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II
III
I I. Types of MixturesI. Types of Mixtures
Ch. 14 – Mixtures & SolutionsCh. 14 – Mixtures & Solutions
A. DefinitionsA. Definitions
Mixture = Variable combination of 2 or more pure substances
Homogeneous = uniform composition throughout Heterogeneous = variable composition
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
A. DefinitionsA. Definitions
Solution – Solution – homogeneous mixture
Solvent Solvent – dissolves the solute
Solute Solute – substance being dissolved
B. MixturesB. Mixtures
Gases can also mix with liquids Gases are usually dissolved in
water Examples are carbonated drinks
• Homogeneous mixtures (solutions)
• Contain sugar, flavorings and carbon dioxide dissolved in water
B. MixturesB. Mixtures
Solution• homogeneous• very small particles
• no Tyndall effect • particles don’t settle• Ex: rubbing alcohol
Tyndall Effect
B. MixturesB. Mixtures
Colloid• heterogeneous
• medium-sized particles Tyndall effect :the scattering of light by colloidal
particles.
• particles don’t settle
• Ex: milk
B. MixturesB. Mixtures
Suspension• Heterogeneous• large particles usually
> 1000nm• particles settle• Tyndall effect• Ex: fresh-squeezed
lemonade
B. MixturesB. Mixtures
Examples:
• mayonnaise
• muddy water
• fog
• saltwater
• Italian salad dressing
colloid
suspension
colloid
true solution
suspension
II
III
I II. Factors Affecting Solvation
(p. 489 – 496)
II. Factors Affecting Solvation
(p. 489 – 496)
Ch. 14 –SolutionsCh. 14 –Solutions
A. SolvationA. Solvation
Solvation – Solvation – the process of dissolving
solute particles are separated and pulled into solution
solute particles are surrounded by solvent particles
Solution ProcessSolution Process
•For a solute to be dissolved in a solvent, the attractive forces between the solute and solvent particles must be great enough to overcome the attractive forces within the pure solvent & pure solute. •The solute & the solvent molecules in a solution are expanded compared to their position within the pure substances.
B. SolvationB. Solvation
DissociationDissociation
• Separation/Solvation of an ionic solid into aqueous ions For ionic solids, the lattice energy describes the attractive forces
between the solute molecules (i.e. ions) For an ionic solid to dissolve in water, the water-solute attractive
forces has to be strong enough to overcome the lattice energy
NaCl(s) Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
B. Factors Affecting SolvationB. Factors Affecting Solvation
Molecules are constantly in motion according to…• Kinetic Theory
When particles collide, energy is transferred
B. Factors Affecting SolvationB. Factors Affecting Solvation
Solubility = max. amount of a solute that will dissolve in a solvent @ a specific T
Smaller pieces of a substance dissolve faster b/c of larger surface area
Stirring or shaking speeds dissolving b/c particles are moving faster and colliding more
Heating speeds dissolving of solidsNot all substances dissolve
C. SolubilityC. Solubility
Water is universal solvent b/c of its polarity
If something can dissolve in something else, it is said to be soluble or miscible
If it cannot dissolve, it is said to be insoluble or immiscible
“Like dissolves like”
C. SolubilityC. Solubility
NONPOLAR
NONPOLAR
POLAR
POLAR
““Like Dissolves Like”Like Dissolves Like”““Like Dissolves Like”Like Dissolves Like”
Saturated SolutionsSaturated Solutions
•A solution that can contain the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature (if the pressure is constant).•Solution said to be at a dynamic equilibrium•Any point on the line
•Ex: At 90 ° C 40 g of NaCl (s) in 100 g of H2O represent a saturated solution
Solubility curve
• Any point on a line represents a saturated solution.
• In a saturated solution, the solvent contains the maximum amount of solute.
• Example
• At 90oC, 40 g of NaCl(s) in 100g H2O(l) represent a saturated solution.
Unsaturated SolutionUnsaturated Solution
•A solution that can contain less than the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature (if the pressure is constant).•It is any value under the solid line on the solubility graph
Solubility curve• Any point below a line
represents an unsaturated solution.
