental degradation

Definitions, Causes and Effects

Desertification: degradation of soil and vegetation in arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid climates resulting mainly from adverse human impact but also from climate changes; reduces productivity of land and standards of living; contributes to other hazards.

Deforestation: removal or damage of vegetation harming the land’s protective and regenerative properties; major causes are the spread of agriculture, inefficient agricultural practices, firewood collection, and harvesting of wood for construction; underlying problems are insecure land tenure and failure to regulate and preserve forests; contributes to other hazards such as desertification, drought, landslides, and fires; reduces groundwater supplies; effects include loss of species, loss of traditional cultures, loss of forest products, and reduced absorption of co2 from the atmosphere.

Ecosystem degradation: caused by population pressures on natural resources, pollution from toxic substances, poor management of natural resources; results in loss of species; impacts food supply; has adverse effects on economic activities such as tourism, fisheries, and wildlife management.

Environmental pollution: includes pollution of air, marine, and fresh water by wastes and chemicals; damages ecosystems and affects health of humans, animals and sealife.


Desertification: low rainfall and high temperatures; heavy land use; lack of conservation measures.

Deforestation: dependence on wood for fuel and income; unregulated logging and land clearance; rapid population growth; rapid expansion of settled areas.

Ecosystem degradation: lack of awareness of environmental impacts, lack of land use policies and regulating mechanisms.

Pollution: lack of regulation of pollutants; insufficient resources to counter the impact of pollution

Predictability Data on desertification is still inadequate to quantify the extent of the problem and its progression. Deforestation problematic to measure with satellite imagery in distinguishing forest from other vegetation. More information required on the status of dryland ecosystems including soils, water resources and agricultural practices. Monitoring conducted by UNDP’s Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) collects data on contaminants and Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) has systems to estimate degradation.


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Environmental degradation: desertification, deforestation, ecosystem degradation, and

environmental pollution

All Member States in the IGAD Sub-region are vulnerable to environmental degradation due to climatic

conditions, population pressures on natural resources, and lack of appropriate policies, legislation and

support for preserving the environment. Despite counter-measures, the effects of degradation are

intensifying in the sub-region and rendering the population more vulnerable to other hazards, reducing the

resource base for food and fuel production and increasing the probability and potential impacts of

flooding. The Member States have insufficient data bases on natural resources to complete understanding

of causes and effects of possible development and mitigation interventions. Furthermore, traditional

systems of water and land management have not been fully considered in development efforts.

Desertification

Much of the IGAD Sub-region is highly prone to desertification. In some areas, land degradation is

thought to be irreversible, such as in parts of Djibouti where most of the vegetation has disappeared and

sand dunes are forming. Given the population pressures and possible climatic changes resulting in

increasing frequency of drought, the rate of growth of desertified areas will certainly increase. Of

particular concern to the drought-prone IGAD Sub-region is the relationship between drought and

desertification. While desertification does not cause drought, it can result in greater persistence of or

susceptibility to drought. Drought, on the other hand, does contribute to desertification and increases the

likelihood that the rate of degradation will increase. Well managed lands should recover from drought,

but poor land management during normal periods and continued abuse during deficient rainfall contribute

to desertification. Awareness of the causes and effects of desertification have been intensified through

establishment of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INCD), the Convention to Combat

Desertification which entered into force in November 1996, and IGAD’s network development efforts in

the sub-region.

Table 10: Area of productive land (PL), productive land vulnerable to desertification (PLVD), population in

productive land (PLPOP) and population vulnerable to desertification (PLVDPOP)

Total land area (sq km)

PL - all except

hyperarid

PLVD (% of PL)

PLPOP* (‘000s)

PLVDPOP (‘000s)

PLVDPOP as % of PLPOP

PLVDPOP as % of total

population**

Djibouti 22 19 19 (100) 423 423 100% 97%

Ethiopia 1,251 1,246 925 (74) 56,686 23,556 42% 42%

Kenya 583 583 505 (87) 25,503 10,002 39% 39%

Somalia 638 544 544 (100) 8,760 8,760 100% 92%

Sudan 2,487 1,711 1,568 (92) 24,059 22,745 95% 82%

Uganda 243 243 61 (25) 18,125 2,782 15% 15%

Totals** 5,224 4,346 3,622 (83) 133,556 68,268 51% 49%

* Chart modified from UNDP-UNSO, Aridity Zones and Dryland Populations: An assessment of Population Levels in the World’s Drylands with Particular Reference to Africa, June 1997.

** Uses population figures in Table 18


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Deforestation

The average annual deforestation rate in the IGAD Sub-region from 1981 to 1990 was an estimated

0.38%.9 Deforestation is thought to be a major factor in flood disasters in the IGAD Sub-region and a

major contributor to soil erosion. Only a century ago, 39% of the total landmass of Eritrea was covered by

forest. By 1952 that area had decreased to 11%, and today it is only 2.8%. In Ethiopia, a study of the

highland areas over 1500 meters calculated that soil losses will affect 9.6 million people between 1985-

2010 with loss of cropland for 5.3 million people and loss of grazing land for 4.3 million people.

Ecosystem degradation

In Uganda, wetland degradation occurs as a result of drainage, over-harvesting and burning for brick

making, dairy farming, and crop cultivation. Encroachment on protected areas has resulted in destruction

of habitats and loss of fauna and flora. The deep waters of Lake Victoria are de-oxygenated due partly to

the depletion of the phytoplanktivorous haplochromine grazers by introduced Nile perch, indicating a

need for exhaustive studies before the introduction of foreign species. Fish production in Uganda is also

suffering from effects of the water hyacinth which was probably introduced by humans.

Environmental pollution

In the IGAD Sub-region, population and economic pressures and general development, especially urban

development, are accompanied by increases in use of toxic chemicals, and increased emissions of toxic

substances from vehicles and industries. Increase in usage of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers may

also be expected as agricultural practices change. The sub-region is also vulnerable to outside polluters.

For example, frequent movement of tankers off the coasts of Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia and Sudan pose

threats of oil spills and tanker accidents. Deballasting and cleaning operations by tankers cause significant

oil pollution.

Refugees and environmental migrants

Extraordinary population movements may be both a cause and effect of environmental degradation. In

Uganda, past episodes of insecurity have caused abandonment of improved pastures and illegal harvesting

of forests. The settlement of refugees in camps have contributed to environmental degradation in these

areas. While pastoralist movements are considered normal and optimal for use of rangelands by livestock,

due to degradation, overgrazing or overstocking, pastoralists may move out of normal rangeland areas.

Movements from traditional lands by farmers and pastoralists usually represents stress10

migration and is

occurring in all IGAD countries. The result of such migrations is increased urbanization, degradation of

marginal cropping areas, and break-up of communities and families.

9 World Resources, 1996-97, pg. 218

10 IOM Overview of Migration, 1995

Table 11: Forest cover in the IGAD Sub-Region, 1995*

Land Area (‘000 ha)

Forest cover (‘000 ha)

% of Land Hectares per capita

Natural forest (‘000 ha)

Djibouti 2,316 22 0.9% n.s. 22

Eritrea 10,100 262 2.8% 0.1 233

Ethiopia 100,000 13,579 13.6% 0.2 13,439

Kenya 56,914 1,292 2.3% n.s. 1,174

Somalia 62,734 754 1.2% 0.1 750

Sudan 237,500 41,613 17.5% 1.6 41,410

Uganda 19,965 6,104 30.6% 0.3 6,084

Total IGAD 489,529 63,626 13% 0.3 63,112

*State of the World’s Forests, 1997 (FAO, Forest Resources Division)


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Earthquakes

Tectonic activity associated with the Great East African Rift System produces earthquakes in the Rift

valley and the adjacent highlands. Of the IGAD countries, Ethiopia is the most at risk to damage from

earthquakes. An earthquake in 1990 damaged the country’s only connecting highway to the Port of Assab,

disrupting delivery of relief supplies. Many development projects and structures are also at risk.

Vulnerability to earthquakes is significant due to low public awareness of the risks, lack of mitigation

measures for planning and placement of settlements, prevalence of structures vulnerable to tremors, and

high density and high occupancy of buildings in urban areas. High-risk zones are also areas of densely

populated urban centres and industrial areas.

Uganda experienced serious damage in 1994 when an earthquake measuring 6.2 on the Richter scale

affected 50,000 people, killing 8 and destroying infrastructure and property. Associated phenomena such

as hot springs, volcanic activity, cracks which created new rivers, and aftershocks and tremors also posed

threats and delayed reconstruction efforts. Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia and Sudan are also at risk to

earthquakes and events have occurred in the past in each country. Table 13 summarizes the impact of

major earthquakes this century in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Pest infestations

The Desert Locust is the foremost pest threat to the IGAD Sub-region. Somalia is one of the major

breeding grounds together with Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan. Swarms migrating as a result of summer

breeding in Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and the Arabian Peninsula can invade the winter breeding areas of

Somalia. Swarms produced as a result of winter breeding in southern parts of Eastern Africa and northern

coastal areas in Somalia can also invade the spring breeding areas of the country. If preventative control is

not undertaken within Somalia to avoid the formation of swarms, then swarms escaping from the winter

breeding areas can invade Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania to the south-west, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Sudan

to the north-west and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula to the north. Escapes from spring breeding

are contained within the Horn of Africa but are exacerbated by invasions from outside the area. During

periods of widespread heavy rains at suitably timed intervals very large and rapid increases in numbers

Table 12: Sub-regional hazard summary - earthquakes

Causes Shaking of earth caused by slippage of crustal rock along a fault or area of strain and rebound to a new alignment.

Characteristics and Effects

Seismic waves on and below the earth’s surface produce tremors, vibrations, surface faulting, aftershocks, landslides, volcanic activity, hot springs


Lack of awareness of the earthquake hazard, lack of mitigation measures, lack of contingency plans; presence of settlements and infrastructure on fault zones, high density and high occupancy of buildings in urban areas, insufficient resources for monitoring

Predictability Methods remain controversial: accurate predictions of fault movements still not possible; mechanical observation systems make warnings possible but monitoring is very limited in IGAD countries and generally does not exist near the most vulnerable areas; hazard maps depicting the seismic zones may be scarce or not publicized.

Table 13: Impact of Earthquakes in Ethiopia and Eritrea

Year MSK Intensity* Areas affected and impact

1906 VI-IX Addis Ababa, Adamitulu(south of Addis Ababa), Lake Langano area, Guraghe area

1912 VI-VII Series of earthquakes in Tigrai and Eritrea: damage to buildings in Asmara

1915 VI Damage to buildings in Asmara (Eritrea)

1953 VII-VIII Damage to buildings in Harer and Dire Dawa (Eastern Ethiopia)

1961 VII North Shewa/South Wello area (Central Ethiopia) along the escarpment, Majete town destroyed; buildings collapsed in Karakore. Rock slides, landslides, fissures.

1964 VI Tremors in Dessie Area (North Ethiopia-Wello)

1969 IX Serdo town on Addis Ababa-Assab Road destroyed; deaths and injured.

1990 Unknown Addis-Assab Road: blocked the flow of commodities, including relief supplies

* Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik Scale of Earthquake Intensity


16

can occur as happened in 1950, 1956-57, 1967-68, 1977-78 and 1987-89. Currently, an upsurge is

underway that started in 1992.

Despite significant advances in prediction of outbreaks, control of the Desert Locust and other pests

remains difficult in the IGAD Sub-region for the following reasons:

Difficulties in geographic coverage and accessibility: the total key areas for desert locust breeding in

Africa and Southwest Asia encompass 16 m. sq. miles during recessions and up to 29 m. sq. miles

during plagues, and the vast majority of the areas are remote with little developed infrastructure,

compounded by the ability of the locusts to rapidly migrate and increase numbers.

Weak control services: national services have been weakened by long periods of economic constraints.

Regional organizations such as the Desert Locust Control Organization (DLCO) which provides

valuable assistance to national organizations and is widely relied upon for pest control by the IGAD

Member States is experiencing financial and management difficulties, which have reduced its

capacities.

Crisis management approach: weakening of services has resulted in a shift from integrated pest

management to reacting to emergencies which involves delays, a low efficiency/cost ratio, possible

greater dependency on pesticides, and inability to contain the upsurges at an early stage.

Problems in methodology: to apply pesticides in a more precise manner, personnel must be trained in

application to reduce the hazard to human health and minimize environmental damage, requiring more

resources for treatment and training.

Security problems: survey and control operations have to be carried out in important breeding areas in

which access is severely restricted due to civil conflicts and general insecurity such as parts of Somalia

and Sudan, and formerly Ethiopia and Eritrea.11

11 FAO website: http://faowfs0a.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agp/agpp/empres/welcome.htm

Table 14:Sub-regional hazard summary: pest infestations

Definition Pests: any plant or animal causing harm or damage to people, their crops or possessions. The pests of most importance are those which lead to a loss in crop yield or quality, resulting in loss of profits to the farmer and reduced stocks for subsistence or export.

Causes Outbreaks usually the result of a combination of ecological factors, such as temperature, weather and moisture patterns, as well as crop monoculture and resistance to pesticides. Some Member States are breeding areas of the Desert Locust. Pests can be introduced by humans, such as the water hyacinth in Uganda and Kenya.

Major pests and their characteristics

Pests that consume crops: Desert Locust is the greatest threat, with capacity for rapid multiplication and long distance migration. Major outbreaks usually develop following a sequence of good rains; locusts “gregarize” and can form large swarms threatening vegetation over a wide area. Also armyworm, grain eating birds such as the Quelea, rodents and other post harvest pests; Red Locust (in Uganda from breeding in Tanzania).

Water Hyacinth: develops immense carpets of biomass in shallow waters, de-oxygenating water, killing phytoplankton and making fish breeding grounds unusable.

Effects Crop, pasture and fishing losses could lead to food shortages, even famine, and stress economic systems. Excessive use of pesticides can cause environmental damage.


Location of Desert Locust breeding grounds in Member States; Insufficient crop yields in normal times; Limited agricultural technologies; Problems in control: Wide geographic ranges of the Desert Locust, Weak control services, Crisis management approaches to control; Problems with pesticide applications, Insecurity impedes survey and control operations, Reduced capacity of national and regional control organizations

Predictability and Control

Prediction and control has progressed significantly. Two main factors dominate the development of plagues and the strategy of control: the migration of locusts and their need for warm damp sand or soil in which to breed. Swarm movements take place downwind to areas where winds converge and rains are favourable, creating conditions necessary for breeding. Early warning, information and control systems: DLCO early warning system and control operations; FAO monitoring of crop pest situation fed directly into GIEWS; FAO Locust Group issues forecasts through Desert Locust Information Service; Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) uses strategic control through surveys and timely environmentally sound interventions; Integrated Pest Management; Traditional systems.


17

Table 15 shows some of the major pest infestations that have occurred in the IGAD Sub-region in recent

years.

Epidemics

The risk of large scale epidemics in the IGAD Sub-region is high due to presence of several endemic

diseases, conditions of poverty, low access to modern health services, and weak systems of

epidemiological surveillance. Many epidemics, such as cholera, typhoid and diarrhoea, have also occurred

in the context of emergency situations and resulted from crowded or unsanitary conditions, contact of

persons from different areas, and/or physical weaknesses and malnutrition.

Malaria is the greatest threat in most of the IGAD countries. A high risk of malaria exists in all parts of

Djibouti, Somalia and Uganda. Malaria affects two-thirds of Ethiopia and is the most common cause of

morbidity in Uganda. The dominant malaria vector, P. Falciparum, is the most dangerous type which can

lead to cerebral malaria if untreated and is often resistant to chloroquine. P. Falciparum exists in all areas

below 2000 m in Eritrea and Ethiopia (except Addis Ababa), and in all areas below 2,500 m of Kenya

except Nairobi. It is estimated that treatment of a single episode of malaria costs the sum equivalent of 10

working days in Africa. The total cost of malaria including treatment and lost production in tropical

Africa is estimated to be US $1,800 million in 1995.12

Parts of the IGAD Sub-region are in the “meningitis belt” in sub-Saharan Africa where the largest

epidemics of meningococcal meningitis are reported. Epidemics usually occur seasonally in the dry

season (December to June) but there is a year-round risk in Kenya and Sudan. Epidemics occurred in

Ethiopia in 1981 and 1991 resulting in high death rates of nearly 40% of reported cases each year. In sub-

Saharan Africa intervals between outbreaks, normally 8-12 years, have become shorter and more irregular

since 1980 and a possible new cycle started in West Africa in 1995.

Yellow fever is endemic in most of the IGAD Sub-region. In Ethiopia in 1961, 30,000 persons died out

of 200,000 cases. Immunization coverage is low and yellow fever has re-emerged in Africa after being

confined for more than 10 years to just four countries. After an outbreak in the Kerio Valley in 1992,

Kenya established a sentinel surveillance system which detected a low transmission rate. Cholera has

occurred in all of the IGAD countries and often occurs in food emergencies. In Ethiopia, cholera is

reported to have caused deaths of 5,300 people in famine affected areas in 1984-85. In 1994 and 1995

outbreaks occurred in Somalia with 28,000 cases and 1,206 deaths in 1994.

12 WHO website: http://www.who.ch/programmes/emc/csmfacts.htm

Table 15: Some major pest infestations in the IGAD Sub-region

Year Location Type Locations/Impact

1986 Sudan Desert Locust and migratory locusts Three areas along the Nile

1987 Ethiopia Desert Locust, migratory locusts and Armyworm

Especially in Eritrea and Tigray

1988 Sudan Desert Locust Darfur Province and Khartoum area

1988 Ethiopia Desert Locust/Armyworm Widespread crop damage

1995 Eritrea Desert Locust 30,000 ha affected

1995 Somalia Armyworm 50% loss of maize crop

1997 Uganda Cassava mosaic virus Serious infestation


18

In Uganda, it is estimated that 34% of mothers attending pre-natal clinics test positive for HIV and 25%

of their babies will likely test positive. Over 315,000 cases of AIDS have been documented, 8% below 11

years of age. The incidences are rising in the sentinel sites and also for associated cases of tuberculosis.

Deaths may result in destitution for remaining family members. In Uganda, over one million orphans who

have lost one or both parents to AIDS require support and assistance. The Ministry of Health in Uganda

regards HIV/AIDS as the greatest disaster threat to the country. In Kenya, 5-10% of adults are infected

with HIV.

