ISSN 0974-5904 October 2009
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering Indexed in Chemical Abstracts – CAS Ref. No.: 172238
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International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
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Advisory Committee:
Dr. Paul M. Santi Professor of Geology and Geological Engineering CSM, USA
Dr. Choon Sunwoo Director, Korea Institute of Geo-Sciencesand Mineral Sources, Daejon, South Korea
Dr. S. D. Sivasubramanium School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr. Ganesh R. Joshi University of the Ryukyus Okinawa, JAPAN
Dr. Hyung Sik Yang Geosystem Engineering Chonnam National University Gwangju, Republic of Korea
Dr. L. De Girolamo School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr. Hsin-Yu Shan National Chiao Tung University Hsinchu City, Taiwan
Dr. G. Compton School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom
Dr. George. A. Buckley School of Science and Technology Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr. Christoph Ufer Institute of Bio-Chemistry Universitätsklinikum Charité Monbijoustr, Berlin, Germany
Dr. Sandeep Sancheti Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Karnataka, Surathkal, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. Y. Venkateswara Rao Director, National Institute of Technology, NIT - Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. Deepak Vidyarthi Executive Director Retd. NMDC Limited Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. K. R. Narshima Murthy Deputy General Manager Retd. Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. K. Uma Maheshwar Rao Professor, Mining Engineering IIT Kharagpur, West-Bengal, INDIA
Dr. R. P. Singh Professor, Department of Bio-Technology, IIT-Roorkee Uttarakhand, INDIA
Dr. K. Lalkishore Professor and Rector Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. E. Saibaba Reddy Professor and Registrar Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. I. V. Murali Krishna Director Retd., Institute of Science & Technology JNTU, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
Dr. Vara Prasad Reddy Dy Director, Academic Staff College, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, A.P., INDIA
Dr. M. Panduranga Rao Chairman, New Science Degree & PG College, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. Krishna Pramanik National Institute of Technology, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Orissa, INDIA
Dr. R. Pavanaguru Professor of Geology Retd., Osmania University Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. Sanjay N. Talbar Professor and Registrar Shri Guru Gobind Singhji Institute of Engineering, Nanded, INDIA
Dr. P. Appala Naidu Officer on Special Duty Retd. JNTU, Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
Dr. N. Vidyavathi Head, Department of Bio-Technology, NMAMIT, Nitte, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. P. V. V. V. Prasad Rao HOD, Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, A.P, INDIA
Dr. Gurtek Singh Gill Professor of Geology Punjab University Chandigarh, Punjab, INDIA
Dr. M. M. M. Sarcar Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Andhra University, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. P. V. Ramesh Babu Regional Director, SCR AMD, Hyderabad
Dr. H. P. Sharma University Department of Botany, Ranchi University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA
Dr. Y. Mallikarjuna Reddy Nalanda Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guntur District Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. E. V. Krishna Rao L.B.R. College of Engineering Krishna District, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
Dr. N. Rajkumar New Horizon College of Engineering Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA
Dr. R. Rajesh Bharathiar University Combatore, Tamil Nadu, INDIA
Dr. P. Sreenivas Sarma HOD, Dept. of Civil Engg. Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA
Executive Committee:
HEAD QUARTERS
PRESIDENT
Prof. K. Laxminarayana Project Director Retd. DRDL, DRDO, Hyd, A.P., INDIA
VICE-PRESIDENT
Prof. D. Venkat Reddy Professor of Geology NIT-Karnataka, INDIA
SECRETARY GENERAL
Mr. P. Nikhil Prakash National Institute of Information Technology – NIIT, A.P., INDIA
TREASURER
Mr. T. Prakash Raju National Institute of Information Technology – NIIT, A.P., INDIA
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. V. Sainath Chary Asst. Prof, Shaaz College of Engg. & Tech, Hyd., A.P., INDIA
UK COUNCIL
CHAIRMAN
Dr. S.D. Sivasubramanium Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Dr. L. De Girolamo Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom
SECRETARY
Dr. George. A. Buckley Nottingham Trent University Nottingham, United Kingdom
INDIA COUNCIL
CHAIRMAN
Dr. Trilok N. Singh IIT-Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, Maharashtra, INDIA
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Dr. Shamsher Bhardur Singh BITS Pilani, Rajasthan, INDIA
SECRETARY
Dr. R. Pradeep Kumar IIIT Gachibowli, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
MAHARASHTRA SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Dr. R. K. Bajpai Scientist ‘F’, Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC),
Maharashtra, INDIA
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Shri. Amit Kumar Verma Project Scientist, IIT Bombay
Maharashtra, INDIA
SECRETARY
Dr. N. R. Thote
Head, Dept. of Mining Engg. NIT-Nagpur, Maharashtra
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Vikaram Vishal Monash Research Fellow IIT-Bombay, Maharashtra
JHARKHAND SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Dr. Bijay Singh Ranchi University, Ranchi Jharkhand, INDIA
VICE - CHAIRMAN
Dr. G. Kumar BIT, Sindri, Dhanbad Jharkhand, INDIA
SECRETARY
Dr. Nitish Priyadarshi DST-Young Scientist, D. Sc. Scholar, Ranchi University Ranchi, Jharkhand, INDIA
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Pradeep Kumar Oraon Rajeev Gandhi National Fellow (UGC), Ranchi University, Jharkhand, INDIA
ANDHRA PRADESH SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Dr. A. G. S. Reddy Hydro-geologist Central Ground Water Development Board (Govt. of India), Hyd, A.P., INDIA
SECRETARY
Mr. Raju. A Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyd., A.P., INDIA
RAJASTHAN SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Dr. Manoj Khandelwal Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA
VICE – CHAIRMAN
Dr. A. S. Sheoran Head, Department of Mining Engineering, Jai Narayan Vyas University, Rajasthan, INDIA
SECRETARY
Shri. P. K. Sharma Geologist (Jr) Geological Survey of India Jaipur, Rajasthan, INDIA
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. Ankush Saxena Final Year B.E. (Mining) Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Rajasthan, INDIA
HYDERABAD SUB-SECTION
CHAIRMAN
Mr. Pramod Kumar Sravan Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
VICE-CHAIRMAN
Mr. Hafeez Basha. R Dept. of CSE, Acharya Nagarjuna University (CDE) Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
SECRETARY
Mr. Chandrahas Roy AP State Co-ordinator, Centre for Electronics Development and Information Technology (CEDIT) Hyderabad, A.P., INDIA
JOINT SECRETARY
Mr. B. Srinivas Reddy Senior Technical Assistant National Informatics Centre (NIC), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, INDIA
INDEX
Volume 02 October 2009 No.5
EDITORIAL NOTE
Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design
By SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH
RESEARCH PAPERS
Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in
Garhwal Himalaya, India
By VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY
389-395
Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine
Dinajpur, Bangladesh
By CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED
396-402
Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of
Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
By A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
403-415
Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A
Review
By SMITA S. SWAIN
416-423
Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a
Horizontal Plate Breakwater
By SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S
424-432
Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment
By ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI
433-440
Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance
Concrete
By M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
441-449
Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of High
Strength Concrete
By K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
450-457
Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting
in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
By MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
458-466
BOOK REVIEW
Geological Remote Sensing
Review by S. VISWANATHAN and G. VENKATA RAMAN
i - ii
News and Notes
Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills
Nuclear Minerals - Uranium
Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon
Forthcoming seminars/ symposiums/ technical meets
ii – ii
iii – iv
iv – v
vi - x
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904 CAS Ref. No.: 172238
Volume 2, No. 5, October 2009
Innovations in Composite Materials and
Structural Design
SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH
Group leader of Civil Engineering Group
Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan-333031, India
E-mail: [email protected]
In general, civil engineering plays a vital part in human civilization. Construction of roads,
dams, buildings, bridges and other important infrastructures are always crucial. Critical
problems arise during design and construction with the presence of earthquake and other
natural calamities. The advances in the field of concrete, structural and geotechnical
engineering are enormous over many decades. Ultra High Strength Fiber Reinforced
Concrete, Self Consolidated Concrete, High Performance Concrete and most importantly
Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) are some of the newly developed concretes and
/ or composites for special infrastructure. Concrete structures started using fiber based
reinforcements in the place of steel reinforcements for higher durability and ductility. A
special issue of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (IJEE) and CURIE
Journal will publish selected peer reviewed papers presented in International Conference on
Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) held during
Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, Rajasthan, India.
This editorial note presents recent progress in advanced composite materials used for
sustainable infrastructure construction and fiber-composite industry and the themes of the
ACSGE 2009 which effectively covers these recent advances in associated fields.
Multilayer CFRP Prestressing Technology
Advantages such as high strength to weight ratio and non-corrodible characteristics made
advance composite materials as potential construction materials in recent past. Prestressing
techniques are widely accepted for the higher load carrying capacity and aesthetic
appearance of the structures. However, prestressing steel tendons were facing durability
concerns over time. Non-metallic Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) can overcome
such durability concerns. Further, CFRP materials can be used as externally tensioned FRP
tendons. Prestressing applications of FRP materials involve highly fundamental designs and
executions. Moreover, both FRP and concrete are brittle in nature and when it comes to
prestressed concrete structures, ductility becomes a point of concern. Early days
investigations on utilization of FRP materials concluded that the FRP reinforced beams have
shown less ductile failure. Introduction of multilayer prestressed tendons for bridge girders
has shown bright and innovative design approaches to achieve higher ductility and possible
constructions. In this method of design, the bridge girders are prestressed with CFRP
tendons in vertically distributed multiple layers. The multilayer prestressing pattern is
consisting of pre-tensioning of bonded tendons and post-tensioning of external un-bonded
tendons. The theoretical design philosophy of multilayer tendon prestressed bridge girders
are based on balanced ratio which classifies the beams into under and over-reinforced
sections. The combination of pre-tensioned and post-tensioned tendons will increase the
load carrying capacity and ductility significantly due to progressive failure mechanism. The
multilayer CFRP prestressing technology has been successfully employed in the construction
of Bridge Street Bridge, Southfield, Michigan, USA.
Innovations in Composite Materials and Structural Design
Editorial Note
Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)
In general, yielding behavior of structural steel provides enough ductility to reinforced
concrete structures over normal loadings. But during earthquake excitation and heavy
impact loading conditions every structure undergoes large deformations. Hence, these
structures need more inherent ductility to withstand the failure load and prolong the service
life. The ductile detailing of reinforcement helps in preventing concrete from its brittle
cracking behavior. Above mentioned serious ductility related concerns can be solved to a
better extent by using ductile concrete materials such as Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete
(SIFCON), Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON), Polyethylene Engineered Cementitious
Composite (PE-ECC) and Polyvinyl Alcohol Engineered Cementitious Composite (PVA-ECC) in
structural constructions. Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) is cement based high
ductile composite material. All these high performance cement composite materials show a
unique behavior ‘pseudo tensile strain hardening’ which is directly related to ductility of the
structures. Among these innovative composites, SIFCON and SIMCON use steel fibers to
reinforce cement matrix, however, the steel fiber poses durability concerns. The use of PE-
ECC and PVA-ECC consisting of polymeric fibers eliminates the durability concerns to the
greater extent. Applications of ECC are much more beneficial to brittle concrete structures
reinforced with FRP materials. Typically, PE-ECC and PVA-ECC use short discontinuous
arbitrarily oriented Polyethylene (PE) and Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers, respectively to
reinforce cement matrix with typical fiber volume fraction of 1.5-3%. In uni-axial tension
and bending, both of these composites exhibit pseudo-tensile strain hardening which
improves multipurpose performances. In uni-axial loading, ECC shows ultra-high tensile
strain capacity (3%-7%), with multiple microcracks during the inelastic deformation.
