ii
TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR FOR REFINED, BLEACHED AND
DEODORIZED OF PALM OLEIN AND PALM STEARIN USING FOURBALL
TRIBOTESTER
TIONG CHIONG ING
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering (Mechanical)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
APRIL 2013
CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk
Provided by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional Repository
iv
DEDICATION
To my parents…
And beloved wife…
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my special thanks to my project supervisors,
Dr. Syahrullail Samion and Assoc. Prof Ir. Dr. Mohammed Rafiq bin Dato' Abdul
Kadir for his continuous valuable advice, guidance, support and motivation during
project.
Secondly, I would like to express my thanks to all staffs from Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering for being cooperate, and provide information regard to this
project. Also, special thanks to all technicians especially in fluid Laboratory who
were providing project equipment and assisting in technical support.
Next, thanks to my family and friends. They have been helpful in this project
and encouraging me mentally and spiritually to complete this project. I assured you
all, that I have given my very best for this project.
Last but not least to everyone who has been directly or indirectly contributing
their effort for the success of this research.
Thank you.
vi
ABSTRACT
Vegetable-based lubricants are much more biodegradable compared to
lubricants produced from mineral oil. Due to the increasing concern about health and
environmental damage caused by mineral-oil based lubricants, there is a growing
worldwide trend for promoting the use of vegetable oil as lubricants in a number
industries, Nowadays, vegetable oil is viewed as having the potential to substitute the
conventional mineral-oil based lubricating oil due to its environmental friendly
properties such as being biodegradable and non-toxic. In this research, refined,
bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein and palm stearin were used as lubricants
to evaluate their tribological behaviors using four-ball tribotester. The objectives of
this research are to determine the friction value and wear characteristics of RBD
palm olein and palm stearin using fourball tribotester. The experiments were run
under various loads, sliding speeds and lubricant temperatures for one hour as
recommended by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The
results focused on the friction result obtained and observation of wear scar image on
the sliding surface which was compared with the results of paraffinic mineral oil.
The result shows that friction value for RBD palm olein is lower than RBD palm
stearin. However, both RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin give lower friction
compared to paraffinic mineral oil. Thus, RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin can
be used as lubricant in mechanical system in terms of friction reduction.
vii
ABSTRAK
Minyak pelincir berasaskan tumbuhan adalah lebih mudah boleh biorosot
berbanding pelincir yang berasaskan minyak galian. Dari perningkatan kebimbangan
tentang kerosakan kepada kesihatan dan alam sekitar yang disebabkan oleh pelincir
berasaskan minyak galian, para pengkaji telah mula mempromosikan minyak
tumbuhan sebagai pelincir untuk digunakan dalam sesetengah industri. Minyak
tumbuhan mempunyai potensi untuk menggantikan minyak galian sebagai minyak
pelincir atas ciri mesra alam seperti boleh biorosot and tidak toksik. Dalam kajian ini,
minyak sawit olein dan minyak sawit stearin yang telah ditapis, diluntur dan
dinyahbaukan (RBD) digunakan sebagai minyak kajian. Objektif kajian ini adalah
untuk menentukan nilai pemalar geseran dan ciri haus minyak sawit olein RBD dan
minyak sawit stearin RBD dengan menggunakan mesin penguji tribo empat bola.