Other disease threats to the IGAD Sub-region include dengue fever (an urban viral infection transmitted

by mosquitoes which occurs in all countries), typhoid fever, hepatitis, schistosomiasis, rabies, and various

parasitic infections.

Livestock diseases

Livestock play a vital role in agricultural systems in the IGAD countries, providing from 20-30 % of GDP

and at the farmer level as much as 70% of cash income.15

Livestock diseases are therefore a major threat

to food security and livelihoods for a large part of the population.

Rinderpest exists in two major foci, in areas around southern Sudan-northern Kenya-southwest Ethiopia,

and areas around southern Somalia-northeast Kenya. Rinderpest has the potential to spread rapidly from

these foci, particularly if drought occurs. Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is endemic

throughout the sub-region. Disease control is often implemented through vaccination campaigns.

13 WHO website: http://www.who.ch/programmes/emc/csmfacts.htm

14 WHO/EHA, Health and the Revitalization of IGAD, discussion paper, 1996

15 ILRI, Livestock Activities in the Greater Horn of Africa, 1995

Table 16: Sub-regional hazard summary - epidemics

Definition Epidemic: the occurrence of an illness or other health-related event that is unusually large or unexpected.

Causes Commonly caused by a disease known or suspected to be of infectious or parasitic origin; may be associated with other hazards, such as drought, civil conflict or chemical accidents which cause widespread malnutrition, injuries or poisoning respectively. Outbreaks increasing due to population, environmental and economic pressures.

Major Epidemic Threats, Characteristics and Effects

Malaria: a serious parasitic infection, transmitted by four species of genus Plasmodium mosquitoes producing symptoms of fever and anaemia; contributes to premature and underweight births; reduces productivity during the months of transmission; parasites resistant to certain drugs, particularly chloroquine; cases in tropical Africa account for 10-30% of hospital admissions and 15-25% of all deaths of children under 5.13

Meningococcal meningitis: a bacterial infection in the lining of the brain or spinal cord transmitted by respiratory droplets; fatality rates may exceed 50% if untreated; mass vaccination campaign usually required to halt an epidemic.

Yellow fever: an acute infectious disease caused by a mosquito-borne virus; no specific treatment so prevention through vaccination is important; non-immunized fatalities may exceed 50% for adults and 70% for children.

Cholera: an acute diarrhoeal illness caused by infection of the intestine which can quickly lead to severe dehydration and death; spread by faecal contamination of food and water; often transmitted by “healthy carriers” who show no symptoms; case-fatality rates may be as high as 50%.

HIV/AIDS: human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) leading to death; spread by transmission of bodily fluids; considered to be a pandemic, or world-wide epidemic, increasing in proportions.


Presence of endemic contagious diseases and lack of immunity; unsanitary conditions; overcrowding; malnutrition; scarcity of health facilities; inadequate epidemiological surveillance; inadequate vector control; not enough circulation of health information within and among countries; drug resistant diseases.

Predictability The types of diseases plaguing the IGAD Sub-region are fairly well identified but outbreaks are largely unpredictable due to weak systems of epidemiological surveillance particularly in rural areas and scarce health facilities and professionals to promote preventative and curative measures. Health information is not circulated enough throughout the sub-region, limiting effective epidemic preparedness with severe and immediate dangers for communicable outbreaks. Exchange of information between countries is weak — especially concerning areas where populations are extremely vulnerable to contracting and spreading disease.14


19

However, vaccinations are only one facet of control and do not provide coverage for all strains and types

of diseases. While domestic animals can be vaccinated, the threat to wildlife is especially alarming.

Surveillance must be carried out to seek and diagnose cases, but this measure is constrained by shortage

of trained veterinarians. Participatory approaches have proved effective in control but efforts to promote

community participation are largely uncoordinated and underfunded.

Other livestock diseases: Lumpy Skin Disease is a viral skin disease which may cause serious

production losses including damage to hides. African Swine Fever is an economic threat especially in

Kenya and Uganda, while Foot and Mouth disease is a threat to improved breeds used in dairy farming.

Rift Valley Fever is serious mosquito-borne viral disease of ruminant animals, particularly sheep, which

can spread to humans and is now reoccurring where it had previously been eliminated. Other diseases

include East Coast Fever, Rabies, Anthrax, Blackleg, and Trypanosomiasis.

Summary of disaster vulnerability and risks

Table 18 provides a summary of disaster vulnerability and risks faced by individual IGAD Member

States.

Cross-cutting factors affecting vulnerability to disasters

This section examines major cross cutting factors affecting vulnerability in the IGAD Sub-region that

underlie discussions of all hazard types and mitigation activities. Such factors, all linked to development,

are often the root causes of individual and societal vulnerability and may increase the risk of disasters and

emergencies. These factors include poverty, high population growth, scarcity of natural resources to

support livelihoods, lack of policies and infrastructure, and inadequate health services.

Table 17: Sub-regional hazard summary - livestock diseases

Causes Epidemics erupt from foci where livestock diseases have not been eradicated or controlled. Spread of disease can be exacerbated by drought and conflict.

Major Diseases, Characteristics and Effects

General effects: high levels of mortality (over 8% per year in adult animals); loss of income and assets, and consequent loss of access to food, for livestock dependent population; loss of national income from exports.

Rinderpest: a highly contagious and deadly viral disease with the potential to devastate cattle and other cloven hoofed animals.

Peste Des Petits Ruminants (PPR): a rinderpest-like disease of sheep and goats which causes high mortality and is spreading at an alarming rate.

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP): a very debilitating or deadly, acute or chronic respiratory disease of cattle and other large ruminant species


Presence of endemic diseases; presence of drought, or conflict; trans-boundary movements of animals; insufficient veterinary services, staff and supplies; insufficient participation of farmers and pastoralists; lack of funding and coordination for programmes; overstocking, overgrazing

Predictability and Control

Animal diseases are monitored by national ministries, and by international agencies such as FAO’s EMPRES (Emergency Prevention System) which tries to control outbreaks with early action. The Pan African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC) has made significant progress in controlling rinderpest. Risk of epidemics is still significant due to insufficient surveillance and movements of herds which favour transmission of disease.


20

Food insecurity is an important factor contributing to vulnerability to disasters. Root causes of food

insecurity and vulnerability to all disasters overlap to a large degree. Famine is often mentioned in

connection with the drought hazard. However, famine in the IGAD Sub-region is an extreme case of food

insecurity which may result from a combination of factors including poverty, environmental degradation,

social disruption and policy failures. Capacities to prevent food crises are limited in the sub-region and

Table 18: National summaries of disaster vulnerability and risks

Sub-regional

Ranking*

Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Uganda

Population

(millions)

0.5 2.8 58.4 29.2 6.0-7.7 (est.) 27.2 20.4

Drought

Severe, chronic, nearly all land

Severe nearly all land

Severe 48.8% land and 10-12% population

Moderate-severe; 80% of land (ASAL**), 20% of pop, 50% of livestock

Moderate to severe; prolonged every 8-10 yrs; localized every 3-5 years

Moderate- severe; mainly west and central

Moderate, mainly north and north-eastern

Human

Conflict

5% of population are displaced; 30,000 Somali and Issa refugees

Need to rehabilitate all sectors; 700,000 Eritrean refugees

200,000 refugees in Ethiopia; 200,000 Ethiopian refugees; 158,190 IDPs; 100,000 “de-settlers”

131,000 Somali Refugees

Ongoing insecurity; 400,000 IDPs; 614,413 Somali Refugees; extensive mine pollution; loss of central govt.; land tenure issues

Ongoing;

Refugees: 349,000; Up to 4 million IDPs, mines

Refugees from Sudan and Rwanda;: 300,000 IDPs; insurgency, cattle rustling

Floods

Moderate, rapid runoff to delta areas

Mild Moderate to severe, rapid runoff, 430,000 vulnerable persons

Moderate, localized delta and urban

Moderate, severe, seasonal, riverine, run-off

Moderate to severe; riverine, runoff

Moderate, riverine

Environmenta

l Degradation

Desertification: severe

Moderate-Severe

Severe land degradation, 15-20% of pop. affected

Moderate Moderate Moderate Environmental degradation : soil, land, wetlands (18% of land)

Earthquake

Moderate

Mild Moderate to severe

Mild Mild Mild Moderate, with landslides

Pest

infestations,

crop diseases

Moderate Moderate to severe, locusts, army worm

Severe, locusts, army worms

Mild, locusts

Desert locust, army worm, Quelea, bird-pests

Moderate to severe; locusts, rats

Mild to moderate, army worm, locusts, stem borer; Cassava mosaic

Epidemics

Cholera and malaria

Meningitis, malaria, measles,

Malaria, meningitis, yellow fever

AIDS, Cholera, Rift Valley Fever, malaria

Cholera

URI, measles, malaria, meningitis

Malaria, increasing AIDS (34% of anti-natal mothers)

Livestock

Disease

Moderate Moderate Severe, affects 10% of pop. Tryps, rinderpest

Moderate to severe, rinderpest; threat to wildlife and tourism

Serious threat due to 35% GDP from livestock

Moderate to severe, rinderpest

Severe, use 25 % of land; rinderpest CBPP, Tryps

Others

Fire; transportation accidents

Storm effects: wind, hail, cyclones

Severe storms Storm effects, Lightening, tornadoes, hailstorms

Marine pollution; Tropical cyclones

Fires Orphans: 2 million or 16% of the population

* The order of hazards in the left column represents three levels of threat to the sub-region, with Drought and Conflict being the foremost hazards. The second group is composed of earthquakes, environmental degradation, floods, and pest infestations (in alphabetical order). A third level of threat is posed by epidemics and livestock diseases.

** Arid and semi-arid lands


21

abilities to cope with food shortages are also dependent on highly localized conditions which are often not

considered in relief and mitigation programmes.16

The cross cutting factors affecting vulnerability to disasters are grouped below under social and

environmental factors and food security factors.

Social and environmental factors

Key socio-economic parameters for the IGAD Member States are summarized in Table 19.

Population growth

Population growth in the IGAD Sub-region is among the highest in Africa. Current growth estimates

indicate that the population will exceed 178 million by 2005.

Poverty

All IGAD countries fall into the category of “least developed countries” with most ranking among the

poorest in the world. Economic growth has declined or stagnated in the sub-region. Large numbers of

persons living at subsistence levels and dependent on agriculture (80%) are highly vulnerable to

disruption of marketing and production systems. People living in absolute poverty in rural areas make up

about 56% of the total population.17

Cultural and economic diversity

There is great diversity between the countries of the region in terms of languages, ethnic groups,

resources, history and politics. However, there are many shared resources and common languages and

cultures particularly in the border areas where the same ethnic groups may live in different countries. The

characteristics and needs of border populations are often not considered in mitigation and development

programmes. The rural populations are generally dispersed and their development is restricted by the lack

of developed road and communications systems. Seasonal migration is a way of life for many pastoralist

groups and migration by agriculturalists is increasing in some countries in the search for better farming

lands, due to population pressures.

16 Webb, Patrick and Yohannes Habtu, “Famine in Africa”, National Geographic Research and Exploration, 10(2): 158–171:

1994.

17 UNDP, Human Development Report, 1994.

Table 19: Population growth, standards of living, and dependence on agriculture

Member State Population (in millions)*

Pop. Growth % (1996)**

GDP per capita

GNP per capita**

Rural dwellers, agriculture dependent (1996) in millions***

Djibouti 0.6 (1997) 1.5 $1,200 (GDP 1994) 0.2

Eritrea 2.8 (1997 est.) 2.8 $570 (GDP 1995) 2.6

Ethiopia 58.4 (1997 est.) 2.7 $100 (GNP 1996) 49.7

Kenya 29.2 (1996 est.) 2.3 $260 (GNP 1996) 21.6

Somalia 7.7 (1991 est.) 3.1 $131 (GNP 1990) 7.3

Sudan 27.2 (1996 est.) 3.5 $300 (GDP 1995) 18.5

Uganda 20.4 (1997 est.) 2.2 $240 (GNP 1996) 16.8

Sub-regional Totals & averages

147.1 IGAD $220 (GNP 1986) 117.2

*FAO/GIEWS: Africa Report 5/97 **World Bank Atlas, FAO/GIEWS*** FAOSTAT


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Urbanization

Rates of urbanization are high in the sub-region compared to world averages, particularly in Djibouti,

Kenya and Uganda, as people seek economic opportunities and security. Unemployment, however, is high

in urban areas. Public services in cities may be inadequate and homes may be placed on unsafe sites

increasing vulnerability.

Policy development

Lack of adequate policy frameworks or failure to implement them have restricted development of the

agriculture and economic sectors. Comprehensive development policies which support, among others,

food security, environmental protection, land use, and land tenure are missing or inadequate in the sub-

region. Lack of ownership or rights to land use is a major cause of conflict and reduced productivity in the

sub-region.

Production systems

Production systems have been placed under stress by loss of access to and degradation of environmental

resources and climate change, and the quest for maintenance of food security and livelihoods in the face

of such stress has provoked further degradation. The majority of those affected do not have access to

resources for investment in upgrading production systems to improve productivity and environmental

management and so break this cycle, with the result that both vulnerability to disaster and the risk that a

disaster will occur has increased.

Institutional development

Capacity and institution building is greatly needed in the IGAD Sub-region. National institutions may

have diffuse mandates and operate below their potential if they lack the needed structures and

mechanisms and financial support. Coordination between institutions is often weak. Many institutions

have been destabilized during periods of political upheaval and conflict. While institutional development

has progressed at the central level in most countries, development of community based institutions is less

advanced, and is mainly community initiated or promoted by assistance agencies. Increasing participation

in political decision-making by smaller administrative units is being promoted in most countries but

progress is hampered by lack of infrastructure and skilled workers and complications regarding transfers

of authority.

With the partial exception of Sudan and Kenya, availability of technically trained staff is limited in all

Member States. Many professionals left Eritrea and Somalia during recent conflicts. Limited social

service institutions limit human resource development, for example, in health and education. Illiteracy

rates in the GHA are among the highest in Africa and are at least ten percentage points higher for women

than for men.18

Logistics and communications

Public infrastructure remains limited in the sub-region. Road systems do not reach the majority of the

population in some countries and the railroad systems in all countries are in various stages of disrepair.

The major constraints to food movement are often the management and cost of moving food from surplus

to deficit areas. For example, projections for 1997 indicate that despite an overall satisfactory food supply

situation in Uganda, because of transportation difficulties and insecurity movement of foods to deficit

areas is often not feasible. The case is similar in Sudan and Ethiopia where subsidies are required to move

food from surplus production areas to places of food insecurity. Communications systems in all countries,

while generally improving, are greatly in need of modernization and expansion and constrain the

development of rural areas and the collection of data.

18 USAID, “Breaking the Cycle of Despair: Building a New Foundation for Food Security and Crisis Prevention in the Greater

Horn of Africa”, 1994.


23

Health

In the IGAD Sub-region, only 58% of the population has access to health services and the figures for

access to safe water and sanitation are even lower at 55% and 41% respectively. In Eritrea, the

physician/population ratio is 1:28,000. The recent conflict in Somalia has placed the infant, child and

maternal mortality rates among the highest in the world. Table 20 sums up key health parameters for the

sub-region.

Food security factors

Food security in the IGAD sub-region

The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing “when all people at all times have

physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food

preferences for an active and healthy life”. IGAD’s 1990 Food Security Strategy Study concluded that:

national food security is on a declining trend in all IGAD countries;

the main food insecure groups are resource poor farmers, urban poor, poor pastoralists and refugees;

more than one third of the population (39%) of the IGAD Sub-region were food insecure, receiving

insufficient food to prevent stunting or to live a fully active working life;

the major causes of food insecurity are poor overall economic performance, poor agricultural

performance, prevailing wars, major droughts and long-term environmental degradation;

inadequate food security data and analysis are a major obstacle to improving food policy management;

These conclusions were generally supported by discussions in the World Food Summit. The IGAD Sub-

region is the most food insecure in Africa.

Brief overview of the food security situation in the IGAD member states

The following national reviews serve to update and validate the conclusions of IGAD’s 1990 Food

Security Strategy Study.19

Summary statistics are contained in Table 20.

Djibouti

National food security is declining in Djibouti and is mainly a problem of access. Per capita daily

caloric intake fell from 1,905 kcal in 1980 to 1,885 kcal in 1993. The population has grown from

520,000 in 1990 to 614,000 in 1997 and an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 refugees live in Djibouti.

Unemployment affects 44% of the population. Rural populations numbering 180,000 are the most

vulnerable to food insecurity but the urban population, which represents 70% of the total

population, is also vulnerable because of dependence on imported foods which are relatively high

19 National Reviews adapted from World Food Summit Follow-Up, “Draft Strategies for National Agricultural Development,

Horizon 2010”, FAO, 1997

Table 20: Selected health statistics for the IGAD Sub-region

Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births)

(1990-95)

Mortality under 5 (per 1,000 live births)

(1993)

Births attended by trained personnel %

(1990)

Stunting: % of children under 5

(1980-91)

Djibouti 106.7 (1996 est.) - - -

Eritrea 105 204 - -

Ethiopia 119 204 14 64

Kenya 69 90 54 33

Somalia 122 211 2 —

Sudan 78 128 69 32

Uganda 115 185 38 45

Sources: UNFPA, UNICEF, World Bank, WHO


24

priced. Djibouti’s production covers all of the needs for meat and fish but only 10% of the needs

for fruits and vegetables. Malnutrition affects 24% of children under 5.

Eritrea

The war in Eritrea had a devastating effect on agriculture, from which some 80% of the population

derives its livelihood. Food self-sufficiency has not exceeded 40% in recent years, and Eritrea is not

grain self-sufficient even in good rainfall years and is highly vulnerable to weather conditions with

large annual variations in output. Purchasing power is weak among a high percentage of the

population. Food aid has remained important in the post-war period in overcoming hunger and

malnutrition, though the government has recently called a halt to free food distribution in favour of

a reliance on employment-based safety nets, and is moving towards ending imports of food aid.

Daily caloric intake in 1993 was estimated at 1610 kcal/person, 93% of the estimated requirement

and 83% of the average for sub-Saharan Africa.