Typically ECC is cast using cement, sand, water, polymeric fiber and plasticizer. However, to
reduce the cost and to increase the material greenness fly-ash can be added by replacing
cement upto 60%. It is natural that the pseudo-tensile strain hardening behavior of ECC will
increase the moment carrying capacity of the beam section. Thus, it requires innovative
design approaches which can directly relate the micromechanical parameters to structural
analysis, design and construction. The ECC can be used as a primary construction material
at plastic hinges and beam-column joints. Moreover, ECC can be very useful for
rehabilitation of deficient structures with enhanced ductility.
Postbuckling Response and Failure of Symmetric Laminated Plates with Square
Cutouts under Uni-axial Compression
Composite laminates can sustain a much higher load after the occurrence of localized
damage such as matrix cracking, fiber breaks or delamination. Due to practical
requirements cutouts are often required in composite structural panels, such as in wing
spars and cover panels of aircraft structures and bridge decks to provide access for
hydraulic lines, electrical lines, fuel lines, damage inspection, and to reduce the overall
weight of the aircraft. The presence of these cutouts forms free edges in the composite
laminates, which in turn cause high interlaminar stresses leading to loss of stiffness and
premature failure of laminates due to onset of delamination Therefore, stability, overall
strength, and failure characteristics of composite panels with cutouts are some of the
important parameters for an improved design of structures fabricated with laminated
panels. A recent investigation is conducted by the author on the effects of rectangular
cutout size, cutout aspect ratio and location of cutout on pre-buckling and postbuckling
responses, failure loads and failure characteristics of (+45/-45/0/90)2s, (+45/-45)4s and
(0/90)4s laminates with square/rectangular cutouts under uni-axial compression. In
addition, the effects of edge boundary conditions on buckling and failure loads and
maximum transverse deflection associated with failure loads for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s quasi-
isotropic laminate with and without cutout have also been investigated. In these
investigations, the 3-D Tsai-Hill criterion is used to predict the failure of a lamina while the
SHAMSHER BAHADUR SINGH
Editorial Note
onset of delamination is predicted by the inter-laminar failure criterion. In addition, the
effects of boundary conditions on buckling load, failure loads, failure modes and maximum
transverse deflection for a (+45/-45/0/90)2s laminate with and without cutout have also
been predicted. It is concluded that square laminates with small square cutouts have more
postbuckling strength than without cutout, irrespective of boundary conditions. Also, it has
been observed that the location of cutout in the practical structural laminates has significant
effect on the pre buckling and postbuckling strength, modes of failure and general failure
characteristics. Thus, it is imperative for all designers and structural analysts to use and
incorporate the latest developments in materials technology (especially composites) and
design approaches for economical and efficient design of composites structures in general
and high performance concrete structures with and without FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer)
reinforcements in particular.
Furthermore, the expansions in contemporary infrastructure depend mainly on the
technological developments in the concrete science, structural and geotechnical
engineering. Many problems in structural and geotechnical engineering are looked upon,
solved and extended for use in the context of soil-structure interaction, construction,
structural materials and geometry, and other uncertainties. Therefore, there is always a
need for the researchers and the practising engineers working in the broad field of concrete
technology, structural and geotechnical engineering, to keep abreast of the latest trends
and developments in these fields with the aim of updating their analytical and practical
skills. Hence, Civil Engineering Group of Birla Institute of Science and Technology
(commonly known as BITS), Pilani is organizing an International Conference on
Advances in Concrete, Structural and Geotechnical Engineering (ACSGE 2009) to
be held during Oct 25th to 27th, 2009 at Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani,
Rajasthan, India.
The main themes of this International conference covering the above aspects and objectives
of the conference are as follows:
• Advanced composite materials
• Composite structures
• Concrete Technology
• Low Cost Housing
• Sustainability of construction, design
and management
• Rehabilitation/Retrofitting of
structures
• Offshore structures, Bridge
Structures
• Structural Design and Low Cost
Housing
• Retaining structures
• Seismology and Ground motion
studies
• Soil - structure interaction
• Geohazards - Liquefaction,
microzonation, landslides, etc
• Geotechnical instrumentation
• Ground improvement techniques,
soft soil stabilization, slope
stabilization
• Geosynthetics – Materials and
applications
• Geoenvironmental Engineering
• Numerical modeling – Geomechanics
and under ground structures
• Applications of FEM, Nano
Technology in Civil Engineering
To conclude, the author wants to emphasize the association of various office bearers and
editorial board of International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering (CAFET-
INNOVA Technical Society,) without that the organization of this event has not been so
effective. Moreover, the various technical contributions from eminent experts of the fields
related to innovative materials and structures, and infrastructures will give immense exposure
and opportunity to young scientists to enrich their technical knowledge and know-how of the
latest developments in analysis and design aspects of innovative structures. The author hopes
that all delegates and resource scientists will have wonderful time at BITS Pilani, Rajasthan,
India and also wishes a grand success of ACSGE 2009 with co-operation of one and all
participating in the conference.
389 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
#02020501 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard
Assessment in Garhwal Himalaya, India
VIVEK KUMAR SINGH* and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY**
*Jharkhand Space Applications Center, Department of Information Technology,
Govt. of Jharkhand, Ranchi, India
**Indian Institute of Remote Sensing, ISRO, Department of Space, Dehradun
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract: Landslides are a major geological hazard in Garhwal Himalayas, since they are widespread dynamic processes that cause damage, and even loss of life, every year. Development of urban areas, Highway construction and expanded land use in Garhwal Himalaya mountain regions has increased the incidence of landslide disasters. The enormous damage caused by landslides can be reduced by means of monitoring systems used for mitigation strategies. Monitoring systems help to forecast the evolution of an area, analyze the kinematics and geometry of failures, and define the history of a failed slope. Conventional monitoring techniques, such as inclinometers, extensometers or GPS provide information on accessible points throughout landslide areas. Space borne or ground-based synthetic aperture radar (SAR) interferometry has been shown to be an effective complementary tool for landslide monitoring.