• In an unsaturated solution, the solvent contains less than the maximum amount of solute.
• Example• At 90oC, 30 g of NaCl(s)
in 100g H2O(l) represent an unsaturated solution. 10 g of NaCl(s) have to be added to make the solution saturated.
Supersaturated SolutionsSupersaturated Solutions
•A solution that can contain greater than the maximum amount of solute at a given temperature (if the pressure is constant). •A supersaturated solution is very unstable & the amount of solute in excess can precipitate or crystallize.•It is any value above the solid line on the solubility graph
Solubility curve
• Any point above a line represents a supersaturated solution.
• In a supersaturated solution, the solvent contains more than the maximum amount of solute. A supersaturated solution is very unstable and the amount in excess can precipitate or crystallize.
• Example• At 90oC, 50 g of NaCl(s) in
100g H2O(l) represent a supersaturated solution. Eventually, 10 g of NaCl(s) will precipitate.
Solubility curve
• Any point above a line represents a supersaturated solution.
• In a supersaturated solution, the solvent contains more than the maximum amount of solute. A supersaturated solution is very unstable and the amount in excess can precipitate or crystallize.
• Example• At 90oC, 50 g of NaCl(s) in
100g H2O(l) represent a supersaturated solution. Eventually, 10 g of NaCl(s) will precipitate.
Solubility Solubility
SATURATED SOLUTION
no more solute dissolves
UNSATURATED SOLUTIONmore solute dissolves
SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
becomes unstable, crystals form
concentration
SolubilitySolubilitySolubility curve
Any solution can be made saturated, unsaturated, or supersaturated by changing the temperature.Any solution can be made Saturated, Unsaturated,
or Supersaturated by changing the Temperature.
C. SolubilityC. Solubility
Solubility CurvesSolubility Curves• maximum grams of solute that will
dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a given temperature
• varies with temp• based on a saturated soln
C. SolubilityC. Solubility
Solubility CurveSolubility Curve• shows the
dependence of solubility on temperature
C. SolubilityC. Solubility
Solids are more soluble at...Solids are more soluble at...• high temperatures.
Gases are more soluble at...Gases are more soluble at...• low temperatures • high pressures
(Henry’s Law).• With larger mass (LDF)
• EX: nitrogen narcosis, the “bends,” soda
StrongElectrolyte
Non-Electrolyte
solute exists asions only
- +
salt
- +
sugar
solute exists asmolecules
only
- +
acetic acid
WeakElectrolyte
solute exists asions and
molecules DISSOCIATION IONIZATION
•Although H2O is a poor conductor of electricity, dissolved ions in an aqueous solution can conduct electricity. •Ionic aqueous solutions are known as electrolytes.
II
III
I II. Solution Concentration
(p. 480 – 486)
II. Solution Concentration
(p. 480 – 486)
Ch. 16 – SolutionsCh. 16 – Solutions
A. ConcentrationA. Concentration
The amount of solute in a solution
Describing Concentration
• % by mass - medicated creams
• % by volume - rubbing alcohol
• ppm, ppb - water contaminants
• molarity - used by chemists
• molality - used by chemists
B. Percent SolutionsB. Percent Solutions
Percent By Volume (%(v/v))
• Concentration of a solution when both solute and
solvent are liquids often expressed as percent by
volume
100solution ofvolume
solute ofvolume (%(v/v))Volume by Percent
total combined volume
substance being dissolved
B. Percent SolutionsB. Percent Solutions
Find the percent by volume of ethanol (C2H6O) in a 250 mL solution containing 85 mL ethanol.
85 mL ethanol
250 mL solution = 34%
ethanol (v/v)
Solute = 85 mL ethanolSolution = 250 mL
% (v/v) = x 100
C. MolarityC. Molarity
Concentration of a solution most often
used by chemists
solution of liters
solute of moles(M)Molarity
total combined volume
substance being dissolved
Molar Mass(g/mol)
6.02 1023
particles/mol
MASSIN
GRAMSMOLES
NUMBEROF
PARTICLES
Molar Volume (22.4 L/mol)
LITERSOF GASAT STP
LITERSOF
SOLUTION
Molarity(mol/L)
D. Molarity CalculationsD. Molarity Calculations
D. Molarity CalculationsD. Molarity Calculations
How many moles of NaCl are required to make 0.500L of 0.25M NaCl?