Ethiopia

Food insecurity and malnutrition are still prevalent in Ethiopia despite food self-sufficiency in 1996

and 1997. Food needs were met partly by food aid which ranged between 6 and 15% of

consumption requirements between 1980 and 1990. It is estimated that 50% of the population is

food insecure, 75% of rural poor and 25% of urban poor. Based on the 1992-1994 period, food

availability is estimated at an average of 1688 kcal/person/day, about 20% below the 2100 kcal

standard set by the Government of Ethiopia (GOE). Chronic poverty and food insecurity is

associated with limited landholding, lack of access to resources (oxen and inputs) and lack of

alternative employment opportunities. Due to the growing disparity between production and

population growth, the need for food aid to the household level among food insecure groups

persists.

Kenya

While Kenya’s agricultural exports, especially tea and horticultural crops, have grown, food

production has not kept pace with population growth. The country is largely self-sufficient in

livestock products but domestic sources cannot meet demands for grain, oilseeds and sugar. Cereal

production per person has fallen by 50% over the past 20 years. Almost 40% of the population is

chronically undernourished and 46% of rural families live in poverty. Per capita food consumption

has declined from 2150 kcal/day in 1979-81 to 1910 in 1992-94. There are widespread cases of iron

deficiency anaemia, endemic goitre and Vitamin A deficiency. Ironically, malnutrition and poverty

is the most serious in areas of high and medium agricultural potential because of high population

density and consequently small farm size.

Somalia

The recent war has seriously affected food security in Somalia. Average daily per capita intake was

estimated in 1993 at 1533 kcal, down from 1876 kcal in 1980 and 1698 kcal in 1990. Meat

contributes more than 25% of the energy requirements and there is a surplus in livestock products

but a deficit in cereals and oils. Domestic grain production meets only half the requirements.

Nomadic groups, women, children and the elderly are the most vulnerable in periods of reduced

food availability. Displaced persons (estimated at around 600,000) due to the conflict are largely

dependent on food aid.

Sudan

Sudan has the potential to become a food surplus producing country but is constrained by

unsatisfactory economic growth, poverty, and problems with access to food and other basic needs

especially in rural areas. Food supplies have provided 2270 kcal per capita in both 1980 and 1993,

however, this aggregate conceals widespread regional and household disparities. About 30% of the

total population have food intakes of less than required amounts. About 33% of the population are

underweight. The main vulnerable groups are people living in drought prone areas of the country


25

and conflict-displaced people, especially female-headed households, poor households and some of

the nomadic population.

Uganda

Uganda has an overall positive food balance in many food items and in general is able to satisfy

food demands, however, there are deficits in some foods, notably livestock products. Certain

districts in the north have chronic deficits because of poor soil and climatic conditions, poverty and

influxes of refugees. The daily average per capita intake is 2400 kcal which meets 99% of

requirements. Per capita food production is on the decline due to a high population growth rate and

recurrent droughts, conflict and insecurity in the north of the country, use of unimproved tools and

seed, poor land use practices, lack of access to credit, pest and animal diseases, and economic

constraints faced by women.


26

BACKGROUND ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT MECHANISMS IN THE IGAD

SUB-REGION

Disaster management encompasses a broad range of interventions which can be classified in three main

categories: long-term prevention, preparedness, and immediate response. To locate the sub-regional

disaster preparedness strategy clearly in its disaster management context, this section outlines existing

national and regional level mechanisms to manage disasters in the IGAD sub-region within all three of

these areas as follows:

preventive measures, summarized by type of hazard

preparedness interventions

disaster preparedness strategies and contingency planning

supporting policies, legislation, and agreements

focal institutions for coordination of preparedness and response

early warning and food information systems and vulnerability analysis

public education and training

response interventions

impact and needs assessment

resource mobilization

targeting, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of assistance

For each of these sections, sub-sections deal with:

requirements for effective disaster management;

sub-regional overview of disaster management mechanisms;

sub-regional needs as a basis, in the case of preparedness and response interventions, for identification

of priority measures for enhancing disaster preparedness.

Preventive interventions

Long-term prevention ideally aims at making a country “disaster-proof “ and should be part of a national

development strategy. Indeed, capacities of the IGAD Member States to avoid disasters are evolving and

disaster management inputs are becoming more closely aligned with sustainable development initiatives.

The status of preventive interventions in the IGAD sub-region, and needs for further measures to be

taken, is summarized for each of the main disaster hazards dealt with in the last section.

Drought

Sub-regional overview20

Efforts by the Member States and national, regional and international organizations to prevent

disasters due to drought have made significant progress which reflects policy shifts toward

comprehensive and coordinated plans for prevention and away from an exclusive focus on relief

and rehabilitation. Drought action plans in which preventive elements feature strongly are under

preparation in several countries. Drought has been dealt with in the past more as a technical

20 Summarized from “Overview of Drought Mitigation Activities in the IGAD Sub-region” 1997, by Mohamed Bazza as part of

IGAD - FAO Technical Cooperation Project TCP/RAF/4558. See Annexes.


27

problem, requiring physical solutions rather than as a phenomenon related to social, economic,

political and cultural issues, but more emphasis is now being placed on these associated issues.

Water resources in the IGAD Sub-region are largely underdeveloped and detailed studies of water

potential are not available for some countries such as Eritrea and Ethiopia. Although efforts in

Djibouti and Somalia have focused on development of water supply points, well sources are not

sufficient and are not sustainable during droughts. Technologies for moisture conservation at the

farm level have been developed but application has not been sustainable for the most part. Most

people in rural communities must carry water, some travelling long distances, to meet their daily

needs. In some rural areas, the water quality is of low standard.

Sub-regional needs for prevention of drought impacts

Top priority areas for prevention of drought impacts in the sub-region are:

Soil and water development and conservation:

The potential for moisture conservation in soil for later use by crops, and collection of runoff for

use in dry periods has not been harnessed and put to work at farm level, although the technologies

have been developed in some areas. Due to high costs, water resource development has not been

fully considered as a long-term solution to drought impacts, however, irrigation systems have

proven to be effective in many other countries.

Rangeland management and animal production

Despite the importance of animal production in the sub-region, rangelands have received limited

attention for development. This is partly due to a lack of understanding of pastoralist management

systems, and the mobility of pastoralists which renders the provision of extension and other

services to them problematic. Recent research has done much to improve the understanding of

pastoralist systems in semi-arid zones, and of the increasingly severe constraints under which they

operate including a widespread loss of access to grazing lands. This work has, for example, cast

doubt on the common assumption that pastoralism is in decline due primarily to overstocking and

overgrazing, and could be a basis for more productive approaches to rangeland management which

involve the participation of pastoralists and other stakeholders in determining management

objectives and methods in the face of periodic drought.

Increase in productivity of staple crops

Land productivity is far below potential in all countries and especially drought-prone areas, due to

contraints on the intensification of low-input production systems through transfer of new

technology. Development of more suitable integrated production packages and technologies is

required as well as mechanisms for making these technologies more accessible for farmers.

The status of disaster prevention in the IGAD sub-region with respect to drought is summarized in

Table 21.

Table 21: Disaster prevention status - drought

Prevention measures already undertaken Prevention measures needed

Limited development of land use and land tenure policies.

Development of land use and land tenure policies which promote resilience to drought impacts.

Some drought action planning. Preparation/strengthening of national drought action plans.

Some agricultural development programmes which reduce vulnerability to drought.

Strengthening of programmes for pastoralism & rangeland development in light of recent research; development & promotion of drought-tolerant staple crops.

Some water supply development and moisture conservation.

Enhanced soil & water development & conservation.

Increased attention to agricultural systems & ‘coping’ strategies.

Improved understanding of agriculturally-based livelihood systems & support for maintaining their resilience to drought impacts.


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Conflict

Sub-regional overview

Despite the prevalence of conflict in the IGAD sub-region during the latter half of this century,

preventive measures at any level were of little significance during the Cold War period, when the

relationship between superpowers and IGAD Member States took the form instead of a shifting

pattern of military support in return for strategic allegiance which strongly influenced the nature

and course of conflict across the sub-region. The end of the Cold War, the victory of EPLF forces

in Eritrea and the brokering by the US of a bloodless transition of power in Ethiopia in 1991

ushered in a new era of international interest in conflict prevention and mitigation in the sub-

region, though this was subsequently dampened by setbacks in US and UN efforts to bring about a

peaceful resolution of conflict in Somalia.

The IGADD summit of 1993 and the launch of the revitalized IGAD in 1996 have brought a new

expansion of IGAD’s mandate to include conflict prevention and resolution, which has so far been

discharged mainly in relation to mediation between parties to the conflict in Sudan. Development

of IGAD’s role in this sphere is matched by a renewed determination of international agencies to

improve their capacity to prevent disasters arising from conflict. This is reflected, for example, in

the mandate and efforts of the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs from 1992 and its

successor, the Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), from 1997, and in the

several efforts of UN and other multilateral, bilateral and NGO agencies collectively to “learn the

lessons” from experiences in Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, Rwanda, Somalia and other complex

emergencies.

Sub-regional needs for prevention of conflict impacts

The role of international and regional agencies takes on added importance in conflict-related

disasters where the functioning of the state, along with all its disaster management mechanisms and

institutions, are compromised or brought to a standstill by the conflict itself. Much has yet to be

done both internationally and at the regional level to resolve the many dilemmas inherent in

providing peacemaking, peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance in conflict situations, not least

the uncertainty over whether and when interventions by humanitarian agencies should reflect any

political agenda in addition to that which follows from application of strictly humanitarian

principles. The form that intervention takes must, whatever the priciples applied, be based on a

sound and timely analysis of the origin, course and impacts of conflict, and this is another area

which requires considerable strengthening within the sub-region.

The status of measures to prevent disasters due to conflict is summarized in Table 22.

Table 22: Disaster prevention status - conflict

Prevention measures already underway Prevention measures needed

Some early warning of conflict situations Enhanced early warning to identify and analyse social tensions and potential for and course of conflict; enhanced sharing of information related to potential conflict situations.

Conflict resolution by national, regional and international agencies; awareness of the past effects of war on development; interrelationship of poverty and conflict, and conflict with other disasters

Strengthening of national, regional and international conflict mitigation & resolution efforts; stronger collaboration between agencies involved in humanitarian & political interventions in conflict; strengthening of community based conflict resolution; development and poverty alleviation programmes which address social tensions.

Some awareness of mine and live ammunition hazards Information campaigns on locations and dangers of mine and ammunition: intensified efforts to remove the hazards; campaigns to reduce or ban use of landmines


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Prevention of disasters due to other causes

The status of disaster prevention measures in relation to other main hazards in the IGAD sub-region is

briefly summarized in Table 23 to Table 28.

Table 23: Disaster prevention status - flood


Flood contingency plans in some countries. Enhanced contingency planning for flood disasters.

Limited restrictions on use of flood prone areas. Land use planning & regulation which minimizes flood exposure.

Early warning through meteorological systems; limited flood monitoring systems; some flood mapping.

Improved public warning systems; improved flood monitoring systems and flood mapping; flood frequency studies.

Existence of flood control measures in some areas. Addressing causes of control insufficiency or failure.

Some understanding of positive effects of floods on land fertility; limited understanding of root causes of flooding.

Enhanced public education campaigns; studies and programmes to address causes of increased flooding such as deforestation.

Previous experience with flood disasters; trained personnel and rescue equipment in some countries; some ability to replant crops.

Sharing of flood expertise on a regional basis; planning for use of rescue equipment and personnel; contingency planning for rapid agricultural rehabilitation.

Table 24: Disaster prevention status - environmental degradation


International Convention to Combat Desertification; Agenda 21; some environmental agreements; some land use regulations.

Development of comprehensive environmental policies, legislation and agreements; strengthening of land use regulations; establishment of environmental protection plans; contingency plans for oil and chemical spills

Monitoring of degradation and pollution by various agencies and programmes (UNSO, UNEP); monitoring of deforestation (FAO); some database development (IGAD); some information networks.

Enhanced environmental monitoring at national and regional levels; continued development of databases and information networks; collaboration & information sharing by agencies engaged in environmental monitoring.

INCD strengthening of national programmes to implement the Convention; development programmes to address root causes and effects of degradation.

Continued INCD support; promotion of more sustainable development projects for agriculture & livestock; promotion of alternatives to fuelwood; soil and water conservation; reforestation.

Some awareness of environmental impacts; some training and research.

Community education; training for government staff; continued research on environmental impact and effects.

Table 25: Disaster prevention status - earthquakes


Limited land use regulations on seismic zones; limited codes for construction.

Land use regulation; development of building codes; insurance on buildings & infrastructure; construction & engineering measures to prevent earthquake damage; contingency planning for earthquakes.

Seismic monitoring in some countries; limited awareness of risks, effects and associated phenomena.

Strengthening seismic systems; seismic mapping; enhancing public awareness in areas of seismic risk especially in areas without monitoring or warning systems.

Use of previous experience in earthquakes. Enhanced efforts to share expertise within & between countries for preparedness & response.

Table 26: Disaster prevention status - pest infestations


Limted capacity of control services; limited pest management approaches.

Enhanced contingency planning for pest infestations; rapid agricultural rehabilitation; increasing capacity of national & regional control services; support for DLCO; improved access to areas of insecurity; enhanced strategic control & integrated pest management

Monitoring by Desert Locust Control Organization, FAO EMPRES, national early warning systems.

Increased ability to predict locust movements; coordination between affected countries on information & control; increased involvement of communities in warning & control

Improved pesticide application procedures to limit environmental effects & reduce use of pesticides; limited trained staff for application techniques.

Improved training for staff; increasing numbers of trained staff; enhancement of traditional methods of control.


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Preparedness interventions

Disaster preparedness strategies and the contingency planning process

Strategic planning requirements

To support management of disasters, national strategies are required to set out goals and objectives for

preparedness and response activities. Each national strategy should be a broad exercise, defining the roles

of key agencies in vital functions, assessing their response capacities, and promoting improvements and

activities to minimize the impact of disasters. A contingency planning process is also needed through

which all assistance agencies that may be involved in disaster response ascertain their roles in

preparedness and response, describe mechanisms which will be used to address a disaster, and

continuously update these plans. The contingency planning process should address all potential disaster

types.


In the past several years, concrete steps have been taken by each Member State to enhance preparedness

capacities. As part of regional initiatives by IGAD as well as UN-DHA’s International Decade for Natural

Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), Member States have formed national disaster profiles and discussed

strategies for resource mobilization. New approaches to programme development reflect a deeper

understanding by governments and assistance agencies of the need to protect development inputs and to

ultimately strengthen disaster management at local levels.

However, most Member States lack a comprehensive strategy which addresses all disaster threats and all

modes of disaster management. Further, each Member State faces constraints to formulation or

implementation of policies and strategies, such as insufficient skilled personnel, resources, or policy

Table 27: Disaster prevention status - epidemics

Prevention/preparedness measures already underway Prevention/preparedness measures needed

Sentinel surveillance systems; some early warning services Increased effectiveness of surveillance & early warning; increased surveillance in border areas.

Vaccination campaigns. Promotion of vaccinations & other preventative measures

Public education campaigns. Increased circulation of health information within & between countries; training for community health agents; rasing of public awareness.

Health and nutrition projects. Increasing health facilities & no. of trained professionals.

Table 28: Disaster prevention status - livestock diseases

Prevention/preparedness measures already underway Prevention/preparedness measures needed

Some customs control regulations in place. Enhanced regulations and standards for animal imports/exports and standards for animal health

Epidemiological monitoring by national ministries, community & pastoralist groups, FAO EMPRES & PARC.

Enhanced efforts to seek & diagnose disease, identify locations, varieties & characteristics of diseases; improved sharing of information within & between countries; enhanced early warning of livestock movements & disease outbreaks; contingency planning for outbreaks.

Disease prevention & treatment & vaccination campaigns, using participatory approaches.

Strengthening programmes to prevent diseases through appropriate campaigns for vaccinations or other methods; research on disease causes & treatments; exchange of information on patterns of transmission.

Rangeland development & livestock production programmes; herd restocking.

Increased scope & impact of development programmes & services to pastoralists & farmers.

Some training for veterinarians & technicians. Enhanced training to improve qualifications for veterinary services personnel.


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frameworks. Disaster management is often seen in isolation from development activities and the need to

dovetail disaster prevention and preparedness into national plans is still not completely accepted.

Some form of contingency planning process, either permanent or as an ad hoc arrangement, is in place for

immediate response to emergencies by governments in each country. Existing plans and arrangements,

however, may not be disaster specific and problems have been noted in past implementation. Some UN

agencies and NGOs have developed their own contingency plans, which are usually not coordinated with

other such plans.

The experience of Ethiopia in developing and implementing its national policy, the National Policy on

Disaster Prevention and Management (NPDPM), over the past five years should be drawn upon for

lessons learned to benefit the sub-region. Major problems encountered are the need to change attitudes

regarding the importance of incorporating disaster management in general planning exercises, and need

for expanded capacities, especially in the regions which lack infrastructure and technical skills. The

NPDPM also does not fully address hazards such as floods, an important disaster threat in the country.

Supporting policies, legislation and agreements

Requirements for policy, legislation and agreements

To exercise a disaster preparedness strategy, agencies must be supported by an adequate framework of

policies, legislation, agreements. These should include policies with regard to the acceptance and

importation of international assistance, the authority delegated to institutions, the allocation of national

resources for disasters, the objectives and standards for relief distribution, and specific procedures for

implementation of preparedness and response activities with assigned responsibilities.


Enabling policies and legislation do not exist in all countries and where they do, they are often not aligned

with a comprehensive strategy. In some cases, absence of policies and legislation weakens the ability of

responsible agencies to take action to mitigate disasters. Existing legislation may relate to only part of the

needed response, such as participation of the military forces. Even where legislation supports the national

strategy, as in Ethiopia, additional legislation is still required to enforce agency accountability.

Codes of conduct

Food aid code of conduct

The IGAD countries do not have food aid codes of conduct containing agreed-upon measures for

food assistance. Most donor-recipient relationships for food aid are based on mutually agreed terms

and conditions which refer to basic ration reporting, distribution plans, delivery and title

commodities, receipt and handling at delivery points, local purchases, and monetization. For

example, a new food aid policy in Eritrea requires all food aid to be monetized and distributed and

sold through the Eritrean Grain Board. Ethiopia’s goal is to reduce relief food dependency by 50-

100% in selected areas within a five year period. Food aid is distributed gratuitously to

exceptionally vulnerable groups. Disaster victims are primarily self-targeted to attract needy people

and participate in employment generation schemes consisting of “shelf” projects pre-planned to

meet development goals.