The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya.
Keywords: Landslide, InSAR, DInSAR, DEM, Himalaya
Introduction:
The Himalayas are undergoing constant rupturing in the thrust belt zone in the Garhwal Himalayas, due to which earthquake and mass movement activity is triggered. These processes of mass movement and landslides have been constantly modifying the landscape. Landslides are one of 'the indicators of the geomorphological modifications taking place in this active and fragile terrain. InSAR techniques can be applied to detect and measure ground deformation, provided that the topographic phase contribution is removed from a sufficiently long time span interferogram in which interferometric phase surface displacement is recorded. This involves the generation and subtraction of the so-called synthetic interferogram, and leads to Differential SAR Interferometry (DInSAR). It can be done either by exploiting an a priori DEM (two-pass technique) or by using a Tandem or short temporal baseline “topographic” Interferogram (three-pass and four-pass techniques, with or without phase
unwrapping of the “topographic” Interferogram (Zebker et al., 1994b; Massonnet et al., 1996).
SAR Interferometry exploits the differences in phase between two complex SAR images. With space-borne systems the two SAR images are acquired at different times and with different viewing angles in order to retrieve a three-dimensional model of the scene imaged, or if there are any, the ground deformations that occurred over the elapsed time. Data acquired by SAR systems can provide 3D terrain models and be used to assist in regional scale investigations, e.g. aimed at evaluation of susceptibility of slopes to failure. Under favorable environmental conditions, the innovative Permanent Scatterers (PS) technique, which overcomes several limitations of conventional SAR differential interferometry (DInSAR) applications in landslide studies, is suitable for monitoring slope deformations with mill metric precision.
390 Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in
Garhwal Himalaya, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
The proposed study is being carried out in the Alaknanda river catchment in Garhwal Himalayas, Uttarakhand, India. The study area lies in the Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya, covering places like and Badrinath, Lambagarh, Joshimath, Patal Ganga, Langsi, Tangani, Pakhi, Pipalkoti, Birahi, Nijmula, Chamoli, Gopeshwar, Mandal, Maithana and Nandprayag of Chamoli district (figure1). The catchment receives heavy precipitation between July and September. Landslides here are an outcome of the intrinsic geology, adverse natural topography, i.e., steep slopes in talus accumulation, weathered rocks and soils, and man-made modification of these fragile slopes. The inherently unstable slopes frequently fail during rainstorms, often with catastrophic consequences.
Geological Setup:
The Garhwal Himalaya is located at the western end of the central Himalaya in the northern India and is situated in a seismic gap along the Main Central thrust that separates the lesser Himalaya to the South from the Greater Himalaya to the North (Valdiya, 1988). Physiographically the area around Chamoli shows a matured topography which has undergone rejuvenation resulting in a combination of highly dissected topography with valleys showing vertical walls and scarps in the lower parts and gently sloping concave hill tops in the upper wider parts. The area is drained by the river Alaknanda and its tributaries, viz. Patal Ganga, Garur Ganga & Birahi Ganga.
Geologically, the area is transected by Grahwal Lesser Himalaya and the Central Crystallines, which are separated along the Main Central Thrust. Main Central Thrust (MCT) thrust locally strikes NW-SE and dips 15-200 N. the Quartzites are well exposed at Chamoli and extended 2-3 km to the northeast and are replaced by limestone and Slate sequences of the Pipalkoti Window. The present study area consists mainly of the alternate bands of Slate and Dolomite which is also known as Carbonate suite of Chamoli (figure 2). The Carbonate suite of Chamoli consists of alternating sequence of Slates and Dolostones and massive dolostone that forms the doubly plunging, Pipalkoti anticline. It is thrust over by the thick Quartzites of Gulabkoti and the Chinka formations, which in their own turn are thrust upon by the Central crystallines along the main central Thrust.
391 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
Figure.2 Regional Geological Map of the Study Area (after Valdiya 1980)
Structural Features:
The area is traversed by majors thrust zones viz. the vaikrita, MCT (Jutogh-Almora-Munsiari) and Bhatwari (=chail= Ramgarh) thrusts. The thrust sheets have been eroded to expose tcetonics windows,(e.g Chamoli, Pipalkoti windows) and klippe (Nandprayag klippe is the NW continuation of Baijnath Ascot klippe). In the epicentral region,west of chamoli between Nandakini and Alaknanda, thrust sheets are repeated in a complex schuppen zone. Two mega lineaments (i.e Haldwani- Karanprayag trending NW-SE and Najibabad- Chamoli- Pipalkoti lineament trending NE-SW (Virdi, 1979) also traverse this region and their intersection with major thrusts in the area may have reactivated them, leading to the generation of swarms- type aftershock activity.
Methodology:
The present study illustrates some current and potential uses of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar interferometry (InSAR) for landslide assessment in Garhwal Himalaya. ERS data were used for the InSAR analysis. In order to select a set of suitable scenes a thorough baseline analysis of all ERS-1 and ERS-2 ascending scenes acquired over the location of Garhwal Himalaya during summer between 1996 and 1999 was performed.
It was of interest to find as many data pairs as possible during that time period, yet keep the perpendicular baselines below 100 m, thus reducing contributions of topography on differential phase values. Ascending orbit was chosen so the look direction (right) would correspond with the aspect of the slope. Seven scenes were finally selected for this initial reconnaissance study, which yielded five data pairs with perpendicular baselines below 100 m.
392 Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in
Garhwal Himalaya, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
The interferometric DEM used was generated from an ERS tandem pair of 11/12 April 1996 & 21/22 September 1998 (figure 3). Geocoding and elevation values were refined using ground control points taken from 1:25,000 scale topographic maps and points collected through DGPS
survey. All data pairs with baselines below 100 m were processed to geocoded vertical elevation change maps using the software package Sarscape 3.2. Fig. 3 & 4 provides an overview of the processing steps involved, as they are implemented in the software.