Eksperimen telah dijalankan dengan pelbagai bebanan, halaju gelangsar dan suhu
minyak pelincir selama satu jam mengikut piawaian ASTM. Keputusan eksperimen
telah dibandingkan dengan minyak galian parafin tanpa bahan tambahan dan
tertumpu kepada nilai pemalar geseran yang diperolehi dan permerhatian terhadap
imej parut haus pada permukaan gelangsar. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa
nilai pemalar geseran untuk minyak sawit olein RBD adalah lebih rendah berbanding
minyak sawit stearin RBD. Walau bagaimanapum, kedua-dua minyak sawit olein
RBD dan minyak sawit stearin RBD memberikan nilai pemalr geseran yang lebih
rendah berbanding minyak galian parafin. Rumusan daripada kajian ini, minyak
sawit olein RBD dan minyak sawit stearin RBD berpotensi untuk digunakan
sebagain minyak pelincir dalam sistem mekanikal kerana dapat mengurangkan
geseran.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
ABSTRAK vii
TABLE OF CONTENT viii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 2
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Objectives of Research 4
1.5 Scope and Limitation of Research 5
1.6 Significant of Research 5
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Tribology 7
2.3 Fourball Apparatus 8
2.4 Friction 11
ix
2.4.1 Sliding Friction 12
2.5 Wear 13
2.5.1 Abrasive wear 14
2.5.2 Adhesive Wear 15
2.5.3 Scuffing 16
2.5.4 Fretting 18
2.5.5 Fatigue 19
2.5.6 Fluid and Cavitation Erosion 21
2.6 Surface Profile 22
2.6.1 Surface Roughness 23
2.6.2 Measurement of Surface Texture 23
2.6.3 Type of Engineering Surface 25
2.7 Lubricant and Lubrication 27
2.7.1 Function of Lubricant 29
2.7.2 Oil Viscosity 31
2.7.3 Measurement of Viscosity 34
2.7.4 Thermal Stability 37
2.8 Vegetable Base Oils 38
2.9 Oil Palm 40
2.9.1 Palm Oil 42
2.9.2 RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin 44
2.9.3 Palm Oil as Lubricant 48
2.10 Research Related Field 48
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 60
3.2 Preparation of Experimental Material 61
3.2.1 Fourball Tribotester 61
3.2.2 Steel Ball Bearing 63
3.2.3 Lubricants 64
3.2.4 Lint Free Industrial Wipe and Acetone 67
3.2.5 Friction Evaluation 67
x
3.2.6 Wear Scar Diameter 68
3.3 Experimental Conditions 69
3.3.1 Standard Fourball Tribotest 69
3.3.2 Modified Single Ball Tribotest 70
3.4 Experimental Procedures for Standard Fourball Test 72
3.5 Experimental Procedures for Modified Ball Test 73
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 Standard Fourball Tribotester Test 76
4.2.1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 76
4.2.2 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Normal Load
Lubricated with PO, PS and P2
83
4.2.3 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Sliding Speed
Lubricated with PO, PS and P2
95
4.2.4 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Operating
Temperature Lubricated with PO, PS and P2
106
5 FRICTION EVALUATION ON PITTED CONTACTING
SURFACE FOR PO, PS AND P2
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 The Effect of Micro-pattern on Friction Evaluation under
various load applied
125
5.3 The Effect of Micro-pattern on Friction Evaluation under
various sliding speed
129
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion 135
6.2 Recommendation 136
REFERENCES 137
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
NO.
TITLE PAGE
Table 1.1 Applications of the engine lubricants and non-engine 2
lubricants
Table 2.1 Roughness value from different machining processes 26
Table 2.2 Data for evaluation of viscosity index 33
Table 2.3 The advantages and disadvantages of vegetable base oil 38
Table 2.4 The incidence of poverty in agriculture sector in
Malaysia from 1970 to 1990 42
Table 2.5 Composition of RBD palm olein 45
Table 2.6 Composition of RBD palm stearin 46
Table 2.7 Composition of palm oil 47
Table 2.8 Coefficient of friction and wear scar diameters of test oil 52
determined as per ASTM D4172 and wear load determined
as per ASTM D2783
Table 2.9 Hardness of the D2 steel after the wear under different 54
wear conditions
Table 3.1 Density for Paraffinic mineral oil, RBD palm olein and 66
RBD palm stearin
Table 3.2 Standard fourball tribotest under different load applied 69
Table 3.3 Standard fourball tribotest under different sliding speed 70
Table 3.4 Standard fourball tribotest under different temperature 70
Table 3.5 Modified single ball tribotest under different load applied 72
Table 3.6 Modified single ball tribotest under different sliding speed 72
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
Figure 2.1 Worn surface of RGF-Epoxy composites 15
Figure 2.2 Microcracks caused by adhesive wear 16
Figure 2.3 Finely scuffed ground surface 17
Figure 2.4 Sliding wear on soft steel
Figure 2.5 Fretting corrosion of unbroken shaft 18
Figure 2.6 Rolling contact fatigue cracks in ball bearing steel 20
Figure 2.7 Rapid crack propagate in non-flammable fluid lubricated
bearing ball 20
Figure 2.8 deformed metallographically changed spherical carbides free, 20
surface material of used bearing ball
Figure 2.9 stringer type carbides in subsurface metallographically
changed ball bering steel 20
Figure 2.10 Cavitation erosion damage to case-hardened valve plate 22
Figure 2.11 Illustration of the effect of scale distortion 24
Figure 2.12 Relative size of stylus and surface 24
Figure 2.13 Modified profile to determine the center line average 25
Figure 2.14 Tribology triangle 28