0.500 L sol’n 0.25 mol NaCl
1 L sol’n
= 0.013 mol NaClL 1
mol0.25 0.25M
D. Molarity CalculationsD. Molarity Calculations
How many grams of NaCl are required to make 0.500L of 0.25M NaCl?
0.500 L sol’n 0.25 mol NaCl
1 L sol’n
= 7.3 g NaCl
58.44 g NaCl
1 mol NaCl
L 1
mol0.25 0.25M
D. Molarity CalculationsD. Molarity Calculations
Find the molarity of a 250 mL solution containing 10.0 g of NaF.
10.0 g NaF 1 mol NaF
41.99 g NaF
= 0.24 mol NaF
L
molM 0.24 mol NaF
0.25 L= 0.95 M NaF
2211 VMVM
E. DilutionE. Dilution
Preparation of a desired solution by adding water to a concentrate
Moles of solute remain the same
E. DilutionE. Dilution
What volume of 15.8M HNO3 is required to make 250 mL of a 6.0M solution?
GIVEN:
M1 = 15.8M
V1 = ?
M2 = 6.0M
V2 = 250 mL
WORK:
M1 V1 = M2 V2
(15.8M) V1 = (6.0M)(250mL)
V1 = 95 mL of 15.8M HNO3
F. MolalityF. Molality
solvent ofkg
solute of moles(m)molality
mass of solvent only
1 kg water = 1 L waterkg 1
mol0.25 0.25m
G. Molality CalculationsG. Molality Calculations
Find the molality of a solution containing 75 g of MgCl2 in 250 mL of water.
75 g MgCl2 1 mol MgCl2
95.21 g MgCl2
= 3.2m MgCl2 0.25 kg waterkg
molm
= .79 mol MgCl2
.79 mol MgCl2
G. Molality CalculationsG. Molality Calculations
How many grams of NaCl are req’d to make a 1.54m solution using 0.500 kg of water?
0.500 kg water 1.54 mol NaCl
1 kg water
= 45.0 g NaCl
58.44 g NaCl
1 mol NaCl
kg 1
mol1.54 1.54m
H. Preparing SolutionsH. Preparing Solutions
500 mL of 1.54M NaCl
500 mLwater
45.0 gNaCl
• mass 45.0 g of NaCl• add water until total
volume is 500 mL• mass 45.0 g of NaCl• add 0.500 kg of water
500 mLmark
500 mLvolumetric
flask
1.54m NaCl in 0.500 kg of water
H. Preparing SolutionsH. Preparing Solutions
250 mL of 6.0M HNO3 by dilution
• measure 95 mL of 15.8M HNO3
95 mL of15.8M HNO3
water for
safety
250 mL mark
• combine with water until total volume is 250 mL
• Safety: “Do as you oughtta, add the acid to the watta!” or AA – add acid!
II
III
I IV. Colligative Properties of Solutions
(p. 498 – 504)
IV. Colligative Properties of Solutions
(p. 498 – 504)
Ch. 14 – Mixtures & SolutionsCh. 14 – Mixtures & Solutions
A. DefinitionA. Definition
Colligative PropertyColligative Property
• property that depends on the
concentration of solute particles, not
their identity
• Examples: vapor pressure, freezing
point, boiling point
B. TypesB. Types
Freezing Point DepressionFreezing Point Depression (Tf)• f.p. of a solution is lower than f.p. of the pure solvent
Boiling Point ElevationBoiling Point Elevation (Tb)• b.p. of a solution is higher than b.p. of the pure solvent
Vapor Pressure Lowering• lower number of solvent particles at the surface of the
solution; therefore, this lowers the tendency for the solvent particles to escape into the vapor phase.