Figure. 3 Surface movement detection due to landslides using InSAR
Figure.4 Differential interferogram generation using ERS 1 & 2 data
393 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
The study of the spatial and temporal evolution of the surface motion can help in the understanding the influence of the parameters controlling slow landslides (some centimetres per week over several years). A multiyear trend of velocity variation may be superposed on seasonal meteorological variation, and on episodic events. A multitemporal and multiscale study is required to decipher the signature of different causes. Kinematic studies are usually realized by techniques measuring punctual displacements (levelling, lasermeter, GPS), which may not be very suitable to reveal spatial heterogeneities of mass movements. Remote sensing techniques can help in landslide studies.
In particular, SAR interferometry is a powerful tool, providing an image representing the motion with a centimetric precision and with a decametric resolution (Massonet et al., 1993). This technique has already proven its capability to detect and to map surface displacements caused by different natural and anthropic phenomena such as earthquake (Massonet et al., 1993; Zebker et. al. 1994). Despite some severe limitations (high vegetation density leading to decorrelation, high variation of topography, high deformation rate leading to loss of coherence, the capability of SAR interferometry to detect movement fields in landslide areas has been demonstrated (Fruneau et al., 1996; Carnec et al., 1996; Rott et al., 1999; Vietmeier et al., 1999).
Figure.5 Interferogram generated from ERS 1 & 2 data of 21 & 22 September 1998
394 Interferometry SAR for landslide Hazard Assessment in
Garhwal Himalaya, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
Figure.6 (A) & (B) Ellipsoidal Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas
Figure.7 (A) & (B) DEM Flattened Interferogram (21&22Sep1998) of Enlarged areas
Results & Discussions:
The initial result has shown that SAR textural and interferometric techniques can assist in the understanding of landslide processes, post-failure mechanism and mobility. Study demonstrate that InSAR images (11/12 April 1996/ 21/22 September
1998), show evidence of motion at different locations of landslide in the study area (figure 5, 6, 7 & 8). The InSAR pairs with small baselines provide more accurate results. This suggests that InSAR techniques can be used to supplement field monitoring techniques on active landslides.
Figure.8 Landslide movements past Gauna Tal on east as observed on ERS 1 & 2
Interferogram (Geocoded) and ETM image.
395 VIVEK KUMAR SINGH and P. K. CHAMPATI RAY
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 389-395
Acknowledgement:
Authors acknowledge the contribution and help provided by Dr. V. K. Dadhwal, Dean IIRS, Dehradun and Prof R.C. Lakhera, Head, Geosciences Division IIRS, Dehradun
References:
[1] Carnec, C., Massonnet, D., King, C., (1996) Two examples of the application of SAR interferometry to sites of small extent - Geophysical Research Letters, vol 23-pp. 3579–3582.
[2] Fruneau, B., Achache, J., Delacourt,
C., (1996) Observation and Modeling of the Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée Landslide Using SAR Interferometry- Tectonophysics vol 265-pp. 181–190.
[3] Vietmeier, J., Wagner, W. and Dikau,
R. (1999) Monitoring moderate slope movements (landslides) in the southern French Alps using differential SAR interferometry, Fringe 1999
[4] Massonnet, D., Rossi, M., Carmona,
C., Adragna, F., Peltzer, G., Feigl, K., Rabaute, T., (1993) The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by Radar Interferometry. Nature vol 364-pp. 138–142.
[5] Massonnet, D., Vadon, H., Rossi, M.,
(1996) Reduction of the need for phase unwrapping in Radar Interferometry. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol.34-pp. 489–497.
[6] Rott, H., Scheuchl, B., Siegel, A.,
Grasemann, B., (1999) Monitoring very slow slope movements by means of SAR interferometry: a case study from a mass waste above a reservoir in the Ötztal Alps, Austria. Geophysical Research Letters vol.26-pp.1629–1632.
[7] Valdiya K.S. (1980) Geology of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India.
[8] Valdiya K.S. (1988): Geology and natural environment of Nainital Hills Himalaya, Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India
[9] Virdi, N. S. (1979) Status of the Chail
Formation vis-à-vis Jutogh-Chail relationship in Himachal Lesser Himalaya. Himalayan Geology, vol.9-pp. 111-125.
[10] Zebker, H.A.,Werner, C.L.,
Rosen, P.A., Hensley, S., (1994) Accuracy of topographic maps derived from ERS-1 Interferometric Radar. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing vol. 32 (4)-pp.823–836.
[11] Zebker, H.A., Rosen, P.A.,
Goldstein, R.M., Gabriel, A.,Werner, C.L., (1994b) On the derivation of coseismic displacement fields using Differential Radar Interferometry: the Landers earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research vol.99 (B10)-pp. 19617–19634.
396 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
#02020502 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal
Mine, Dinajpur, Bangladesh
CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN1, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA1, M. FARHAD HOWLADAR2 and FARID AHMED1
1 Department of Geology & Mining, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi-6205, Bangladesh. 2 Dept. of Petroleum and Georesources Engineering, Shahjalal University of Science and
Technology, Sylhet-3114, Bangladesh.
Email:[email protected]
Abstract: As a part of the evaluation of long wall caving mechanism of the 1101 coal face
of the Barapukuria coal mine (BCMC), Barapukuria, Parbatipur, Dinajpur district,
Bangladesh. Analysis of horizontal strain and subsidence that would be expected at the
ground surface over long wall coal face was performed. To extract coal from Barapukuria
Coal Mining Company (BCMC) using the method of Inclined Slicing Roof Caving Long Wall
Mining along the Strike, and the sequence of slices mining from top to bottom order. Mining
of 1101 coal face initiates caving from the lowest strata in the immediate roof and
propagates upward into the Gondwana Formation and up to the base of lower Dupi Tila and
finally reaches up to the surface. NBC (England, 1975) method, it is estimated that at
around 0.75 m ground subsidence may occur for the mining of 1st slice, and successively
for the mining of 5th slice the ground subsidence may 2.25 m occur, of which is relatively
difficult to control the ground response and a violent interaction effects may anticipated.