Kenya’s policy on food aid includes encouraging use of locally produced foods through

commodity swaps, use of monetized food funds for programmes, creating and enabling

Sub-regional needs for disaster preparedness strategies & contingency planning

Support for development of national strategies and contingency planning processes in order to

promote effective planning for sub-regional actions.


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environment for coordinated management of food aid, targeting vulnerable groups, and assessing

impact on agricultural production.

As global food aid becomes scarce, governments, donors and NGOs are moving toward developing

common terms for importing and utilizing food aid. A food aid code of conduct responds to the

concern over possible negative impacts of food aid on the recipient country’s food production and

markets, and seeks to avoid misutilization or underutilization of food aid in light of the objectives

of food security.

In response to concerns of both donor and Member States regarding decreasing food aid availability

and need for more efficient and appropriate use of food aid, a draft food aid code of conduct,

“Code of Conduct for Food Aid within the Context of Food Security for the IGAD Sub-region”,

was prepared by USAID for the GHA, largely based on the CILSS Food Aid Charter. This draft

charter was revised by experts from IGAD Member States during a “Workshop on IGAD’s Sub-

regional Disaster Preparedness Strategy” in January 1998, and will be further discussed through

consultations with Member States and donors. Ratification of the code of conduct is expected in

September of 1998.

This draft code of conduct seeks to:

define the general objectives of food aid

set out general principles concerning food aid

provide guidelines for local and international responsibilities, assessment of food aid needs,

planning of food aid requirements, and monitoring and evaluation of food aid.

Other codes of conduct

One initiative to establish a policy for international assistance is the “Code of Conduct for

International Rehabilitation and Development Assistance to Somalia”. The Code, developed by the

Somalia Aid Coordination Body (SACB), states the minimum conditions necessary for aid agencies

and international NGOs for continuing rehabilitation and development activities in Somalia. More

generally, humanitarian agencies have been working towards an international code of conduct

relating mainly to global humanitarian assistance. In 1997 the SPHERE Project was launched,

involving western NGOs, the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, donor governments and UN

agencies in developing a set of standards in core areas of humanitarian assistance (food security,

water supply and sanitation, health and nutrition, clothing and shelter) in accordance with a

'humanitarian charter' based on international law.

Sub-regional needs for supporting policies, legislation and agreements

Formulation and formalization of policies, legislation, and agreements to support national and

regional disaster management mechanisms.

Focal institutions for coordination of preparedness and response

Requirements for focal institutions

National focal institutions for disaster management provide mechanisms for coordination of preparedness

and response activities at the sub-regional level, as well as at local levels. Some roles of focal institutions

are: strategic and contingency planning; identification of affected populations and assessment of local

capacity and needs; establishing standards of assistance and services; resource mobilization; and

identification of capacity building and training needs. Where external assistance is required, international

and national agencies need to form partnerships to support sustainable institutional arrangements for

disaster management in each country and at regional levels.


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In most Member States, national institutions have been identified or established as focal points for

disaster management. Where responsibilities have been decentralized and communities and local

committees participate in assessment and targeting, institutional capacities and technical skills at local

levels are usually weak. In most cases, major responsibility for decision making for disaster management

is taken at central levels. In Somalia, UN agencies coordinate relief and recovery activities, mainly

through Nairobi-based agency offices, with few linkages to national institutions.

While progress has been made in forming international-national partnerships, there is still, however,

heavy reliance on international agencies to initiate preparedness and response activities with government

and local agencies, such as relevant ministries, police and military, National Red Cross, and the media.

International programmes are not always well targeted, can be duplicative and often lack capacity

building components. Lack of transparency and clarity regarding international agency and national

objectives have resulted at times in chaotic relationships and waste of agency resources. Problems include

lack of designation of agency responsibilities, relief systems based on administrative targeting, unclear

information policies, and failure to use relief to contribute to development.

Table 29 presents a summary of the status of disaster management planning in the IGAD sub-Region with

respect to disaster preparedness strategies and contingency planning, supporting policies, legislation, and

agreements, and institutional arrangements for coordination.

Early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Requirements for early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Early warning and information systems provide vital support for disaster management interventions. In

the IGAD Sub-region, early warning has enabled successful mitigation of food shortages, primarily

drought-induced. Vulnerability analysis and mapping are also important tools for disaster management,

through assessing the ability of communities to withstand shock to the food supply. These systems are

linked by virtue of the same or overlapping information collection mechanisms and purposes. One of

their major purposes is targeting the vulnerable populations for development and relief assistance.

Early warning and information systems need to be multidisciplinary in nature, linking inputs from such

areas as agricultural statistics, agrometeorology, remote sensing, veterinary science, medicine, market

information, nutritional surveillance and analysis of livelihoods and political developments, with the

purpose of establishing and analysis diverse indicators to:

monitor hazards and the likelihood that they will result in disasters

provide timely warnings to decision-makers when a disaster seems likely

monitor and provide timely information on the emergence of disasters

assess the impacts of disasters - who is affected, where and how - and provide information on the scale

and nature of resulting emergencies

assess the likely needs of disaster-affected populations for relief and short-term rehabilitation

assistance and elicit an appropriate response from assistance-providing agencies

Sub-regional needs for focal institutions for coordination of preparedness & response

Collaboration among all agencies supporting efforts for national and regional institutional

coordination for disaster management.


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Vulnerability analysis helps to determine the susceptibility of specific population groups to disaster

impacts, and their capacity to cope with such impacts and generally includes:

a multisectoral data base including population structures, food habits, off-farm activities, agro-

ecological conditions, carrying capacities, accessibility, history of disasters;

a historical analysis and record of the group’s ability to cope with shocks, and how this might be

changing over time as a result of pressures for livelihood systems to adapt to changing circumstances;

tools for vulnerability analysis and their application for planning alternative interventions in disaster

preparedness programmes.

Sub-regional overview of monitoring systems covering the IGAD sub-region

Early warning and information systems for the IGAD sub-region have been developed predominently for

disasters affecting food security. Main systems are as follows:

Global monitoring of food insecurity

FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and Agriculture (GIEWS) monitors

food supply and demand and food security in all countries on a continuous basis with focus on

countries where food emergencies are likely to occur. Commercial imports and food aid deliveries

are monitored to reveal periods of shortage and donors are advised of opportunities for local or

regional food purchases. The focus is mainly on cereals but coverage of non-cereal staples is

improving. Special Reports and Special Alerts are issued on an as needed basis for countries

threatened by food supply shortfalls and disasters and are the means by which the findings of

GIEWS rapid assessment missions are disseminated. FAO also monitors the plant and animal pest

and disease situation through the Emergency Prevention System (EMPRES) Programme and

outputs are fed directly into GIEWS.

As a follow-up to the World Food Summit, FAO coordinates the elaboration and setting up of a

“Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System (FIVIMS)”, a multi-agency

Table 29: Status of disaster management planning in the IGAD sub-region

Disaster Preparedness Strategy and Contingency Plan

Supporting Policies, Legislation, Agreements

Institutional Arrangements for Coordination

Djibouti National Action Plan — ORSEC — for sudden-onset and does not include drought

Decree NO. 85-028/PRE/INT Ad hoc Interministerial Committees address drought; Crisis Unit implements ORSEC, ONARS assists disaster victims and refugees

Eritrea In process — formulation of plans and appointment of task forces

Planned through proposed UNDP-DHA project

Coordinated through Eritrean Relief and Refugee Committee (ERREC)

Ethiopia National Policy on Disaster Prevention and Management (NPDPM)

Policy ratified, DPPC, interministerial, fund under development

National Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC), Nat. Committee for EW, Crisis Mgmt Groups, Research/ documentation division of DPPC

Kenya

Planning process for drought only

No legislation, Office of the President consolidated fund, vote for funds, harambee (group discussions)

Department of Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation

Somalia No “Code of Conduct for International Rehabilitation and Development Assistance to Somalia”

United Nations Coordination Team (UNCT), UNCT Heads of Agencies Group, UN Coordination Unit (UNCU), Somalia Aid Coordination Body (SACB)

Sudan In process — part of ten year national strategy (‘92-’02)

HAC, Council for Civil Defence, Nat. committee for IDNDR; some funds

40 agencies, 12 sub-committees, Early warning System Steering Committee

Uganda

Planned through proposed UNDP-DHA project

No Uncoordinated Interministerial committee appointed; focal point to be decided for UNDP support for DM


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effort to develop national food security and mapping systems and share information, data and

software. FIVIMS aims at identifying which people are food insecure, how many there are, where

they live and the reasons for their food insecurity. Through FIVIMS, information about food

insecurity will be used at global, national and sub-national levels.

Regional monitoring and regional information systems

IGAD Regional Early Warning and Food Information System

Two years after IGAD was established, FAO assisted the Authority in the field of early warning

and food information through the regional project “IGADD Early Warning and Food Information

System for Food Security” (GCPS/RAF/256/ITA). The objectives of the project were to help

establish or strengthen national early warning systems for food security, and establish a sub-

regional Food Security Information System based at the IGAD Secretariat in Djibouti to coordinate

national, sub-regional, regional and international efforts in this field.

To contribute towards the food security of the IGAD sub-region, the project worked towards

developing fully operational and self-sustained early warning and food information systems

(EWFISs) at both the national and regional levels. The capacity of National Early Warning Units

and the Regional Early Warning Unit to collate, process, analyze and disseminate early warning

data and information was strengthened through the development and elaboration of common

conceptual and methodological frameworks, tools and techniques.

The project focused on capacity building through the provision of formal and on-the-job training,

as well as by providing essential equipment to both Member States and the IGAD Secretariat.

Communications systems were strengthened to improve the flow of information both within

countries and between member states and the IGAD Secretariat. Sophisticated databases with

mapping capabilities were developed at the regional level and disseminated to the IGAD countries.

Methods and tools were developed for the production of early warning newsletters, and food

security-related reports at both the regional and national levels.

Future support requirements to early warning and food security information activities were

identified, and a follow-up project was designed with separate components for each member state,

linked to a regional component. The Regional EWFIS is presently being further strengthened under

the FAO project "Development of a Market Information System Component of the IGAD Regional

food Information System" (GCP/RAF/333/ITA) with the financial assistance of the government of

Italy. The project assists IGAD to establish a fully operational market information system

component in its secretariat in Djibouti, within the overall objective of establishing a fully

operational IGAD Regional Food Information System.

FAO/RCSSMRS Early Warning System Project

Since 1988, the Regional Centre for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing

(RCSSMRS) with financial assistance from Japan through an FAO project (GCP/RAF/230/JPN),

has been preparing and disseminating on monthly basis early warning information based on remote

sensing to users in the IGAD countries. This information has been in the form of bulletins and

digital data derived from the analysis of remote sensing data. In 1996, FAO entrusted the

RCSSMRS to continue with the activity of early warning system (remote sensing component)

through a new project financed by the French government. The overall objective of this project is to

develop the use of environmental satellite data from locally received NOAA HRPT and Meteosat

PDUS to support early warning and environmental applications in the IGAD sub-regions.

National monitoring

At the national level, food security information activities are mostly coordinated by an early

warning and/or food information units, located either in the Ministry of Agriculture (Djibouti,

Eritrea, Kenya and Uganda) or in the commission for disaster management (Ethiopia - DPPC,

Sudan - HAC). The national early warning systems vary in their agency linkages, specific


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objectives and types of information collected but in general they cover food production aspects of

food security (crop monitoring and forecasting) and publish regular bulletins giving alerts on

potential food shortages. In many countries, the operation of the system is not linked to a

comprehensive disaster or drought preparedness policy or national contingency plan.

Despite efforts at regional level, the development of comprehensive and effective national EWFIS

is still limited.

Eritrea has established its own integrated system in 1993. The development of a reliable national

food information system (NFIS) has been seen by the Government as a prerequisite to effective

planning of food imports and relief operations since the independence of the country. Furthermore,

in addition to targeting beneficiaries of relief, other aspects of food security were thought essential

to decision makers, including regular crop forecasts, cross border flow of people, food and

livestock, grazing conditions and herds sizes, prices of food and livestock, and other major

determinants and indicators of the food security status of vulnerable groups. It was on the basis of

these requirements that the NFIS was conceived. The NFIS is currently being strengthened under

the FAO project GCPS/ERI/002/ITA.

In Ethiopia, food information systems are quite extensive but are largely operated by donors, and

planned expansion of the national EWFIS is not yet fully funded. The strategy for expansion

envisages the development and refinement of indicators identified for the current surveillance

programme on agro-metrology, crop, livestock and market and adds a new dimension in the area of

food security. Early warning committees or focal points have been set up nation-wide. A multi-

agency conference was held in June 1997 to establish common understandings of key concepts in

vulnerability analysis.

In Kenya, there is no proper integrated EWFIS. There is, nevertheless, an early warning system,

focusing strictly on agronomic information. There is a community-based early warning system in

place in 10 arid districts through the Arid-Land Resources Management Project in the Office of the

President. Hence, current activities are limited only to the provision of information on crop

production. A National Disaster Operation Centre (NDOC), a Department of Development Co-

ordination, in the Office of the president is established. A process has been initiated to develop a

disaster management policy framework document and put in place appropriate legislation under the

co-ordination of the CDOC.

In Somalia, in the absence of government authority, the Food Security Advisory Unit (FSAU) the

EWFIS was established by WFP with financial support from the EC with the overall objective

during its initial phase to provide information to operating agencies and donors on current and

projected food security issues in Somalia and early warning of potential crises. The EWFIS is still

operated by WFP in Nairobi. In addition, the FSAU will receive in 1998 the technical support

from FAO under its Technical co-operation Programme in specific fields of EWFI.

In Sudan, the EWFIS has been operational for over five years. It produces regular bulletins and

reports, focusing mainly on agricultural production monitoring and forecast.

In Uganda, the national EWFIS was set up in 1991, following the establishment of the unit. As in

Kenya, the system focuses mainly on crop forecasting and livestock.

In Djibouti, there is no EWFIS activity.

EWFIS constraints and issues

In some countries, there is no EWFIS. In others, the development of EWFIS is still embryonic, with

the coverage, frequency and quality of information produced being still insufficient to constitute

proper tools for disaster management at national as well as regional levels.

There are limited capacities at the national level to set-up and manage EWFIS due to weak

institutional structures. EWFISs are rarely linked effectively to decision-making for disaster


37

management due to the lack of disaster management policies and mechanisms and institutional

linkages.

Users of the EWFIS information are mainly assistance agencies. This reduces the potential use of

EWFISs for prevention and preparedness interventions. The information is accessible to potential

victims of disaster only to a very limited extent.

The presentation of EWFIS information is often not sufficiently analytical to be useful as a basis

for response action, and such action is rarely advocated in EWFIS outputs. Where it is, agencies -

donors especially - may not respond until faced with a more compelling case for action, often in the

form of media coverage which may or may not be accurate.

Sharing of information is improving within the IGAD sub-region but many agencies cite the need

for increased collaboration to share and disseminate findings. For example, in addition to IGAD,

Ethiopia shares limited information with only Sudan and Eritrea. Other countries, such as Sudan,

communicate mainly with IGAD. As agencies develop capacities to communicate via electronic

mail (IGAD has recently installed e-mail) information sharing should increase dramatically.

The IGAD sub-regional disaster profile indicates vulnerability to a number of disasters. Early

warning systems are geared to process information relating to food security and as such cover a

wide range of variables. EWFISs are particularly good at predicting drought conditions. However,

expansion to other areas would support a more comprehensive approach to disaster management.

While floods, storms and tropical cyclones are expected seasonal events, monitoring is not always

sufficient to provide warnings and prevent disasters and in some cases, other tools for preparedness

such as hazard mapping may not be available. Earthquakes are a serious threat to several countries

and monitoring systems require support. More extensive use of data on environmental degradation

might provide tools for land use planning to prevent disasters arising from deforestation and

desertification.

Development of early warning and information systems covering conflict has barely begun. The

feasibility of establishing systems for systematic monitoring and analysis of factors likely to fuel

social tensions, the form of expression of such tensions, the prospects of escalation into violence,

its impacts on different social groups and the course that conflict is likely to take needs to be

researched and tested. Skills are required which are not those currently used in EWFISs, and the

development of such skills amongst national staff is likely to be politically sensitive. State-

operated systems would in any case be compromised in conflicts involving the state itself, and the

most likely alternative seems to be a system run under UN auspices with multi-agency

collaboration, and a special role for regional bodies such as IGAD.

A growing concern is the gaps in information and coverage of border areas where borders may

constitute boundaries for data collection. Coverage of these areas is critical for Somalia and other

pastoralist zones where the distribution of assistance can influence pastoral migrations and

predictions of drought may prompt movements to border areas. Border zones between IGAD

countries are often the most underdeveloped, generate refugees, are ecologically fragile, food

insecure, and often the centre of conflict. The danger of a larger humanitarian crisis in Somalia,

would have serious implications for neighbouring countries. In the absence of a central government

in Somalia, there is a potential for significantly greater roles in the Somali EWFIS by IGAD.

Vulnerability analysis and mapping

Results of vulnerability studies have a broad range of users for relief and development and the need

to undertake vulnerability studies falls within the mandate of various institutions. Within the IGAD

countries, these may or may not be connected to national strategies and policies. In any case,

agency findings are rarely pieced together to form a regional picture of vulnerability. Some of the

data analysis programmes include the following.


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IGAD’s databases

The Crop Production System Zones (CPSZ) database contains many useful datasets relevant to

vulnerability analysis on national and regional levels and the level of detail of data on the maps

uses relatively small geographic units with accompanying data tables and graphic profiles. Other

agencies have expressed interest in sharing data, and in data development activities. The CPSZ has

its own software and its overall usefulness may depend on the extent of distribution and

compatibility with other programmes. The IGAD Environmental Information Systems (EIS) aims

to improve collection and analysis of environmental data required for environmental strategic

planning.

WFP Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping Project (VAM)

This provides support to WFP country offices for:

analyzing the vulnerability of target populations to food insecurity and their capacity for coping

with disaster;

presenting the analysis with digital maps.