Figure 2.15 Evaluation of viscosity index 31
Figure 2.16 Schematic diagram of a rotating cylinder viscometer 35
Figure 2.17 Schematic diagram of a cone on plate viscometer 36
Figure 2.18 British Standard U-tube viscometer 37
Figure 2.19 Description of palm oil fruit 41
Figure 2.20 Overview of palm oil refinery process 43
Figure 2.21 (a) wear loss and (b) coefficient of friction of selected 49
material combinations using mineral oil with additives
and without additives
xiii
Figure 2.22 (a) wear loss and (b) coefficient of friction of selected 50
material combinations using sunflower oil with additives
and without additives
Figure 2.23 The effect of normal load on wear 55
Figure 2.24 The effect of sliding speed on wear 55
Figure 2.25 Relationship of wear scar diameter at PH = 2800Mpa 58
Figure 2.26 Relationship of wear scar diameter at PH = 3300Mpa 58
Figure 2.27 Relationship of wear scar diameter at v = 0.2m/s 59
Figure 2.28 Relationship of wear scar diameter at v = 0.4m/s 59
Figure 3.1 (a) Fourball Tribotester, (b) Collect and Ring, (c) Ballpot, 62
(d) Collect remover and Lock nut and (e) Torque wrench
Figure 3.2 Steel-bearing balls 63
Figure 3.3 RBD palm olein 64
Figure 3.4 RBD palm stearin 65
Figure 3.5 Additive free paraffinic mineral oil 65
Figure 3.9 Viscosity for PO,PS and P2 along the temperature 66
Tested respectively
Figure 3.10 Schematic image for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16 different density 71
of micro-pitted surface in this experiment
Figure 4.1 Friction torque versus time for PO, PS and P2 77
Figure 4.2 COF for PO, PS and P2 under ASTM D 4172
experimental condition 79
Figure 4.3 WSD for PO, PS and P2 under ASTM D 4172
experimental condition 80
Figure 4.4 Wear worn surface for (a) PO, (b) PS and (c) P2 82
Figure 4.5 Friction torque obtained lubricated with PO, PS and P2 83
under different load applied
Figure 4.6 Coefficient of friction obtained lubricated with PO, PS 84
and P2 under different load applied
Figure 4.7 Wear scar diameter of bearing balls lubricated with PO, PS 85
and P2 under different load applied
Figure 4.8 Flash temperature parameter for PO, PS and P2 under 87
different load applied
xiv
Figure 4.9 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 30kg, 88
(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg
Figure 4.10 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 30kg, 89
(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg
Figure 4.11 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 30kg, 90
(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg
Figure 4.12 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO at (a) 30kg, 92
(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg
Figure 4.13 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS at (a) 30kg, 93
(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg
Figure 4.14 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 at (a) 30kg, 94
(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg
Figure 4.15 Effect of sliding speed on friction torque for PO, PS 95
and P2 respectively
Figure 4.16 COF for PO, PS and P2 under different sliding speed 97
Figure 4.17 Wear scar diameter measured for those lubricated with 98
PO, PS and P2 under different sliding speed
Figure 4.18 FTP for PO, PS and P2 at various sliding speed 99
Figure 4.19 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 800rpm 101
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.20 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 800rpm, 102
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.21 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 800rpm, 103
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.22 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 800rpm, 104
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.23 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 800rpm, 105
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.24 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 800rpm, 106
(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm
Figure 4.25 Friction torque obtained lubricated with PO, PS and 107
P2 under different operating temperature respectively
Figure 4.26 COF for PO and P2 under different operating temperature 109
xv
Figure 4.27 Wear Scar Diameter lubricated with PO, PS and P2 under 110
different operating temperature
Figure 4.28 Flash Temperature parameter for PO, PS and P2 111
under different operating temperature
Figure 4.29 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 55°C, 113
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 4.30 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 55°C, 114
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 4.31 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 55°C, 115
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 4.32 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 55°C, 117
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 4.33 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 55°C, 118
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 4.34 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 55°C, 119
(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C
Figure 5.1 Transforming of (a) fourball working concept to 123
(b) modified one ball to evaluate the effect of micro-pit
on the contacting surface
Figure 5.2 Images capture for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d)16 different 124