Filling process can not eliminate subsidence but reduce it if the operation is carried out to a
higher standard and to allow an increase in the percentage of recovery of the coal over the
caving mining methods. Again, such a high risk mining methods must be avoided because
its failure would seriously jeopardize any future mining prospects in the country.
Incorporation of this research work to the mine authority will facilitate guideline and provide
an integrated tool for future long wall planning and design of the mine.
Keywords: Barapukuria Coal Mine, Surface Subsidence, mining problems, slice mining
Introduction:
Coal mine of Barapukuria basin in Dinajpur
district, Bangladesh, enters into the coal
mining era for the first time. During 1984-
85 and 1986-87 field seasons Geological
survey of Bangladesh (GSB) drilled seven
boreholes in and around Barapukuria area
under Parbatipur Upozilla of Dinajpur
district, Bangladesh (Fig.1) and confirmed
the presence of 157 m thick Gondwana
sediment between the basement and
Tertiary sediments in the area. As the
country having no coal mining experience in
the past, BCMC is expected to bring about a
number of others mining related activities in
the country. Barapukuria coal mine is
promptly organized by the Jiangsu Coal
Geology Company, CMC, China, under the
direct supervision of Petrobangla,
Bangladesh, now trail basis production is
under processes, which is a modern and
large scale one with a production capacity of
1 million tones annually.
To be analyzed from an underground coal
mining as well as an environmental
standpoint, all surface effects of subsidence
associated with mining must be recognized.
The analysis of vertical displacement that
will impact of mining operations has often
been the primary focus of subsidence
investigations. This research work is
intended to provide primary focuses on the
impact of mining operations of 1101 long
wall face of BCMC operations, as a
consequence of direct surface effects. The
major components of subsidence that
influence its environmental impacts are
vertical displacement, horizontal
displacement, slope, horizontal strain, and
vertical curvature (SME, 1986). As BCMC is
the first step for Bangladesh entering into
the coal mining era. Hence very little
information is available concerning
subsidence prediction model, particularly the
stress-strain behavior of litho-stratigraphy
of Bangladesh, and the existing information
is not sufficient enough for a detail analysis
of subsidence model. For this, the empirical
Graphical method is used for the prediction
of surface subsidence as a consequence of
BCMP field condition.
397 Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine
Dinajpur, Bangladesh
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
Fig.1 Location map of the Barapukuria Coal
Mine area, Parbatipur Dinajpur District,
Bangladesh.
Geology of the Mining Area:
Bangladesh constitute the major part of
Bengal Basin, which is bounded by Arakan-
Yama Mega-anticlinorium in the east, by
Indian Shield in the west, by Shillong massif
in the north and open to the Bay of Bengal
to south as an active Foredeep. Within these
area, Barapukuria coal field located in the
Rangpur saddle of the Indian Platform (Bakr
et.al., 1996). The coal bearing Gondwana
intra-cratonic basins (graben and half-
graben) have been discovered in many
gravity lows within the basement of Rangpur
saddle and adjoining areas (Khan and
Rahman, 1992).
The general structure of the Barapukuria
Coal Mine area is a single syncline spreading
along N-S direction and cut by faults (CMC,
1994). Geologically, this basin area is a
plain land covered with Recent Alluvium and
Pleistocene Barind Clay Residuum. The
geologic succession of this basin has been
established on the basis of borehole data
(Guha, 1978). The sedimentary rocks of
Gondwana Group, Dupi Tila Formation,
Barind Clay Residuum, and Alluvium of the
Permian, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Recent
ages respectively were encountered in the
bore holes which lie on the Pre-cambrian
Basement Complex. A large gap in
sedimentary record is present in between
Gondwana Group and Dupi Tila Formation,
which are most probably happened due to
the erosional or non-depositional phase exit
during Triassic to Pliocene age (Khan and
Rahman, 1992).
Methods of Study:
The most comprehensive and widely used
empirical method of predicting subsidence
and surface strain profiles is that developed
by the National Coal Board, UK and reported
in the NCB’s subsidence Engineers hand
book (1975). This method is to represent
the effects of major factors by a series of
nomographs based on numerous movement
and deformation curves collected under
similar mining conditions and geological
setting. The method becomes more widely
used under a wide range of situations and it
is easiest and convenient to use. Although
this method is only and strictly applicable to
the UK, but it is not unusual to use the
method as a basis for preliminary
development work in other coal fields. As
such locally observed, information becomes
available, empirical models of subsidence
prediction for BCMC is more relevant to
NCB’s method to be developed. Hence it is
recognized that significant variation in the
predicted values for the subsidence and
strain profiles between the NCB and locally
derived BCMP prediction model may result,
but in absence of any local data the use of
NCB method can be considered to be
appropriate for the purpose of the study.
Again, the subsidence profile predicted by
this method usually appears within the
variation of ±10% of the actual field
measurement, (NCB, 1975; Peng, 1986).
The NCB prediction model is used in the
case of 1101coal face trail basis production
stage of BCMC under some limitations, like
the absence of available mining data and
obviously the practical condition of gob
forming process.
Subsidence Prediction of 1101 Coal
Face:
It is difficult or even impossible to
thoroughly measure the displacement of the
upper strata due to subsidence caused by
mining activity in the targeted coal horizon.
Most of the research on subsidence has
concentrated on surface movement of the
mine prone area. Theories or methods for
subsidence prediction, damage assessment
and prevention measures have been
established based on surface measurement.