To do so, WFP sets up VAM units. In the IGAD region, only Ethiopia has such a unit.

USAID Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) Vulnerability Assessments (VA)

The FEWS VAs cover a wide variety of national information sources and compiles them into

readable formats and maps, with a regional focus covering the GHA. WFP and FEWS work

together in many countries as their approaches are similar, as in Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda. In

most cases the VAMs and VAs are not intended to target food aid but to identify areas for further

investigation.

The VAs are being made more “actionable” by FEWS/Southern Africa, which is working with

national Early Warning Units in conjunction with the SADC Regional Early Warning Unit. The

exercise is extremely participatory, also involving WFP and larger groups. An approach called

Income Accounting/Risk determines where a community level investigation is needed, and the

theoretical food insufficiency to be used for planning of response. For the vulnerability/risk

assessment, the product indicates the factors to be addressed in long-term development actions.

National VAs would be used as an input for a regional VA. A draft manual is available for carrying

out these assessments.


39

The SCF/UK Risk Mapping Programme

This is a knowledge-based approach in contrast to the more empirical indicator-based approach,

which may be an attempt to work from an outcome to a cause based on assumptions. The

programme bases its geographic unit of analysis on “food economy regions” instead of traditional

administrative units. In Ethiopia, a risk mapping project implemented by SCF/UK began in

response to FAO GIEWS’ need for a methodology to introduce economic and social information

into the calculation of local food deficits. The programme has undertaken recent household food

economy analyses in Kebri Beyah Refugee Camp and in Wello region.

Other information collection programmes

Other information collection programmes include that of UNICEF which identifies groups, mainly

women and children, predisposed to vulnerability. Many other agencies are participating in efforts

or have developed their own programmes including CARE, CRS and CIDA.

Table 30: Information systems - country status

IGAD Regional EWFIS

National EWFIS GIEWS WFP/VAM FEWS VA SCF/UK VA Others

Djibouti EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Requests support: bridging proposal prepared

Annual Food supply assessment with WFP

Eritrea EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Funded through 1998

Annual food supply assessment with WFP

Ethiopia EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Expanded programme not fully funded


VAM Unit Vulnerability assessment/map

VA on entire country; Riskmap project

UNICEF: vulnerable group identification

Kenya EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Requires support Annual food supply assessment with WFP

Vulnerability assessment/map

VA on a large part of the country

Arid Lands Resource Management Project-monitors 10 arid districts

Somalia EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Bridging proposal prepared


Significant VA information

Sudan EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Requests support and technical assistance


VA covers a large part of the country

Uganda EWFIS: marketing/ agronomic, CPSZ, EIS

Needs clarification for continuation


Vulnerability assessment/map

VA for half of the country


40

The status of information systems in IGAD Member States is summarized in Table 30.

Public education and training

Requirements for public education and training

An essential part of disaster preparedness is the education of people who are threatened by disaster. They

must know what to expect and what to do. Public education may take place for children and young adults

in schools through standardized curricula. Special training courses, workshops or extension programmes

should be designed to reach adults. Messages disseminated through television, radio and the printed

media can be effective but are not as useful as direct instruction. Media is important for issuing

instructions for evacuation or other precautionary measures.

Training is vital for those who will implement any element of the disaster preparedness and response

plans. To enhance sustainability of programmes, skills and technical capacities should be developed

through formal training, exchange of expertise, and sharing and dissemination of research results.

Institutions, agencies, and community groups providing education, training or conducting research require

national and regional support.


The mode of disaster management in the IGAD Sub-region is changing from ad hoc response and reliance

on traditional systems to recognition of a situation of increasing vulnerability where risk must be carefully

managed. The creation of the needed “culture of disaster management”, where people are knowledgeable

about the risks they face and the resources available to them, requires comprehensive regional and

national goals. In particular, the most vulnerable groups, farm and pastoralists families, may live in areas

where serious efforts are required to reach them with information.

Emergency or hazard warnings

Early warning systems are able to predict floods, storms and drought to allow warnings of possible

impending disaster to be issued. The use, extent and effectiveness of systems for warning the

public particularly for sudden onset disasters such as floods, severe storms, epidemics, livestock

diseases or pest infestations is also not clear for all countries.

Public awareness

All IGAD countries sponsor some forms of public awareness programmes for disaster management.

However, the effectiveness of these programmes has not been evaluated in most cases. Materials

are often lacking in languages spoken at sub-national levels. In Djibouti programmes regarding

water usage and possible impending floods are carried out through the media. In Eritrea, the

Sub-regional needs for early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Support for a comprehensive and integrated regional disaster information system, with

capacities to cover all major hazards and disaster types

Support to the establishment and/or strengthening of national EWFISs and other disaster

information systems through search for funding, training, and development of methodologies by

the regional system

Improved communications and alternative systems for government networks at national and

sub-regional levels

A data base that supports analysis of the likely impacts of potential disasters and exchange of

information between Member States in order to determine the planning required

Appropriate indicators and methods of assessing vulnerability.


41

government mobilizes public support for disaster prevention and preparedness through service

programmes for high school students, adult education radio programmes, disaster reduction

activities, and Eritrea Green Week.

As one of the most disaster prone countries, Ethiopia has been the scene of many awareness

activities. However, many of these lacked coordination and collaboration with local communities,

were not based on needs assessments, were not decentralized and risk specific, and were not

followed up with evaluations. As part of the national policy, Ethiopia has now embarked on a

newly designed disaster management training programme to train 34,000 government staff and

community members. In Somalia, community groups have assumed responsibility for issuing

warnings but public awareness and training activities have been disrupted. In Sudan, increasing

public awareness is identified as a serious need. In Uganda, information is disseminated through

bulletins, agricultural extension services, workshops, associations, and the media, however, these

are not completely adequate or effective.

Professional training

Professionals from all of the IGAD countries have benefited from training by international

agencies, particularly by UN-DHA DMTP, IDNDR, UNHCR, other UN agencies, IGAD, and many

events sponsored by NGOs. All countries have deemed these efforts to be useful, but a major

criticism of training events is that they are rarely connected to or followed up with funds for

improvement of the working environment or project implementation, thus reducing their overall

effectiveness. National training has been implemented to some degree through the national

agencies responsible for disaster management.

Institutional memory for disaster management

An understanding of the history of disasters in the sub-region, including occurrences and

effectiveness of response, is important as a basis for a disaster management strategy. Response

measures taken in the past twenty years, including major relief operations, have been generally

documented, mainly by international assistance agencies. Disasters in the IGAD sub-region have

been the focus of many research studies and have contributed significantly to the understanding of

hazards and vulnerability. However, the approach has not always been illustrative of “lessons

learned” which could be transferred to empower national institutions.

International systems of response led by UN agencies and NGOs have improved exponentially and

international experience has been shared effectively within those organizations. National systems,

however, lag behind. National professionals have gained valuable experience in emergency

operations, but their institutions suffer from insufficient resources or political support to promote

their professional goals. The legacy is further hampered by changes in national organizational

structures, changes in staffing, and understaffing. While increasing in number, regional training

workshops and forums where experiences can be shared fall short of the needs for national and

professional and institutional development.

Sub-regional needs for public education and training

Strengthened education and information dissemination regarding the slow and sudden onset

emergencies at the national level.

Collaboration between national, other regional and international agencies which promote or

sponsor training, including supporting possible establishment of a Sub-regional Disaster

Management Training Centre

Training packages which provide follow-up funds

Specialized staff training in disaster management-related technical and sectoral issues.


42

Response interventions

Impact and needs assessment

Requirements for impact and needs assessment

An immediate needs assessment should establish the locations of the affected populations, review the

conditions of the various categories of people, identify groups at risk, define and prioritize actions and

resources needed to reduce immediate risks, identify local response capacity, including organizational,

medical and logistic resources, in order to anticipate future serious problems and to help manage and

control the immediate response.

In food or agriculture emergencies, the types of assessments conducted are:

assessment of the impact of the disaster on national food supply and demand and on the food security

and nutritional situation of affected groups, and of needs for international food assistance to alleviate

the problem;

assessment of the impact of the disaster on the capacity for agricultural production in the affected area

and of needs for agricultural relief to enable production to resume quickly, and for longer term

rehabilitation and reconstruction measures.


Assessments of emergency needs are usually undertaken by more than one agency. National agencies,

UN agencies and NGOs often undertake their own assessments and controversies may erupt over differing

results. This may cause delays and impede assistance activities as agencies try to decide what their own

appeals for funding should consider. Multi-agency team approaches are now more widely used as well as

inclusion of the affected populations in the assessment procedure. For food and agriculture emergencies,

FAO conducts rapid assessment missions in coordination with government and other agencies. These

may include crop and food supply assessment missions, agricultural relief requirement assessment

missions or participation in UN-OCHA interagency missions.

Resource mobilization

Requirements for resource mobilization

Preparedness requires that the materials, inputs and methods of delivery of assistance for responding to

disasters, and especially those required on an emergency or short-term basis, are available or can be

acquired quickly enough to be effective. National, regional and international agencies need to act

immediately to ensure that resources can be found and made available to meet the needs in an emergency,

and the actions of these agencies should be as coordinated as possible. The results of impact and needs

assessments should be quickly disseminated to mobilize national and international resources, including

the release of pre-positioned funds, food and non-food items. Appeals for assistance should be

rationalized and harmonized and a coordinated appeal is often a requirement of donors. Mechanisms

should be in place to allow some funds to be made available immediately to allow response efforts to be

timely and to cover unanticipated needs. Resources should also be requested and allocated for

rehabilitation. Logistical and communications infrastructure, including internal transport, storage and

handling facilities, must be adequate to ensure that relief and rehabilitation supplies are available when

and where they are needed.


In some of the IGAD countries, decentralization has permitted disasters to be declared on local levels,

with resultant appeals to the central governments. Declarations and appeals from central government to

donors are usually made in collaboration with international assistance agencies. Resources may be scarce

and are not usually sufficient to cover all needs. In cases where an emergency affects more than one

Member State, a regional appeal for assistance may be more effective. Two issues related to resource


43

mobilization are the pre-positioning of relief resources and logistics and communications capabilities for

transporting and handling them.

Pre-positioning of relief resources

In the IGAD sub-region acquiring and moving surplus commodities is difficult at best and

particularly at the onset of an emergency. Some assistance agencies have established programmes

to preposition food and other supplies, such as medicines, seeds and tools, for more rapid response

and to circumvent possible logistical bottlenecks during emergencies, and to set up disaster funds

for use during emergencies.

Food security reserves (FSRs)

Emergency food distribution mechanisms depend on the country’s food aid policy and, in

particular, on the existence of FSRs for emergencies. The need for the FSR is based on:

the lead time required for imports and limits to market capacity to respond to disasters

inadequate capacity of ports to handle huge emergency shipments

need to preposition resources for vulnerable areas which are remote and inaccessible during the

rainy season.

Only Eritrea and Ethiopia have national food security reserves, while Kenya and Sudan have

storage policies for food reserves, and reserves are maintained by donor agencies such as WFP in

some countries. In Uganda, WFP plans to establish a regional food reserve for WFP programmes.

The FSR, while posing a solution to need for emergency food stocks, can be controversial because

in the IGAD Sub-region nearly total donor support is often required to fund the establishment and

replenishment of the reserve. Lack of comprehensive strategies and plans for food security and food

use on which to base management of reserves is another constraint. However, food security

reserves in Eritrea and Ethiopia are generally operating well and meeting requirements of donors

and national programmes.

As the majority of people in Djibouti reside in the capital city, food reserves have not been

established.

In Eritrea, a reserve is being developed under the Eritrean Grain Board (EGB). The constraints

facing the EGB are limited storage and warehousing facilities, lack of skilled manpower, limited

financial resources, and insufficient communication and office facilities.

Ethiopia had tried to establish an FSR since 1974 but met with limited success until 1992 due to

disagreements between donors and government as to the management, size and location of the

reserve. The reserve now contains more than 100,000 MT in five locations and is administered by a

multi-agency technical committee.

In Kenya, a food storage policy encourages the private sector to expand bulk storage facilities and

for continuation of an on-farm storage development programme for farmers. A strategic reserve is

kept for emergencies of about 3,000 MT but this is only adequate for three months.

In Somalia, there is no FSR and due to insecurity, in-country stock levels of assistance agencies are

kept relatively low. In Sudan, grain reserves are kept at the State level. In Uganda, silos at

strategic locations in the country were constructed to ease grain marketing and distribution,

including food exports but are under-utilised.

Disaster funds

Funding for disaster management may be obtained at the national level through allocations and

votes by central governing bodies and come from general funds, special funds, or through special

taxes. In general, international funds are required to supplement national funds in order to meet

assistance requirements. Funding, however, is rarely obtained for all of the requested inputs or may

arrive too late to be effective. Disaster reserve funds may offer a more functional solution to need


44

for immediate resources as well as more flexibility for use. Ethiopia is planning the establishment

and maintenance of a national relief fund. International assistance agencies may have mechanisms

to release some immediate emergency disaster funds. IGAD’s mandate includes the establishment

of a sub-regional disaster fund, but this has yet to be achieved.

Logistics and communications

Improvement in infrastructure required for response remains an urgent and continuous need.

Experience in moving relief supplies has provided agencies with experience in dealing with

bottlenecks and reaching remote areas. Some of the transport vehicles and infrastructure remains

from past operations. In 1995, USAID/REDSO compiled a comprehensive study of needs related to

the logistics systems in the GHA.

Targeting, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of relief and rehabilitation

assistance

Sub-regional requirements for relief and rehabilitation assistance

Relief normally includes search, rescue & evacuation, provision of food, water, health care and sanitation,

temporary shelter and security. Provision of these essentials needs to be appropriate in terms of type,

timing, location, method of provision and duration to save lives and where possible livelihoods of those

most affected by disasters. All these aspects of relief must be considered in the light of the nature of the

disaster, its causes, impacts and likely trajectory, and of the availability of relief resources and the time

taken to mobilize them.

Relief programmes need to be formulated with a view to overall rehabilitation requirements, and

rehabilitation should be designed to build on the achievements of emergency relief. In some emergency

situations, particularly complex emergencies, there may be a constant back and forth movement and

juxtaposition of 'relief' and 'rehabilitation' modes of response, and many activities may be designed to

serve both of these goals simultaneously. The timing of these interventions must be determined in the

light of political stability, institutional capacities, and the scale and nature of the interventions required.

The objectives of rehabilitation assistance are to help move from a need for emergency relief to

sustainable development of livelihoods, food security and peace. This requires restoring - or improving

on - the status quo ante with respect to production systems and related infrastructure, institutions and

services affected by disaster. It is also necessary to establish a coherent strategy and policy framework

and to identify priority programmes and projects for medium to long term growth and development. This

may necessitate a wide range of interventions. The interventions are more likely to succeed if they

involve a high degree of participation based on existing community structures and systems of authority.

The types of relief and rehabilitation assistance likely to be needed in response to disasters in the IGAD

sub-region are listed in Table 31.

Sub-regional needs for improving preparedness for impact and needs assessment and resource

mobilization

Consideration of assessments from different sources, promotion of multi-agency approaches to

assessment, and inclusion of affected populations in these procedures.

Coordination for efficient resource mobilization and appeals for assistance.

Establishment of pre-positioned supplies, food security reserves or disaster funds.

Improvements in logistical infrastructure to facilitate delivery of relief supplies and enhance

communications.


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Effective targeting systems are necessary to ensure that in the wake of a disaster relief and rehabilitation

assistance:

reaches those who need it most, in the form needed and in a timely fashion;

is not provided wastefully to those who do not need it;

does not have negative effects on livelihoods, for example through interference in markets.

Aside from the combination of materials and services to be provided in relief and rehabilitation

programmes, consideration needs to be given to the design of programmes and projects to implement the

assistance. For example, response mechanisms for disasters involving acute loss of access to food staples

involve the triggering of food distribution systems. A range of options for emergency assistance is

available including:

emergency free distribution of food staples

other food and non-food transfers including:

simple cash transfers

coupon systems

consumption credits (food or cash loans)

emergency employment schemes.

The latter types of assistance may have considerable advantages in terms of timely provision, minimising

interference in food markets, and targeting. Employment schemes, for example, are usually regarded as

‘self-targeting’, though there are often particular problems of access for labour-scarce households.

However, their planning and management requirements are exacting and normally require action to have

been taken in advance of the disaster. Thus advance formulation of ‘off-the-shelf’ employment projects

Table 31: Typical assistance needs for different types of disaster

Disaster type Typical needs for relief and rehabilitation assistance

Loss of access to food

Importation of food and equipment to implement relief programmes; food assistance schemes including food subsidies, emergency food distribution, supplementary feeding programmes, food-for-work & cash-for-work programmes, food coupon schemes, consumption credits etc; emergency agricultural rehabilitation.

Loss of income and productive assets

Assistance quickly to re-establish livelihoods including livestock vaccination & treatment campaigns, herd restocking and other special programmes for pastoralists; establishment of alternative livelihoods; emergency agricultural rehabilitation through distribution of seeds, tools and other inputs; repair/reconstruction assistance for productive installations, communications and infrastructure; land reclamation and reforestation projects; cash-for-work programmes; cleanup of pollutants; resettlement programmes; employment generation & economic recovery measures.

Loss of shelter & homesteads

Search and rescue (boats, helicopters); temporary shelter; repair and reconstruction; provision of alternative fuels and construction materials; cleanup of pollutants; resettlement programmes; planning services and housing programmes.

Loss of personal security & mobility, abuse of human rights

Search & rescue; military assistance; conflict mitigation & resolution services; negotiations for access to affected populations; law & order enforcement; human rights monitoring & advocacy; assistance for re-uniting families; demining operations; removal of live ammunition; facilities for refugees and the displaced; demobilization, disarmament, resettlement & ‘peacebuilding’ programmes; constitutional & legal services.

Loss of access to adequate & safe water & sanitation

Emergency water & sanitation provision; well digging & borehole drilling; water purification; longer-term water supply & sanitation programmes.

Health crises Disease surveillance, diagnosis & reporting system; identification & elimination of disease sources; isolation & treatment of cases; hospital referral facilities; immunization & health education campaigns.

Loss of institutions, services, & ‘social capital’

Institutional rehabilitation & ‘capacity-building’ programmes; constitutional & legal services; sectoral assistance & training programmes in public administration & governance, health, education, agriculture, law & order, etc.