B. TypesB. Types
Applications• salting icy roads• making ice cream• antifreeze
• cars (-64°C to 136°C)
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
T: change in temperature (°C)
i: Van’t Hoff Factor (VHF), the number of particles into which the solute dissociates
m: molality (m)
K: constant based on the solvent (°C·kg/mol) or (°C/m)
T = i · m · K
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
T
• Change in temperature• Not actual freezing point or boiling point• Change from FP or BP of pure solvent
• Freezing Point (FP) TF i is always subtracted from FP of pure
solvent
• Boiling Point (BP) TB i is always added to BP of pure
solvent
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
ii – VHF – VHF
• Nonelectrolytes (covalent)• remain intact when dissolved • 1 particle
• Electrolytes (ionic)• dissociate into ions when dissolved• 2 or more particles
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
ii – VHF – VHF
• Examples
• CaCl2
• Ethanol C2H5OH
• Al2(SO4)3
• Methane CH4
•i =
• 3
• 1
• 5
• 1
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
KK – molal constant – molal constant
•KKFF – molal freezing point constant• Changes for every solvent • 1.86 °C·kg/mol (or °C/m) for water
•KKBB – molal boiling point constant• Changes for every solvent • 0.512 °C·kg/mol (or °C/m) for water
C. Calculations: Recap!C. Calculations: Recap!
T : subtract from F.P. : subtract from F.P.
add to B.P.add to B.P. ii – VHF : covalent = 1 – VHF : covalent = 1
ionic > 2ionic > 2K : K : KKF waterF water = = 1.86 °C·kg/mol
KKB water B water = = 0.512 °C·kg/mol
T = i · m · K
At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 0.730 moles of glucose in 225 g of water boil?
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
m = 3.24mKB = 0.512°C/m
TB = i · m · KB
WORK:
m = 0.730 mol ÷ 0.225 kg
GIVEN:b.p. = ?
TB = ?
i = 1 TB = (1)(3.24m)(0.512°C/m)
TB = 1.66°C
b.p. = 100.00°C + 1.66°C
b.p. = 101.66°C
100 + Tb
C. CalculationsC. Calculations
Find the freezing point of a saturated solution of NaCl containing 28 g NaCl in 100. mL water.
i = 2
m = 4.8m
KF = 1.86°C/m
TF = i · m · KF
WORK:
m = 0.48mol ÷ 0.100kg
GIVEN:
f.p. = ?
TF = ? TF = (2)(4.8m)(1.86°C/m)
TF = 18°C
f.p. = 0.00°C – 18°C
f.p. = -18°C
0 – TF
D. Osmotic PressureD. Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis: The flow of solvent into a solution through a semipermeable membrane
Semipermeable Membrane: membrane that allows solvent to pass through but not solute
D. Osmotic Pressure D. Osmotic Pressure
Net transfer of solvent molecules into thesolution until the hydrostatic pressureequalizes the solvent flowin both directions
Because the liquid level for the solution is higher, there is greater hydrostatic pressure on the solution than on the pure solvent
Osmotic Pressure:
The excess hydrostatic pressure on the solution compared to the pure solvent
D. Osmotic PressureD. Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic Pressure:
Minimum Pressurerequired to stop flowof solvent into the solution
D. Osmotic PressureD. Osmotic Pressure
= i M R T
where:
π = osmotic pressure (atm)osmotic pressure (atm)
i = VHFVHF
M = Molarity (moles/L)
R = Gas Law Constant
T = Temperature (Kelvin)
E. Osmotic Pressure CalculationsE. Osmotic Pressure Calculations
0.08206 L atm/mol K
E. Osmotic Pressure CalculationsE. Osmotic Pressure Calculations
Calculate the osmotic pressure (in torr) at 25oC of aqueous solution containing 1.0g/L of a protein with a molar mass of 9.0 x 104 g/mol.
i = 1
M = 1.11 x 10-5 M
R = 0.08206 L atm/mol K
T = 25oC = 298 K
WORK:
M = 1.0 g prot.
GIVEN:
= ?
1.11 x 10-5 M
= (1)(1.11x10-5)(.08206)(298)
= 2.714 x 10-4 atm
= 0.21 torr
1 mol prot. 1 L sol’n 9.0 x 104 g
=
If the external pressure is larger than the osmotic pressure, reverse osmosis occurs
One application is desalination of seawater
F. Reverse OsmosisF. Reverse Osmosis