However it is believed that the subsidence
phenomenon in any underground substance
is similar to that in the surface. Thus by
adapting the surface subsidence theory to
the upper seam in a multiple seam mining
environment, the location and extent of
tension and compression zone in the upper
roof strata can be predicted with acceptable
accuracy.
The BCMC now in trail basis production
mode and the 1101 coal face is going to be
prepared for the extraction of coal, and only
398 CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
50 m of the long wall face is to be
developed. The overall geometric layout of
1101 face has a thickness of m = 2.5 m,
depth of seam or overburden, h = 250 m,
width of the long wall face, w = 103 m, rate
of advancing speed of shearer cutting 5
m/min, one cycle of cutting complete by
double drum shearer is 30~33 min. A brief
analysis of 1101 long wall coal face of the
BCMP, subsidence prediction assessment
was carried out by the empirical graphical
method (NCB, 1975), which is given below:
Calculated Sequences, Results and
discussions:
1. Limit angle and Subsidence development:
When the mined-out gob has reached the
critical size, the angle between the vertical
line at the face edge and the line connecting
the face edge to the movement basin, is the
angle of draw. Theoretically it varies from
15° to 45° (Allgaier, 1982) depending on
the location, size of opening, and the local
geology. Incase of BCMC, the limit angle or
angle of draw is assumed to be 35° from the
vertical plane (Wardell Armstrong, 1993)
Shown in Fig 2. According to Peng, 1984;
the limit of subsidence development is
approximately 0.7 h in front and 0.7 h
behind, a working face. From this point of
view, the influence of subsidence may
initiates by a circle of diameter of 175 m
from the edge of the Track gate and Belt
gate crosscut to the retreating direction of
the 1101 coal face upper strata.
Fig.2 Terminology for subsidence profile
above a single long wall coal face.
2. Maximum Possible Vertical Subsidence
(Smax)
Theoretically the maximum possible vertical
subsidences which can occur when complete
mineral extraction and subsequent roof
caving has taken place within the circle of
influence is 90% of the seam thickness. i.e.
S max = 0.9 m
3. Maximum Vertical Subsidence (S) in
Relation to the Width/Depth Ratio (w/h)
For a given width of the long wall face(w),
the maximum vertical subsidence (S)
decreases with increased seam depth (h)
and vice versa relationship. The value of S
can be calculated for subsidence profiles
from Fig.3.
Fig.3 Subsidence related to Width / Depth
ratios of 1101 coal extraction.
In the case of BCMP the extracted width of
the 1101 Coal face to be W=103 m,
thickness of coal seam, m=2.5 m and the
depth of over burden h = 250 m. The
calculated maximum or central subsidence,
as
m
S
=0.3, S =0.3×m, Or, S=0.75 m
4. Vertical Subsidence (s) away from the
Centre Point of the Working:
The vertical subsidence (s), distance X from
the centre of working may be expressed as:
s = K1× S
The coefficient K1 is plotted against various
values of X/L from Fig.4 for the construction
of details subsidence profile.
Fig.4 Vertical subsidence away from centre
point or critical axis of the mine working.
5. Horizontal Displacement (V)
The horizontal displacement (V) associated
with a vertical subsidence (s) at a distance X
from the critical axis is given by:
V = K2 × s
The coefficient K2 is plotted against X/L for
the values of w/h = 0.412 from Fig.5. Here
399 Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine
Dinajpur, Bangladesh
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
it is noted that, all final horizontal
displacements are moving towards the
central axis of the working face.
Fig.5 Horizontal Displacement away from
the centre point or critical axis of the face in
terms of width/depth of the extraction.
6. Horizontal Strain (± E)
Horizontal strain or change in unit length (±
E), can be derived from horizontal
displacement by considering two points at a
small distance apart, from Fig.6.
i.e. Strain (± E) = S dK2/L
The maximum strain is related to the
maximum subsidence and depth of
overburden of the rock mass. The
proportional constant K3 is determined from
fig.6, which is depending on the w/h of the
working face and it is different for both the
tensile and compressive strain.
Fig.6 Horizontal strain and slope at various
Width/Depth ratios of extraction.
From fig.6, it is estimated that K3 =0.8 for
compressive strain (+E) and K3 = 1.65 for
tensile strain (-E) in the prevailing condition
for the BCMC 1101 coal face ground surface.
7. Ground Slopes or Rotations (G)
Change in ground slope or rotation (G) can
be derived from vertical subsidence by
considering two points at a small distance
apart, fig.4.
ie. Rotation (Gmax) = Smax dK1/L
A more accurate estimate of maximum
rotation in a subsidence trough may be
obtained from the expression:
G = K3 S/h
Like subsidence and strain profile, the slope
profile may vary with the w/h of the
opening. The maximum slope is greatest for
an opening with w/h= 0.45 and decreases
with either an increasing or decreasing of
w/h (Peng, 1984). Now the coefficient K3 is
plotted against w/h from fig.6. it follows that
the maximum possible slope is given by:
Gmax = 2.75 Smax/ h
8. Subsidence Profile
The complete subsidence profile determined
from the graph, which can be expressed in a
table given below:
Table:1. Calculation sequence for the
determination of subsidence profile.
In table: 1. Row 1 lists the steps of the ratio
of local subsidence to maximum subsidence
(s/S) between 0 (Zero) for the subsidence
edge and 1 for the center point of the face.
The number and interval of steps of the
calculation sequence are arbitrary. Now
multiplying each step in row 1 by maximum
subsidence (S=0.75) to obtain row 2, which
is physically signify the local subsidence that
may happened in the upper strata of the
mining horizon of 1101 coal face.
For the determination of horizontal
displacement in Row 3 is calculated from
Appendix of NCB, 1975, the value X/L
(where, X is the distance from the center of
the face) is estimated for w/h=0.412. Then
multiplying each value of Row 3 by
overburden depth, h =250m to obtain the
actual distance from the center of the face
for Row 4. Basically, Row 2 lists the actual
subsidence for points listed in corresponding
columns of row 4. There by plotting the
predicted final subsidence profile, shown in
Figs. 7a.