Injury and loss of life

Search, resue and evacuation facilities; on-site emergency medical assistance & stabilization treatment; hospital referral facilities; rehabilitation facilities for the disabled; mortuary facitities.


46

involving public works activities (eg. soil conservation works, afforestation, or construction of roads,

dams or wells) enables such projects to be quickly made operational when needed. Formulation needs to

include provision for effective management of projects, with the necessary participatory elements built in.

Finally, the effectiveness of disaster response can be judged, and the conclusions used to improve future

response, only if an adequate system is in place for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of interventions.

M&E systems need to be capable not only of monitoring the delivery and receipt of assistance and the

ongoing needs of affected populations, but of collecting, analysing and documenting information to

enable conclusions to be drawn about the effectiveness of preventive measures, vulnerability analyses,

early warning systems, impact and needs assessment, resource mobilization, targeting, relief and

rehabilitation project design and implementation, and the linkages between these processes. Conclusions

should shed light on such questions as:

Could the disaster have been prevented, and if so how?

Once the disaster occurred, could the resulting emergency have been made less serious? How?

How far have affected populations recovered from the disaster? Is the recovery sustainable? How

could assistance have speeded up this process and made it more sustainable?

In what ways do answers to these questions constitute “lessons” that can be applied in other current or

future disasters?

For the exercise to be effective, participation of affected populations and proper consideration of gender

dimensions in M&E are both essential.

Sub regional overview

Relief

During the last 25 years the effectiveness of relief efforts in response to emergencies in the IGAD

sub-region has undoubtably improved, partly due to improved early warning systems and

vulnerability analysis, increasing willingness of agencies to work in situations of insecurity, better

coordination between agencies, improved targeting and project design, and more timely relief

operations. Thus the heavy loss of life resulting from drought and conflict interactions during the

mid-1970s and again in the mid-1980s has been more effectively curbed during more recent

drought and conflict episodes.

However, disasters and emergencies continue to devastate lives and livelihoods in several parts of

the sub-region as already noted, and there is little room for complacancy. Provision of

humanitarian assistance in conflict situations presents particular difficulties which are far from

being resolved, resources for relief operations have become scarce, and the ideal of a smooth

transition from relief to rehabilitation and recovery remains largely unattained.

The role of food aid in disasters in the IGAD sub-region

In the IGAD sub-region food aid plays an important role as a resource complementary to domestic

resources in enhancing the lives of the chronically undernourished as well as saving lives in

emergencies. Food aid is used in a variety of ways to provide relief food and transfer of revenue in

disaster affected areas, in assisting to establish or replenish food security reserves, and in public

works programmes, including food for work, to provide food and employment simultaneously.

Four global trends, reflected in the IGAD sub-region, are noted in food aid. These trends highlight

the need to target and manage food aid efficiently, to coordinate management and supply of food

aid and to reduce needs for relief food aid allowing more food and other resources to be allocated

through project and programme channels for development.

Table 32 indicates the importance of relief food aid in the total food aid delivered in the past 10

years in the IGAD Sub-region. The declining trend of food aid in the sub-region, in particular

relief food aid, is parallel to global reduction in food aid availability. The reduction of relief


47

food aid also coincides with the end of the effects of drought and major conflicts, and reductions

in numbers of displaced persons.

While there has been strong arguments to concentrate food aid on least developed and low-

income food deficit countries (LIFD) such as Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Kenya, statistics show that

countries receiving the largest volumes of food aid are not necessarily the most needy. In

1995/96, food aid was expected to account for only 8% of the import requirements of LIFD

countries, compared to 20% in the mid-80s. Food aid for countries which need it most is

declining when they need it most.

Food aid is no longer a surplus commodity supplied by a few donors but comes rather from a

diverse range of donors and more is now handled through multilateral institutions and NGOs.

There is a shift towards emergency-related interventions and there is more demand for

emergency food aid, most of which has come at the expense of programme food aid.21

Rehabilitation assistance

Rehabilitation has received less attention than relief in the IGAD sub-region and resources for

rehabilitation have been largely inadequate. Donors lose support and interest from their home

populations as emergencies wane, or resources are diverted to other emergencies worldwide.

Recovery from disasters is thus often incomplete, particularly in the face of total losses of personal

assets as occurred in complex emergencies in large areas of the sub-region.

FAO has placed emphasis on “agricultural relief”, referring to short-term agricultural rehabilitation

assistance provided on an emergency basis. Agricultural inputs such as seeds and tools are

provided to enable affected populations to resume basic production activities quickly, where

possible in time for the next agricultural season. Agricultural relief is aimed at rapidly reducing

dependence on emergency food assistance, and providing a basis for longer-term rehabilitation.

This type of intervention is then supplemented once the situation permits, by comprehensive food

and agricultural rehabilitation programmes.

The rehabilitation of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) is particularly problematic as

they may be unable to return to their homes or resettle in the host country for political reasons or

21 FAO, Report on International Food Aid, 1995.

Table 32: Food Aid by Category in the IGAD Sub-region (total food aid imports and local purchases

for all donors by calendar year in MT)

Year Relief* Project ** Programme*** Total

1988 1,217,311 171,535 844,735 2,233,581

1989 641,896 175,475 237,412 1,054,783

1990 1,177,753 141,442 82,218 1,401,413

1991 1,566,168 142,693 69,469 1,778,330

1992 2,175,370 133,799 112,504 2,421,672

1993 1,241,206 267,269 87,566 1,596,041

1994 1,550,595 334,656 133,315 2,018,566

1995 634,004 258,841 143,301 1,036,146

1996 479,486 241,615 49,940 771,041

1997 555,152 206,239 123,740 885,131

% 74% 13.5% 12.5% 100%

* Relief food aid: targeted and freely distributed to victims of natural or man-made disasters; distributed by governments often in collaboration with NGOs and civil agencies.

** Project food aid: provided to targeted beneficiary groups to support specific development objectives; supplied on a grant basis; use is determined by donors in partnership with government.

*** Programme (or non-project) food aid: usually supplied as a transfer of resources to meet balance of payments and budget support objectives; provided as a grant or a loan on a bilateral basis; not usually targeted at specific groups but sold on the market of the recipient country and controlled by recipient government.

Source: WFP Food Aid Statistics Unit, November 1997


48

because of insecurity. Among the refugees and IDPs are many “transnational” populations for

whom transit of border areas is a normal activity and necessary for survival. The enormous

financial costs of maintaining this population, in addition to the societal costs, should be included

in justifications for planning disaster mitigation and conflict resolution programmes. In Somalia,

returnees often require total relief assistance due to scarcity of jobs and resources. Detailed plans

for rehabilitation of agricultural and other sectors in Somalia have been developed by FAO and

UNDP, but due to continued insecurity implementation has been constrained.

Through years of experience and research, national and international assistance agencies, have

developed a more holistic view of the needs of refugees, returnees and IDPs. Some of the

mechanisms and institutional approaches to delivery of assistance, such as gender sensitivity,

people oriented planning, human rights protection, stress alleviation, education and training, and

provision of resettlement packages have helped many persons in desperate situations to survive and

recover.

Targeting assistance

In most of the Member States, targeting relief and development assistance based on figures

produced by the early warning and vulnerability analysis systems remains problematic. For

example, Ethiopia collects perhaps the most information related to food security. However, there is

often no way to distinguish vulnerable from non-vulnerable households or individuals from this

data, let alone those actually affected most by disaster impacts. Thus targeting tends to be done

administratively or is based on imprecise parameters such as number of oxen owned, thin physical

appearance, pregnant or lactating mothers, under-fives and the elderly, rather than upon detailed

vulnerability or impact analysis. A study of food insecurity and food aid distribution in Ethiopia

showed an absence of association between food insecure households and food aid receipts during

1995-96 due to targeting errors.22

Targeting is constrained by lack of agreed upon parameters for assistance among assistance

providers and differentiation of targeting mechanisms according to programme type. Vulnerability

mapping, as a tool for targeting, is limited by lack of information on indicators and deliberations

over the utility of different indicators. A number of assistance agencies are collecting information

using their own guidelines and the degree to which these efforts are coordinated is not always clear.

Experience suggests that targeting systems are most efficient where they maximise the participation

of local community representatives and are gender-sensitive.

Design of projects for implementation of assistance

Projects for implementing relief and rehabilitation assistance in the wake of disasters tend to follow

more-or-less standardized designs which have been developed by agencies in response to disaster

impacts of different kinds. However, the effectiveness of the assistance provided is often reduced

on account of poorly formulated or managed projects or the use of altogether inappropriate project

designs. Apart from inadequate vulnerability analysis or targeting or weaknesses in inter-agency

coordination and control, such inadequacies may stem from a lack of time and expertise, in the

immediate wake of a disaster, for the formulation of projects which match local needs and

circumstances and the setting up of appropriate management systems for their implementation.

In general, more work is required in strengthening project design for disaster assistance in the

IGAD sub-region, including identification of conditions under which different kinds of food and

non-food transfers are appropriate, and for whom. Advance formulation of ‘off-the-shelf’ projects

and other mechanisms for improving the delivery of assistance, with the participation of local

government and community structures, has the potential to provide a valuable contribution to

disaster preparedness at different levels.

22 Clay, Haptewold, and Molla, Food Aid Targeting in Ethiopia: A Study of Food Insecurity and Food Aid Distributions, 1997,

p17.


49

Monitoring & evaluation of response

Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) is normally built into programme designs to some extent. In the

past it was seen mainly as a requirement of assistance agencies in reporting use of inputs to donors.

Failure to consider the broader effects of relief assistance on the affected population has resulted in

weakened response and lost resources. M&E is increasingly seen in the broader sense of relief,

rehabilitation and development, and now tends to be given a higher priority. Considerable

resources have been allocated for M&E in relation to some recent emergencies, that of Rwanda in

1994-96 for example23

. However, more systematic incorporation of M&E into relief and

rehabilitation operations is required, and more sharing and collaboration between agencies in

seeking to apply the results of M&E in developing and observing principles for more effective

operations, especially in complex emergencies. Given the specificity of disaster contexts in the

IGAD sub-region and the various ways in which these are interconnected, much could be gained

from investment in a sub-regional capacity for promotion of M&E in disaster response and its use

in “learning lessons” for future application within the sub-region.

23 The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience, Joint Evaluation of Emergency

Assistance to Rwanda, March 1996. See also The Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda: A Review of

Follow-Up and Impact Fifteen Months After Publication, Joint Evaluation Follow-Up Monitoring and Facilitatio Network,

12 June 1997

Sub-regional needs for improving preparedness for targeting, implementation and monitoring and

evaluation of assistance

Refinement of approaches and methods for targeting assistance

Improving the design of projects for implementation of relief and rehabilitation assistance

Improving the monitoring and evaluation of relief and rehabilitation assistance


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A FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION

This section sets out a framework for action on disaster preparedness which will contribute to meeting

sub-regional needs identified in the foregoing Sub-regional Disaster Management Overview. In line with

the major preparedness and response areas addressed in the Overview, seven major strategic areas have

been identified as follows:

Development of disaster preparedness strategies and the contingency planning process

Elaboration of supporting policies, legislation and agreements for disaster management

Improvement of sub-regional collaboration for preparedness and response

Strengthening of early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Development of education and training for disaster mitigation

Improving preparedness for impact and needs assessment and resource mobilization

Improving preparedness for targeting, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of relief and

rehabilitation assistance

An outline of an action programme is presented below under each of these strategic areas. This is

followed by a series of project ideas for implementation of such a programme within each area.

Outline of an action programme to implement the disaster preparedness

strategy

Disaster preparedness strategies and the contingency planning process

Support will be provided for the consolidation and further development of national disaster preparedness

strategies and contingency planning processes which:

set out goals and objectives for preparedness and response activities, addressing all disaster threats and

all modes of disaster management;

overcome constraints to formulation or implementation of policies and strategies for disaster

management;

define the roles of key agencies in vital functions, assessing their response capacities, and promoting

improvements and activities to minimize the impact of disasters;

describe mechanisms which such agencies will use to address a disaster, and continuously update these

contingency plans;

incorporate disaster preparedness into national plans;

exploit opportunities for regional linkages.

The support will include provision of opportunities for collaboration between Member States to share

experience in developing national strategies, for example through regional workshops, and the

dissemination of materials related to agency contingency planning. The experience of Ethiopia’s National

Policy on Disaster Prevention and Management will be drawn upon.

Supporting policies, legislation and agreements

More adequate regional and national frameworks of policies, legislation, agreements and resource

allocation to underpin disaster preparedness strategies will be put in place. These will address:

conditions of acceptance for international assistance;

delegation of authority and accountability to institutions;


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allocation of national resources for disasters;

objectives and standards for relief distribution;

specific procedures for implementation of preparedness and response activities with assigned

responsibilities.

Support will include a regional workshop to identify policy and legislative elements of the required

regional and national frameworks, and to develop action plans for promoting these elements and

overcoming implementation constraints. With respect to relief distribution a Food Aid Code of Conduct,

already drafted, will be further refined and ratified through consultation between IGAD, Member States

and donors, and mechanisms for monitoring its observance established.

Focal institutions for coordination of preparedness and response

More effective coordination, both nationally and across the sub-region, between focal institutions in

disaster management will be developed. This will be aimed at:

exploiting the potential for the sharing of sub-regional resources to address common problems in

disaster management;

strengthening capacities and technical skills of local level institutions as focal points for disaster

management;

reducing reliance on international agencies to initiate preparedness and response activities;

enhancing the capacity for effective partnerships to be formed between national and international

agencies in disaster management, thereby improving the transparency and clarity of objectives and the

targeting of programmes, and helping to avoid duplication and incorporate capacity building

components.

To strengthen the regional disaster management network, international and national institutions will be

consulted to identify priority areas for regional collaboration, joint proposals for funding will be

developed and national expertise identified to act as regional consultants. Support for national focal

institutions will be promoted through disseminating information, sharing expertise, and establishing

guidelines for project formulation.

Strengthening of early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Progress already made in developing a network of global, regional and national early warning and food

information systems (EWFISs) and an environmental information system (EIS) for the sub-region will be

consolidated and built on through support for:

establishment of a comprehensive Regional Integrated Information System which, through

harmonizing and building on existing information systems, enhances the timely collection and

dissemination of information related to sub-regional hazards and the emergence, impacts, and course

of disasters of all major types;

development of regional databases that focus on the likely impacts of potential disasters;

establishment and/or strengthening of national early warning and information systems to improve

coverage, frequency, and reliability of their outputs;

improved exchange and dissemination of information within and between Member States;

better linking of information to decision-making structures for disaster management at national and

regional level;

development of more effective indicators for vulnerability and methods of assessing them.

The regional information system will be designed and made operational, and steps identified for

broadening its focus. A proposal for consolidation and further development of regional databases will be

produced. Technical proposals will be developed and funds sought for establishment or improvement of


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national systems as required, and for enhanced sharing of information between them. A regional

conference will be held on vulnerability analysis, and a collaborative agreement and plan of action

established which is linked to the FAO-led Food Insecurity and Vulnerability Information and Mapping

System (FIVIMS).

Strengthening public education and training

A regional disaster management training program will be put in place which will:

strengthen formal and informal disaster education and information dissemination;

enhance collaboration between agencies supporting training.

This will involve identification of priority training needs and resources, and design of training

programmes and designation of topic-specific training centres to meet these needs. Establishment of a

Sub-regional Disaster Management Training Centre will be considered.

Improving preparedness for impact and needs assessment and resource mobilization

Mechanisms will be promoted which will improve impact assessment and resource mobilization in

response to disasters. These will include the following:

For impact and needs assessment, integrated, multi-agency approaches will be promoted to establish

locations of and disaster impacts upon affected populations, and to identify and prioritise actions and

determine resources that are available and required. Improvement and dissemination of assessment

methodologies will be supported.

For resource mobilization, mechanisms will be identified for collaboration between agencies to

ensure timely mobilization of resources including:

the facilitation of timely and effective appeals for assistance

feasibility studies on the pre-positioning of relief resources, including national food security

reserves where these do not exist, and on the establishment and management of regional and

national non-food reserves in vulnerable areas including a regional disaster fund;

measures to improve logistical infrastructure for delivery of relief supplies to affected

populations and for communications across the sub-region, through development of an

emergency logistics planning framework within which projects for infrastructural improvement

can be prioritised, and through contingency planning to determine the scope for sharing

transport and communications infrastructure in an emergency.

For rehabilitation assistance, measures which build upon emergency relief assistance and promote a

rapid progression to sustainable development and food security will be promoted through formulation

of rehabilitation programmes, workshops and multi-agency forums to highlight rehabilitation needs,

development of a sub-regional plan of action and multi-agency task force to address the needs of

refugees and internally displaced persons.

Improving preparedness for targeting, implementation and monitoring & evaluation of relief and


Support will be provided for:

refinement of approaches and methods for targeting assistance at those most in need, including

participative and gender-sensitive approaches to targeting;

improving the design of projects for implementation of relief and rehabilitation assistance;

strengthening the M&E component of relief and rehabilitation interventions, and the application of

M&E findings in bringing about improvements in disaster management capacities in the sub-region.


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Project Ideas for implementation of priority measures

Project ideas, including strategic objectives, justification, outputs, and activities, are suggested below for

implementation of priority disaster preparedness measures for the IGAD sub-region. The needs identified

in the Disaster Management Overview and summarized in boxes at the end of each sub-section there have

been reproduced in this section to highlight the linkage between problems identified and actions

proposed. Some sectoral needs are integrated into project ideas in other sections.

The project ideas under the seven strategic areas may distinguish between regional level interventions and

support to national programmes. While all project ideas are formulated at the regional level and address

regional needs, support to national programmes is considered important to support the regional objectives.

1. Development of disaster preparedness strategies and the contingency planning process

1.1 Support to national programmes for development of disaster preparedness strategies

and the contingency planning process

Objective To support development of national disaster preparedness strategies and

contingency planning processes which consider regional linkages for

countries that do not have them and to support implementation efforts by

those who do.

Justification While progress has been made in the development of national capacities,

each Member State faces constraints to formulation of strategies and

formalization of the contingency planning process. Encouragement and

support should be provided for these processes in view of their

contribution to regional preparedness.