density of micro-pitted surface in this experiment
Figure 5.3 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PO on 125
friction torque under different load
Figure 5.4 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PS on 126
friction torque under different load
Figure 5.5 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with P2 127
on friction torque under different load
Figure 5.6 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PO on 129
friction torque under different sliding speed
Figure 5.7 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PS on 130
friction torque under different sliding speed
Figure 5.8 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with P2 on 131
friction torque under different sliding speed
xvi
Figure 5.9 Images for ball cup lubricated with P2 after experiment 132
for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface
and condition
Figure 5.10 Images for ball cup lubricated with PO after experiment 133
for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface
and condition
Figure 5.11 Images for ball cup lubricated with PS after experiment 134
for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface
and condition
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
µ - Coefficient of Friction
F - Force
W - Body weight
L - Length
VI - Viscosity Index
Ra - Arithmetical Mean of the Absolute Values of the Profile Deviation
from the Mean Line
Ʋ - Kinematic viscosity
U - Kinematic viscosity of oil measure at temperature of 40ºC
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FTP - Flash temperature parameter
RBD - Refined, Bleached and Deodourized
PO - Palm olein
PS - Palm stearin
P2 - Paraffinic mineral oil
SEM - Scanning electron microscope
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Vegetable oils have been widely used as lubricant and become very common to
be used almost in all area. They are mostly used in industry such as food processing,
cable car, agricultural machinery, mining machinery, railway and etc.
Palm oil is one of the edible oils that has been widely developed to be used as
lubricant in the industrial sectors. Oil palm is also known as Elaeis guinensis and was
derived from the mesocarp of its fruit. The oil palm tree is easily recognizable, as it
looks like a coconut tree. In fact, the coconut tree is a close relative to the oil palm tree.
Oil palm is a domestic plant to Africans for centuries. Besides that, palm oil is one of the
few highly-saturated vegetable fats. It is in the form of semi-solid at room temperature
which contains several saturated and unsaturated fats. Human started to use oil palms
can be tracked back as far as 5000 years ago. The palm oil is widely used as cooking oil
at that time even until now. However, palm oil met demand to be traded as an industrial
lubricant for machinery during the Britain industrial revolution.
2
1.2 Background of Study
Lubricant is a substance that is introduced into two moving surfaces with the aim
to reduce friction. The property that reduces the friction in mechanical system is called
the lubricity of fluid. Besides that, lubricants also play their role in transporting foreign
particles and distributing the heat. Generally, there are few types of lubricants:-
a) Base oil group
b) Biolubricant
c) Synthetic oils
d) Solid lubricants
Besides that, these lubricants can be classified into two general categories of
applications namely, engine lubricant and non-engine lubricants. Table 1.1 shows the
applications of the engine and non-engine lubricants that are used by the industries.
Table 1.1: Applications of the engine lubricants and non-engine lubricants
Engine Lubricants Non-Engine Lubricants
Gasoline engine oil Transmission fluid
Diesel engine oil Power steering fluids
Automotive diesel oil Shock absorber fluids
Stationery diesel oil Gear oils
Railroad diesel oil Hydraulic fluids
Marine diesel oil Tractor oils
Natural gas engine oil Industrial metalworking fluids
Aviation engine oil Greases
Malaysia is one of the world largest palm oil production countries. There is a
record of 17.7 million tonnes of palm oil production in Malaysia in the year of 2008 on
the 4500000 hectares of land. Majority of the palm oil is shipped to all around the world
for various production purposes such as soap, cooking oil and margarine.
3
After the milling of oil palm, various palm oil products are produced using the
refining processes. Fractionation is the first stage of the refinery process of palm oil
which involves crystallization and separation processes to obtain the solid (stearin), and
liquid (olein) fractions. Then the palm oil is put through the melting and degumming
process in order to remove impurities.
After that, the oil is filtered and bleached. Next, entering the physical
refining removes the smells and coloration, to produce "refined bleached deodorized
palm oil" and free sheer fatty acids, which are used in the manufacture of soaps, washing
powder and other products. Refined, deodorized and bleached is the basic oil product
sold in the world's commodity markets, although many companies fractionate it further
to produce palm olein for cooking oil, or to be processed into other products. Due to the
increasing demand of lubricant in the industrial sector, palm oils have been developed to
replace the petroleum and worked as machinery lubrication in the industrial sector.