Output 1. Each Member State has a strategy for disaster preparedness which

considers regional linkages.

2. Each Member State has established mechanisms to facilitate the

contingency planning process.

Activities Providing opportunities for collaboration between countries to share

experience for the development of national strategies through regional

workshops and exchange of experience.

Collection and dissemination of publications regarding information

and research on the contingency planning process and components

needed for an effective strategy.

2. Elaboration of supporting policies, legislation, and agreements for disaster management

Sub-regional needs for disaster preparedness strategies & contingency planning

Support for development of national strategies and the contingency planning process in order to

promote effective planning for sub-regional actions.

Sub-regional needs for supporting policies, legislation and agreements

Formulation and formalization of policies, legislation, and agreements to support national and

regional disaster management mechanisms.


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2.1 Elaboration of policies, legislation and agreements to support national and regional

disaster management

Objectives 1. To promote development and adoption of regional policies,

legislation, and agreements which support regional disaster

management and related issues.

2. To promote development of policies, legislation and agreements

supporting disaster management in Member States.

Justification Enabling policies, legislation and agreements to support disaster

management and address cross cutting factors that are needed at both

regional and national levels include trade, relief assistance, land use, or

livestock movements. In some cases, absence of policies and legislation

weakens the ability of responsible agencies to take action to mitigate

disasters. Actions should be taken to establish regional policies and

encourage Member States to develop supporting policies to strengthen the

effectiveness of national and regional institutions.

Outputs 1. Needed policies, legislation and agreements are identified at regional

and national levels.

2. Steps are identified to promote development of needed policies,

legislation and agreements.

Activities Conduct a regional workshop to 1) identify needed policies at regional

and national levels; 2) share experience and discuss needs and

implementation constraints for policies and legislation, and 3) create

action plans for promotion of the needed policies at national and regional

levels.

2.2 Ratification and monitoring of a sub-regional Food Aid Code of Conduct

Objective To ratify a sub-regional Food Aid Code of Conduct and monitor its

implementation.

Justification As global food aid becomes scarce, governments, donors and NGOs are

moving toward developing common terms for operationalizing the use of

food aid, as recommended at the 1996 World Food Summit. IGAD

Member States are in the process of reviewing a draft Food Aid Code of

Conduct. Initial comments were received at a workshop in January 1998.

Outputs 1. The draft Food Aid Code of Conduct is finalized and ratified

2. Mechanisms for monitoring its effective implementation are

established.

Activities A draft Food Aid Code of Conduct, revised on the basis of workshop

discussion, will be sent to Member States for further amendments and

suggestions, in a process facilitated by IGAD focal points and

workshop participants

A similar consultation process will be undertaken by IGAD with

donors.

A final document will be prepared for endorsement by Member States

in the following IGAD Summit.

Mechanisms are designed and guidelines are developed for monitoring

the Food Aid Code of Conduct.


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3. Improvement of collaboration for preparedness and response

3.1 Strengthening regional collaboration for disaster management

Objective To strengthen regional collaboration and coordination for disaster

management and to support national focal institutions and other

institutions involved in disaster management.

Justification In order to benefit from the “added value” of use of sub-regional

resources to address common problems, a regional perspective in national

disaster management should be encouraged through interaction with

national focal points responsible for planning and collaboration as well as

other assistance agencies, particularly in relation to the development of

IGAD’s role and the roles of associated institutions. international and

national institutions should act as partners to promote sustainable

institutional capacities for disaster management.

Outputs 1. A prioritized list of needs for regional action is compiled by national

focal institutions and agreements are made for sharing resources for

emergencies.

2. Joint proposals are developed for addressing regional needs for

disaster preparedness.

3. An action plan is established for implementing proposals.

Activities Collect input from national and international institutions on priority

regional actions.

Sponsor a workshop for exchange of expertise, planning for regional

preparedness and response actions and to foster agreements on

resource sharing.

Development of joint project proposals and strategies for funding for

actions to benefit national and regional networks.

Identification of centres of excellence in focal institutions and

experienced national professionals who can act as consultants on a

regional basis.

Facilitate exchange of national plans and strategies and other

information.

3.2 Support to national programmes to strengthen regional collaboration for disaster

management

Objective To support national focal institutions to strengthen their roles in

coordination of national networks for disaster management.

Justification National focal institutions face many constraints such as limited staff and

resources. Some are newly assigned to their roles or have new and

expanded mandates for disaster management. Some do not have adequate

national support to facilitate their roles in preparedness and response.

Sub-regional needs for focal institutions for coordination of preparedness & response

Collaboration among all agencies supporting efforts for national and regional institutional

coordination for disaster management.


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Support should be fostered toward focal institutions by international and

regional agencies and governments as important mechanisms in the

regional network.

Outputs 1. National focal institutions receive the necessary support to be effective

in their roles in the regional disaster management network.

2. Communications and collaboration between national focal institutions

are promoted and strengthened.

Activities Support for national focal institutions is promoted through Member

State linkages and forums.

Development of project proposals and strategies for funding are

supported.

Guidelines are established for development of project proposals.

A printed or e-mailed newsletter regarding national and regional

activities is published.

Meetings and workshops are sponsored for sharing of expertise and

developing relationships.

4. Strengthening of early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

4.1 Supporting a regional disaster early warning and information system

Objectives 1. To enhance the production and dissemination of timely and reliable

information related to disaster hazards in the IGAD sub-region, the

emergence of disasters, and disaster impacts and response

2. To define policies for information collection and analysis for regional

and national systems.

3. To widen and improve the network of data exchange on food security,

natural resources and the environment, and hazards and disasters

affecting the sub-region.

4. To enhance collaboration between agencies’ collecting early warning

information in the sub-region.

Sub-regional needs for early warning and information systems and vulnerability analysis

Support for a comprehensive and integrated regional disaster information system, with

capacities to cover all major hazards and disaster types

Support to the establishment and/or strengthening of national EWFISs and other disaster

information systems through search for funding, training, and development of methodologies by

the regional system

Improved communications and alternative systems for government networks at national and

sub-regional levels

A data base that supports analysis of the likely impacts of potential disasters and exchange of

information between Member States in order to determine the planning required

Appropriate indicators and methods of assessing vulnerability.


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Justification Given the financial constraints of the sub-region, there is a need to

harmonize the existing information systems to avoid duplication of

efforts. There is also a need to prioritize the types of information to be

collected based on regional needs and to consolidate and make more

accessible the various mechanisms (satellite data, documentation, data

bases) for information collection and analysis. In the sub-region, agencies

may have their own early warning systems and the degree of overlap or

duplication is unclear. Further, there is a need for the early warning

systems to collect needed information to permit prediction and planning

for disaster response.

Outputs 1. A Regional Integrated Information System is developed which

enhances the timely collection and dissemination of information to

address sub-regional issues.

2. Sub-regional policies are developed to harmonize and prioritize

information collection and analysis.

3. The network of data exchange on food security, natural resources and

the environment and hazards affecting the sub-region is widened and

improved.

4. Collaboration between agencies’ collecting early warning information

in the sub-region is enhanced.

Activities The detailed design of the regional system is developed including

linkages to the national EWFIS.

The regional system is made operational..

Steps are identified for a broader focus for information collection to

cover all major potential disasters.

A proposal is developed for establishing a disaster management data

base relevant to the sub-region, including utilization of existing

databases and information networks.

4.2 Support to national early warning and information systems

Objectives To support development of national early warning and information

systems for countries which do not have them, promote support for

continuation and strengthening of existing systems and to support

enhanced communications and collaboration for information exchange on

all aspects of early warning, vulnerability analysis and needs assessment.

Justification The national early warning and information systems face a number of

constraints. The coverage, frequency, and reliability of the outputs are

constrained at the national level. There is lack of capacities due to lack of

institutional structures, linkages and policies for disaster management.

Infrastructure is not adequate for rapid exchange and dissemination of

information within and between Member States. Equipment to collect

data may be lacking or in poor repair, and trained personnel may not be

available for its operation. Collection of information from vulnerable

remote or pastoralist areas is often extremely difficult. To assure

sustainability and enhance coverage of the regional system, continued

promotion is needed of donor and Member State support for the national

systems.

Output 1. Needs are clarified to support the national early warning and


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information systems

2. Funding is secured for national systems which require support

3. Information exchange and collection is enhanced.

Activities A survey of needs for developing and improving the national early

warning and information systems.

The development of technical proposals and resource mobilization are

promoted for countries that require support.

4.3 Collaboration for vulnerability analysis and mapping

Objective To enhance agency collaboration to determine appropriate indicators and

methods of assessing and mapping vulnerability in order to consolidate

efforts and to permit more efficient targeting of assistance in the sub-

region.

Justification Vulnerability analysis and mapping are important tools for disaster

management, through assessing the ability of communities to withstand

shocks and the likelihood that they will be seriously affected by disaster

impacts. In the event of a disaster, the targeting of relief and

rehabilitation assistance can be greatly facilitated by the availability of

vulnerability assessment and mapping information.

Output A collaborative agreement toward consolidation of efforts for

vulnerability analysis and mapping is established with a plan of action for

its implementation.

Activities A sub-regional conference is held on vulnerability analysis possibly

based on Ethiopia’s national effort in 1997.

Sub-regional efforts are coordinated with the FAO “Food Insecurity

and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System (FIVIMS)”

efforts for inter-agency collaboration and information sharing.

5. Development of public education and training

5.1 Establishment of a regional disaster management training program

Objectives 1. To strengthen education and information dissemination in formal

institutions and informal settings regarding disasters;

2. To enhance collaboration between agencies supporting training.

Justification Training is a prevalent need advocated by national consultants and

agencies as part of the sub-regional strategy. Many of the issues are

Sub-regional needs for public education and training

Strengthened education and information dissemination regarding the slow and sudden onset

disasters at the national level.

Collaboration between national, other regional and international agencies which promote or

sponsor training, including supporting possible establishment of sub-regional training centre.

Training packages which provide follow-up funds.

Specialized staff training in disaster management-related technical and sectoral issues.


59

shared within the sub-region, and there are urgent needs of the Member

States to improve preparedness and response. The organization of

training on a regional basis will provide value added for transferring

skills within the sub-region and coordinating funding for projects with

training.

Output A sub-regional training programme is established to strengthen

information dissemination and improve collaboration of agencies

supporting training with possible establishment of a sub-regional training

centre.

Activities Conduct a needs assessment for sub-regional training needs and

resources and in relation to project objectives and project funding for

training.

Design a training programme with prioritized topics and target

audiences.

Designate centres of excellence as venues for specified topics.

Investigate possibilities for a centre for planning and conducting

training.

6. Support for improved impact and needs assessment, and resource mobilization

6.1 Promotion of an integrated process for needs assessment

Objective To promote collaboration for integrated impact and needs assessments for

disaster and emergency assistance

Justification Proper impact and needs assessments are required for an emergency

response to establish locations of affected populations and disaster

impacts upon them, and to identify and prioritize actions and available

and needed resources. The results of the assessment must be quickly

disseminated to mobilize national and international resources. Joint

multi-agency and government approaches to impact and needs assessment

are essential to permit a rapid and coordinated response.

Output Integrated impact and needs assessments are supported at national and

regional levels.

Activities Methodologies are improved and developed for impact and needs

assessments.

Sub-regional needs for improving preparedness for impact and needs assessment and resource

mobilization

Consideration of assessments from different sources, promotion of multi-agency approaches to

assessment, and inclusion of affected populations in these procedures.

Coordination for efficient resource mobilization and appeals for assistance

Establishment of pre-positioned supplies, food security reserves or disaster funds.

Improvements in logistical infrastructure to facilitate delivery of relief supplies and enhance

communications.


60

A workshop or formal discussions are held to disseminate

methodologies used in the region to compile impact and needs

assessments.

6.2 Enhanced collaboration for resource mobilization and development of appeals for

assistance

Objectives 1. To enhance collaboration for timely resource mobilization to address

emergencies in the sub-region.

2. To promote coordinated development of national appeals for

assistance and on a sub-regional basis where feasible.

Justification Funding for emergency response and rehabilitation is rarely obtained for

all of the requested inputs or may arrive too late to be effective.

Declarations and appeals from central governments to donors are usually

made in collaboration with international assistance agencies. In cases

where an emergency affects more than one Member State, a regional

appeal may be more effective.

Output 1. Collaboration is enhanced for timely resource mobilization to address

emergencies in the sub-region.

2. Coordinated national appeals are promoted and regional appeals are

encouraged where feasible.

Activities Mechanisms are determined through consultation with Member States

for collaboration by governments and assistance agencies to promote

timely resource mobilization, including release of pre-positioned

supplies such as food and non-food reserves and disaster funds.

Mechanisms are established to facilitate timely appeals for assistance

from needs assessments and to determine when a regional appeal is

needed.

Mechanisms to make the regional appeal process efficient and

effective are developed.

6.3 Support for pre-positioned resources for emergency relief assistance

Objective To establish pre-positioned relief resources where feasible for countries

that do not have them, such as disaster funds, food security reserves

(FSRs) and reserves of non-food items for immediate use in an

emergency.

Justification Acquiring, moving and storing surplus or needed commodities is difficult

in the sub-region due to lack of infrastructure. Other problems include

delays of imports and the low capacity of the free market to respond to

disasters; inadequate capacity of ports to handle huge emergency

shipments; and need to preposition resources for vulnerable areas which

are remote and inaccessible during the rainy season. To address these

problems, some agencies have pre-positioned supplies such as medical

supplies and seeds and tools. Conditions in the sub-region also support

consideration of establishing FSRs at national level where feasible to

respond to food emergencies. At the regional level, disaster reserve funds

would allow a rapid and flexible first emergency response.

Outputs 1. The feasibility of pre-positioning non-food supplies and/or disaster

funds to respond to or prevent an emergency is considered.


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2. The feasibility of establishing food security reserves in countries

which do not have them is considered.

Activities At the national level:

Feasibility studies are conducted on the establishment of national

FSRs in countries where they do not exist;

Guidelines are suggested for the establishment and management of

FSRs and reserves of non-food supplies.

At the regional level:

Feasibility studies are conducted on the pre-positioning of non-food

relief supplies in vulnerable areas of the sub-region;

A feasibility study is conducted on the establishment of a regional

disaster fund.

6.4 Improving logistical infrastructure for delivery of relief and rehabilitation assistance

Objectives 1. To facilitate transportation of relief and rehabilitation assistance to

populations affected by shortages and disasters.

2. To improve communications in the sub-region, particularly to respond

to disasters and emergencies.

Justification Improvements in transportation and communication infrastructure in the

sub-region remain urgent needs to enhance emergency response. Needs

include strengthening of the sub-regional road and railway network, and

development of port and telecommunication facilities.

Outputs 1. Transport infrastructure in the sub-region is improved.

2. Communications infrastructure in the sub-region is improved.

Activities Project proposals are prioritized to improve roads and railways and

communications facilities based on an “emergency logistics” plan

targeting the most vulnerable areas to disaster.

A sub-regional “Logistics Contingency Plan” is prepared to identify

transport and communications resources which may be shared

between countries in an emergency.

7. Support for preparedness measures for targeting and implementation of relief and


7.1 Promotion of improved approaches and methods for targeting relief and rehabilitation

assistance

Objectives To support the development of improved approaches and methods for

identifying households and individuals for receipt of specific types of

relief and rehabilitation assistance in the event of a disaster.

Sub-regional needs for improving preparedness for targeting, implementation and monitoring and

evaluation of assistance

Refinement of approaches and methods for targeting assistance

Improving the design of projects for implementation of relief and rehabilitation assistance

Improving the monitoring and evaluation of relief and rehabilitation assistance


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Justification Effective targeting systems are necessary to ensure that in the wake of a

disaster each specific type of relief and rehabilitation assistance reaches

those who need that type of assistance most, and in a timely fashion, is

not provided wastefully to those who do not need it, and does not have

negative effects on livelihoods. In most Member States, targeting relief

and development assistance based on figures produced by the early

warning and vulnerability analysis systems remains problematic.

Targeting is constrained by lack of agreed upon parameters for assistance

among assistance providers and differentiation of targeting mechanisms

according to programme type. Vulnerability mapping, as a tool for

targeting, is limited by lack of information on indicators and deliberations

over the utility of different indicators. A number of assistance agencies

are collecting information using their own guidelines and the degree to

which these efforts are coordinated is not always clear. Experience

suggests that targeting systems are most efficient where they maximise

the participation of local community representatives and are gender-

sensitive, yet these principles are often not applied in practice.

Outputs 1. An evaluation of targeting systems used in recent disasters in the

IGAD sub-region and elsewhere.

2. Guidelines, agreed by national, regional and international relief and

rehabilitation agencies, for improved targeting approaches and

methods in the IGAD sub-region.

Activities Conduct a study of relief and rehabilitation targeting approaches and

methods used by agencies in recent disasters in the IGAD sub-region

and elsewhere, and their relative effectiveness.

Conduct a sub-regional workshop to discuss the findings of the

targeting study and establish guidelines for best practice in the IGAD

sub-region.

7.2 Support for improving the design of projects for implementing relief and


Objectives To promote improvements in the design of projects for implementing

relief and rehabilitation assistance in the IGAD sub-region in the event of

disasters.

Justification Projects for implementing relief and rehabilitation assistance in the wake

of disasters tend to follow more-or-less standardized designs which have

been developed by agencies in response to disaster impacts of different

kinds. However, the effectiveness of the assistance provided is often

reduced on account of poorly formulated or managed projects or the use

of altogether inappropriate project designs. Apart from inadequate

vulnerability analysis or targeting or weaknesses in inter-agency

coordination and control (addressed respectively in 4.3, 7.1 and 3 above),

such inadequacies may stem from a lack of time and expertise, in the

immediate wake of a disaster, for the formulation of projects which

match local needs and circumstances and the setting up of appropriate

management systems for their implementation. Advance formulation of

‘off-the-shelf’ projects and other mechanisms for improving the delivery

of assistance, with the participation of local government and community

structures, has the potential to provide a valuable contribution to disaster

preparedness at different levels.


63

Outputs 1. An evaluation of the potential contribution to disaster preparedness in

the IGAD sub-region of ‘off-the-shelf’ projects, including

employment-based schemes, and other mechanisms for improving the

implementation of relief and rehabilitation assistance.