1.3 Problem Statement
The earth is warming up and there is now overwhelming scientific consensus that
is happening, and human induced. Researches have shown that air pollutants from fossil
fuel used make clouds reflect more of the sun’s rays back into space. Petroleum is a kind
of natural liquid oil a normal type of oil composed of rock minerals, making it different
from other kinds of oils that come from plants and animals. It consists of a complex
mixture of molecule of molecules called hydrocarbons.
The contaminants derived from petroleum constitute one of the most prevalent
sources of environmental degradation in the industrialized world. These hydrocarbon
molecules are highly toxic to many organisms including humans. Besides that,
petroleum products also contain trace amount of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, which
4
are dangerous by themselves and can react with the environment to produce secondary
poisonous chemicals.
These issues have rose the concern of society and government to find other
substitute of petroleum in order to minimize the environmental issue and the risk of
human health. Plants oil or vegetable oil is one of the alternatives to replace petroleum
in the industrial sector. Vegetable oil is well known as a renewable products and
environmental friendly. Vegetable oil with high degradability have been considered to
substitute the demand of petroleum in the industrial sector all around the world.
Furthermore, it is non-toxic which is closely concerned to the human health in
processing and deposing it.
1.4 Objectives of Research
Due to the limited resources for mineral-based oil from day to day and the
damages to the environment, many researchers are trying to develop a new lubricant that
can be used to replace mineral-based oil in the industries. The objectives of this research
are as follows:-
a) To determine the friction value and wear characteristics of RBD palm olein and
palm stearin using Fourball Tribotester.
b) To investigate the hemispherical surface contact profiles lubricated with RBD
palm olein and palm stearin in term of friction.
c) To investigate the friction result of hemispherical surface contact profiles under
different experimental condition lubricated with RBD palm olein and palm
stearin.
5
1.5 Scope and Limitation of Research
Malaysia is one of the world largest oil palm producers. Hence, the main purpose
of this research is to investigate the ability of palm oil as lubricant in industries.
Following are the scope and limitation of this research.
a) RBD palm stearin is used as lubricant in this research.
b) Additive free paraffinic mineral oil with viscosity of 33Mpa.s is used as test
lubricant in this research.
c) Normal load (30kg to 60kg) is applied on to the system.
d) Speed of spindle (800rpm to 1400rpm) is used in this experiment.
e) Operating lubricant temperature (55°C to 85°C) is used in this experiment.
1.6 Significant of Research
Half usage of the lubricants ends up in the environment. Mineral-based oils
(petroleum) which are the leading type of the based oil used in the industries are
environmentally hazardous and poor degradability when released. Besides that, the
increasing price of the mineral-based oil and the declining rate of production from older
domestic oil fields, governments and individuals created strong incentives to provide
biodegradable lubricants. They are pressed in finding new resources, which can be used
to substitute the petroleum-based oil that gives similar or better lubricity performance
when compared to petroleum-based oil.
Bio-lubricant brings the meaning of biodegradable and renewable based stocks.
They can be products from fatty acids from fats and oils, reacted with synthetics
alcohols to produce esters. Not only that, natural vegetable oils can be treated through
6
several processes to produce modified products which are renewable and biodegradable.
The reduction of wear and friction losses is largely a function of the improved lubricant.
Therefore, advanced lubricants are now being formulated to reduce the wear and
friction. The development of modern lubricants and their proper usage are of great
importance for the national economy, individual and environment. Lubricants, optimally
adjusted to a given task, can save much money in the case of an industrialized nation,
reduce wear, reduce maintenance requirements and reduce the problem of air pollution.
Palm olein and palm stearin are used in this research, which both are considered
as vegetable oil. Palm olein is the liquid fraction of palm oil while palm stearin is the
semi-solid state in room temperature after going through the fraction process. As
Malaysia is one of the world largest oil palm production countries, the development of
palm oil as lubricant in industry can reduce the pollution and hazard to the environment
and also to human being. Currently palm oil with additives has been studied to substitute
the mineral-based oil as biodiesel in combustion engine. Thus the development of palm
oil as lubricant in mechanical system can also be achieved in order to give better living
environment to the creatures.
137
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