2. A plan of action for the development of improved project designs for

implementing relief and development assistance which take account of

constraints and opportunities at local, national and regional levels.

Activities Undertake a study of project designs for implementing relief and

rehabilitation assistance in recent disasters in the IGAD sub-region

and elsewhere, with a view to identifying preparedness measures for

improving their effectiveness.

Conduct a sub-regional workshop to discuss the findings of the study

and establish a plan of action for development of improved project

designs in the context of disaster preparedness planning.

7.3 Promoting improved monitoring and evaluation of relief and rehabilitation assistance

Objective To strengthen monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of relief and

rehabiliation assistance in the IGAD sub-region, and the use of M&E

results in improving the effectiveness of disaster management

interventions in the sub-region.

Justification To judge the effectiveness of disaster response and use the conclusions to

improve future disaster management, M&E components of response

interventions need to be capable not only of monitoring the delivery and

receipt of assistance and the ongoing needs of affected populations, but of

collecting, analysing and documenting information to enable conclusions

to be drawn about the effectiveness of all aspects of disaster management.

Though limited in scope in the past M&E is increasingly seen in the

broader sense of relief, rehabilitation and development, and now tends to

be given a higher priority. However, more systematic incorporation of

M&E into relief and rehabilitation operations is required, and more

sharing and collaboration between agencies in seeking to apply the results

of M&E in developing and observing principles for more effective

operations, especially in complex emergencies. Much could be gained

from investment in a sub-regional capacity for promotion of M&E in

disaster response and its use in “learning lessons” for future application

within the sub-region.

Outputs 1. A critical report on M&E systems used in recent disaster response

interventions in the IGAD sub-region and elsewhere, and their

usefulness in drawing conclusions about the effectiveness of those

interventions and feeding back into project design.

2. Guidelines for improving the scope and analysis of information

provided by M&E components of relief and rehabilitation

interventions in the IGAD sub-region, and for using the results of

M&E to improve future interventions.

Activities Undertake a study of M&E components of recent disaster response

interventions in the IGAD sub-region and elsewhere, and the extent to

which M&E outputs have been used in drawing conclusions about the

effectiveness of those interventions.


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Conduct a regional workshop to review findings of the study and to

develop guidelines for the design of M&E components of relief and

rehabilitation interventions and for using M&E outputs to improve

future interventions, with specific reference to the IGAD sub-region.


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IGAD’S ROLE IN IMPLEMENTING A SUB-REGIONAL DISASTER

PREPAREDNESS STRATEGY

This section describes IGAD’s role in the sub-regional disaster preparedness strategy. While the strategy

addresses a broad range of strategic areas and needs, IGAD will be able to meet some of the needs while

the gaps must be filled by other agencies and programs. The activities to be undertaken by IGAD should

fall within IGAD’s scope of operations and the mandates of its organizational components which are

described below.

Revitalization of IGAD

The Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) was created in 1986 to

coordinate the efforts of Member States in developing sub-regional strategies on rural development and

food security, and combating desertification. In 1996, through a revitalization process, the Heads of State

and Government adopted an agreement establishing the Intergovernmental Authority on Development

(IGAD) amending the original charter to expand the mandate, and declaring their intent to deepen

cooperation among the Member States. The revitalization culminated in November 1996 with an official

“Summit for Launching the Revitalized IGAD” held in Djibouti.

An overall strategic framework was adopted and IGAD’s priority areas were identified as:

1. Food Security and Environmental Protection

2. Infrastructure Development

3. Conflict Prevention, Management and Resolution, and Humanitarian Affairs.

The IGAD Secretariat’s revitalized structure includes a division for Political and Humanitarian Affairs,

working to increase the capacity of the countries of the sub-region in the prevention, management and

resolution of conflict and to address humanitarian issues. A new Disaster Management Section is

incorporated under the Political and Humanitarian Affairs Division.24

IGAD’S strategic vision

As with all IGAD endeavours, the disaster preparedness strategy is based upon concerted cooperation of

Member States as a means to attain economic growth, food security and peace. It acknowledges the need

to develop the natural and human resources of the sub-region in order to move towards self-reliance. It is

based on the determination of Member States to pool resources and coordinate development activities,

eventually leading to regional integration. The following general guiding principles of IGAD25

are upheld

in this strategy:

individual and collective responsibility to respect international principles and ethics;

frameworks which enable people to identify their needs and be in the forefront of efforts to resolve

them;

subsidiarity where tasks are undertaken at the level in society where they can be most effectively

managed;

“added value” or making the most use of economic resources and avoiding duplication of efforts;

participation of all stakeholders in decision-making and execution of projects and programmes;

ownership of projects and programmes by the beneficiaries;

24 IGAD Strategy Framework, Djibouti, November, 1996.

25 Ibid.


66

regard for Member States’ different priorities and interests, allowing pursuit of goals by those who are

ready and leaving options for others to participate;

commitment to dialogue in a consultative process in a spirit of partnership and recognition of both

mutual and differentiated responsibilities.

The disaster preparedness strategy is part of IGAD’s overall strategy for sustainable development.

The Function of IGAD’s Departments and Projects

IGAD’s fundamental goals for disaster prevention and preparedness in the sub-region are:

1. to reduce vulnerability of the population at risk to natural and human-made hazards;

2. to assist Member States to become self reliant in preparing for and responding to disasters.

Actions taken to promote the revitalization of IGAD indicate that Member States and donors support its

role as a coordinating body to deal with some of the cross-cutting issues and areas specific to disaster

management.

IGAD’s scope of operations is based on three priority areas, Infrastructure Development, Food Security

and Environmental Protection, and Conflict Management and Resolution and Humanitarian Affairs, in

addition to functions of the Secretariat. These functions are:

preparation of surveys, studies, information and guidelines on legal, political, economic, social,

cultural and technical matters of common concern to Member States which are essential for

broadening and deepening cooperation;

initiation, identification and coordination of development programmes and projects;

assistance to the policy organs in their work relating to political and humanitarian affairs;

project cycle management;

provision of backstopping services.

The organizational units of IGAD include a Documentation and Information Section, Resource

Mobilization Section as well as three divisions: the Economic Cooperation Division (with two Sections:

Trade and Tourism, and Transport, Communications and Telecommunications), the Agriculture and

Environment Division (with an Agricultural Development and Food Security Section including

Agricultural Research Coordinating Unit and Pest Control Unit, the Environmental Protection Section,

and Natural Resources and Energy Section), and the Political and Humanitarian Affairs Division (with

Conflict Prevention and Resolution Section, and Disaster Management Section).

Projects related to disaster preparedness will be managed by the Division of Political and Humanitarian

Affairs in consultation with Joint Support Units (JSU) which include staff of UN agencies based in

Djibouti. Some UN agencies and partners in development may also second expert staff to the JSU.

Member State linkages

To initiate projects, IGAD requires that each project be the undertaking of two or more countries but

agreed to by all Member States. Project preparation is the joint responsibility of IGAD and experts from

the Member States, together with donors, NGOs and other relevant institutions. While Member States will

be in charge of implementation, IGAD is involved in planning, fund mobilization, monitoring and

evaluation.

IGAD will operate programmes through technical focal points or a host centre. The Disaster Preparedness

Focal Point Institution should be attached to the senior level of government. The focal point’s role is to

ensure effective disaster preparedness and to act as a coordinating mechanism for disaster response,

keeping appropriate government and agency representatives apprised on issues concerning preparedness

and relief implementation. For matters of disaster preparedness, the focal points in the Member States are:


67

Djibouti Croissant Rouge de Djibouti

L’Office National d’Assistance aux Réfugiés et Sinistrés (ONARS)

L’Union Nationale des Femmes de Djibouti (UNFD)

L’Organisation Non Gouvernementale «Nomad Aid»

L’Association Islamique «Al-Bir»

Eritrea ERREC (Eritrean Relief and Refugee Committee, previously the Eritrean Relief and

Rehabilitation Agency, ERRA)

Ethiopia Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC)

Kenya Office of the President (OP)

Somalia UN Coordination Team (UNCT) and UN Coordination Unit, Somalia Aid Coordination

Body (SACB)

Sudan Humanitarian Aid Commission (HAC)

Uganda Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare (MOLSW)

Descriptions of national institutional arrangements for warning and response and contact details of key

personnel are found in the annexes.

For specific projects, each IGAD Member State will designate a focal point to act as National Project

Coordinator (NPC). This will normally be a staff member from the relevant ministry. The NPC from each

Member State, together with other partners, will constitute the “Drafting Group” responsible for

designing the sub-regional Plan of Action through a structured series of workshops.

The NPC will also chair a country-level Working Group including representatives of relevant national and

regional government organizations, UN agencies, bilateral and multilateral aid agencies, and NGOs. Once

a project is agreed upon, the NPC will continue to represent the Member State in the harmonization of

country level interventions with those of IGAD into a consolidated sub-regional area based plans.

Mechanisms for coordination of assistance and external assistance

The IGAD Secretariat will play a central role in coordination of partners by organizing consultative

meetings and utilizing international agreements in lobbying for programme funds. IGAD seeks to

promote cooperation and collaboration, to avoid duplication, and to enhance synergy.

Relating IGAD project profiles on priority areas to the strategy

The overall strategy of the revitalized IGAD addresses many of the needs highlighted in the “Sub-regional

overview”. IGAD’s seventeen “Project Profiles on IGAD Priority Areas” are all relevant to areas of

concern in disaster management, and can address some of the needs identified in this disaster

preparedness strategy - specifically those relating to the last four of the seven strategic areas, as shown in

Table 33 below.


68

Follow-up actions to be taken by IGAD for endorsement and

implementation of the strategy

A joint review of the draft strategy took place from 14-16 January 1998 at a workshop in Addis Ababa,

Ethiopia, involving representatives from all Member States. The follow-up actions for IGAD

recommended in the workshop are as follows.

1. IGAD should promote the endorsement of the strategy by the Council of Ministers.

2. An institutional review should be conducted to determine the roles that other national and sub-national

institutions can play in the implementation of the strategy.

3. Project ideas for meeting the objectives of identified strategic areas should be refined and further

developed through consultation.

4. Resources should be identified to support the implementation of the strategy.

Table 33 : Relationship of disaster prevention, and preparedness strategic areas, to IGAD programmes

Strategic areas for disaster preparedness:

IGAD programmes:

Disaster Prevention

Strengthening early warning & information systems and vulnerability analysis

Development of education & training for disaster management

Improving impact & needs assessment, & resource mobilization

Improving targeting, implementation and M&E of relief & rehabiliation

Priority Area A: Infrastructure Development (all Programmes)

Programme 5.1: Establishment of a Regional Integrated Information System

Programme 6.1: Promoting Sustainable Production for Drought-Tolerant High-Yielding Crop Varieties through Research and Extension

Programme 6.2: Trans-boundary livestock disease control and vaccine production

Programme 7.1: Promoting Environmental Education & Training

Programme 7.2: Strengthening Environmental Pollution Control in the IGAD Sub-region

Programme 8.1: Capacity Building in Integrated Water Resources Management

Programme 8.2: Promotion of Community based Land Husbandry

Programme 9.1: Capacity Building in the Areas of Conflict Prevention, Resolution and Management

Programme 10.1: Alleviation and Mitigation of Humanitarian Crises in the IGAD Sub-region


69

Reference Documents

IGAD Documents

IGAD, Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Nairobi, 21 March 1996.

IGAD, Proceedings of the Summit of Heads of State and Government of IGAD Member States for the

Launching of the Revitalized IGAD, Djibouti, November, 1996.

IGAD, Project Profiles on IGAD Priority Areas, IGAD Secretariat, Djibouti, October 1996.

IGAD Strategy Framework, Djibouti, November, 1996.

Establishing the Structure of an IGADD National and Sub-regional Early Warning System,

Recommendations to the US Agency for International Development, Volume 1 (Executive

Summary), Volume 2, (Main Report), Volume 3 (Country reports), Eros Data Centre, National

Mapping Division, US Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, December 1989.

IGADD, Assembly of Heads of State and Government, Volume I Basic Documents, First Session,

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IGADD, The IGADD 5-Year Programme, 1992-1996.

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Report and Appendices, Annex A: Project - Assistance in the Formulation of a Food Security

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Food Information System for Food Security (Phase I); Annex C: project Document - Provision of

Training for Senior Managers and Warehouse Staff of Grain Marketing Board and Relief Agencies

in IGADD Countries; Annex D; New Project Ideas, Forum on Environmental protection and

Development of Sub-regional Strategy to Combat Desertification, Volume 1 (Main Report) and

Volume 2 (Country Reports), 1990.

IGADD, Forum on Environmental Protection and Development of Sub-regional Strategy to Combat

Desertification, 1990.

IGADD, Food Security Strategy Study, Volume 1 (Final Report), Volume 2 ( Annexes), Volume 3

(Country Reports), Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Development

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Agora 2000, October 1990.

IGADD, Household Energy in the IGADD Member Countries Project Preparation and Design, Volume

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Summary), 1992.

IGADD, Study of the Potential for Intra-Regional Trade in Cereals in the IGADD Region, Volume 1

(Main Report), Volume 2 (Appendices), Volume 3 (Country Reports), March 1990.

IGADD, Study of Traditional Farm Storage and Food Reserves at Different Levels of the IGADD

Region, Volume 1 (Main Report), Volume II (Country Reports), Agrisystems (Nordic) AB

Sweden, June 1989.

IGADD-FAO, Crop Production System Zones of the IGADD Sub-region, Agrometeorology Working

Paper Series, N. 10, FAO, Rome, Italy, 1995.

National Consultants Reports

AGROTECH, Country Profile: Somalia, April, 1996, and Addendum, June 1997.

Byekwaso, Francis, Uganda Drought/Disaster Preparedness Strategy, September 1995, and


70

Desta, Tedla, Country Status Report - Ethiopia (Background Information for the elaboration of IGAD

disaster/drought preparedness strategy) , November 1995, and Addendum, July, 1997.

Doualeh, Djama Mahamoud, Preparation of Basic Information for the Development of a Sub-Regional

Disaster/Drought Preparedness Strategy, Basic Information about Djibouti, August, 1995 and

Addendum, June 1997.

Gachara, Stanslaus M., Disaster and Drought Preparedness in Kenya, August 1995, and Supplementary

Report, Disaster Preparedness Strategy in Kenya, July 1997.

Hagos, Michael, Eritrea Drought/Disaster Preparedness Strategy, November, 1995.

Mohamed, A/Wahab Ahmed, Sudan Disaster Preparedness, May, 1995, and revised report, June 1997.

Other Reference Documents

Bazza, Mohamed, “Overview of Drought Mitigation Activities in the IGAD Sub-region”, FAO-IGAD

Project TCP/RAF/4558, Draft, October 4, 1996, final version, August 10, 1997.

The Centre for Our Common Future, “Down to Earth, a Guide to the Convention to Combat

Desertification” June, 1995.

CILSS, OECD and Club du Sahel, “The Food Aid Charter for the Countries of the Sahel”.

Clay, Daniel C., Debebe Haptewold, and Daniel Molla, “Food Aid Targeting in Ethiopia: A Study of

Food Insecurity and Food Aid Distributions”, Grain Market Research Project, Ethiopian Ministry

of Economic Development and Cooperation, December, 1997.

FAO, Emergency Preparedness and Response Manual, First Edition , Rome, May 1997.

FAO, “FAO’s role in early warning and food information systems development at global, regional and

national levels” and “FAO methodological approaches and strategy for improved food security

monitoring and analysis at global, regional, national and community/household levels’, 1995.

FAO, “Food Security Problems and Sustainability Issues in Africa”, Secretary-General’s Special Initiative

on Africa - Report of Working Group 2.

FAO, “Methodology for preparing comprehensive national food security programmes”, FSAS 2nd Ad

Hoc Con, Rome, October, 1989.

FAO, “National preparedness planning to cope with food emergencies”, Committee on World Food

Security, April, 1986.

FAO-Republic of Zambia, “National Preparedness Plan to Cope with Food Emergencies - A Manual for

Action” Rome. 1986.

FAO, “Preparation of comprehensive national food security programmes: overall approach and issues”,

FSAS 2nd Ad Hoc Con, Rome, October 1989.

FAO, “Prevention and Control of Transboundary Diseases”, Report of the FAO Expert Consultation on

the EMPRES for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases”, July 1996.

FAO, “Tchad - Estimation du Niveau Optimum de Stock de Securite Alimentaire”, Mars, 1995.

FAO, Towards a strategy for agricultural development in Somalia, Rome, 1995.

FAO, “The World Without Rinderpest”, Proceedings of the FAO technical Consultation on the Global

Rinderpest Eradication Programme, July, 1996.

GTZ-Eschborn, “Proposal for a Plan of Action for the Rehabilitation of Areas with Refugee Influxes in

Uganda”, March, 1995.

IFRC-SARDC, “SA-READ (Southern Africa - Reducing Emergencies and Disasters)” newsletter, August,

1995.

ILRI, “Livestock Activities in the Greater Horn of Africa, July 1995.


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Republic of Zambia, “The Establishment of a Disaster Relief Trust Fund; Outline of Organizational and

Operational Modalities”, Office of the Vice President-National Disaster Relief Committee, Lusaka,

July, 1994.

USAID, “Building a Foundation for Food Security and Crisis Prevention in the Greater Horn of Africa; a

Concept Paper for Discussion”, November, 1994.

USAID, “Food Aid and Food Security; USAID Draft Policy Paper”, 1994.

USAID, REDSO/ESA/ANR, “Regional Trade - Analytical Activity Summary”, 1995.

UN-DHA, Monthly and Bi-monthly Information Reports, Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, September and

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UN-DHA, IDNDR, World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction, Yokohama, Japan, May, 1994.

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Kenya, June, 1995.

UN-DHA, ODI, ODA, and ActionAid, “Aid Under Fire - Relief and Development in an Unstable World”,

May/June, 1995.

UNDP-DHA Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP) Modules: Disasters and Development,

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Overview of Disaster Management, 1992, Vulnerability and Risk Assessment, 1991.

UN EUE, “Peace, Stability and Development - UN Support of the Revitalized IGADD” , Draft for

discussion, October, 1995.

UN Humanitarian and Resident Coordinator for Somalia, Outline of UN System Activities and

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World Health Organization-EHA, “Health and the Revitalization of IGAD”, discussion paper, 1996.

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