9. Strain Profile
Like subsidence profile the strain profile can
be constructed, by maintaining the following
procedure. In Table-2 (appendix) listed the
computed value for a complete strain
profile. From rows 1 lists values of
horizontal strain e/E from Appendix of NCB,
1975, & row 2 is the product of K3 ×S/h
(where S=0.75, and h=250 m) by the
multiple fractions in row 1 to obtain row 2.
Where, K3 is the proportional constant.
Therefore Row 3 is derived by transferring
the distance interns of ‘h’ for W/h = 0.412
from Appendix of NCB, 1975. Basically, it is
the relative displacement of the upper strata
due to the mining of target horizon, of which
can be from the centre point of the workings
to the rib side of the face. Hence, it is
regarded as the empirical assumption of
400 CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
which can not be determined in the practical
field condition. Now multiply row 3 by h=
250 m to obtain row 4 in terms of distance
from the center of the opening. By this way
the iteration of calculation sequence for
strain profile is completed. Now, the strain
profile is graphically presented by using the
value of row 2 and row 4, of which is the
final predicted strain profile for the
maximum subsidence of S=0.75 m, shown
in fig.8.
10. Final Subsidence Profile
As a part of the evaluation of long wall
caving mechanism of 1101 coal face of
BCMC, an analysis of horizontal strains and
subsidence that would be expected at the
ground surface over long wall coal face was
performed. This section of the report
provides a general discussion of subsidence
effects, the input parameters and NBC
empirical method used for this analysis, and
the predicted horizontal strains and
subsidence displacements obtained from
these analyses. The long wall coal mining is
designed to recover large blocks of coal and
left almost no coal prior to support the
surface. Historically long wall mining method
results in a larger area of subsidence
troughs than the conventional room-and-
pillar mining. Generally due to long wall
mining, vertical subsidence may occur on
the surface along the centerline of the face,
of which depends upon seam thickness,
overburden rock over the coal seam, and
the surface topographic features.
Mining induced surface subsidence
ultimately results damage to the surface
features and structures, and the magnitude
of damage depends on the forces (stress)
that propagate to the surface as the mine
roof collapses. These forces may include
stretching (tension), squeezing
(compression), and sinking of the ground
(vertical displacement). The effects of the
forces are measured and studied by
developing a subsidence profile, which
shows how subsidence would look on a
cross-section usually drawn at a right angle
to the long wall face advance. From the
constructed profile (Figs. 7a), it is shown
that the greatest amount of vertical
displacement may occur along the
lengthwise centerline of the 1101 long wall
coal face. The average vertical subsidence
may vary from 0.75 m at the center of the
face to 0.03 m at the edge of the face.
Subsidence basin may initiate at a distance
of 25m from the cross cut road way towards
the center line of the studied coal face,
where as the maximum vertical
displacement is calculated as 0.75 m from
the cross cut entry to the coal face at a
distance of 240 m. i.e. the subsidence
trough progressively decreases at a point
along the trough of the profile until the limit
of the affected surface area is reached.
Fig.7a Predicted subsidence Profile over
1101 Long wall face.
In the figure it shows that at the center of
the face, a maximum subsidence of 0.75 m
calculated with no measurable change in
slope. The same categories of subsidence
impact have already been observed in field
(Figs. 7b).
Fig.7b Evidence of subsidence around the
Barapukuria Coal Mine, Dinajpur,
Bangladesh.
Subsidence (vertical displacement)
decreased from the center of the face to the
edges. Inclination or curvature reached
maximum levels at approximate midpoints
between the centerline and the face edges.
The study also examined the horizontal
displacement created by the subsidence
event. Given that the ground sinks from less
than unity at the face edges to maximum at
its centerline, and the surface experienced
measurable horizontal movement. Fig 8
shows the horizontal displacement may
observe at the 1101 coal face projected
ground surface.
401 Surface Subsidence Prediction in Barapukuria Coal Mine
Dinajpur, Bangladesh
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
Fig.8 Horizontal Displacements over the
1101 Long wall coal face
At approximate midpoints between the
centerline and the face edges, horizontal
displacement found at its minimum value,
where as at the trough edge it shows the
maximum value of 24×10-4 m for single
coal face extraction. Surface features and
structures above the long wall face will
experience varying levels of stress and
subsequent deformation depending on
specific location above the face. Where as
the ground slope or rotation value represent
a negligible degree of changes of the
predicted profile over the coal face. Another
profile shows that both the horizontal and
the vertical forces of tension and
compression move in a wavelike motion
along the surface slightly ahead of the
advancing longwall face, provide a
schematic of this process depicts how the
surface is subjected to waves of stretching
(tension) and squeezing (compression) as
the longwall face passes. The advancing
wave creates a tensional force and then
changes to a compressional force, shown in
Fig.9.
Fig.9 Compression and tension due to
Movement of 1101 long wall coal face;
Profile parallel to the face.
This simplified model gives a prediction of
maximum subsidence expected along the
centerline of a panel. Tensile and
compressive stress-strain fields and vertical
and horizontal deformations develop at the
surface due to the collapse of the long wall
cavity. The purpose of the subsidence
analysis was to determine locations of
relative highs in surface horizontal tensile
and compressive strains at undermined
study sites for possible correlation to areas
of stressed location. Surface tensile strains
are more likely to cause damage than
surface compressive strains because of the
possibility of tearing of the ground surface
or shallow groundwater into surface cracks.
Again Professor Whittaker of Nottingham
University, U.K (1990) carried out a pre-
feasibility study for BCMC. In his report, it is
calculated that for mining of 1st slice the
maximum subsidence of about 0.60 m in
case of 2.5 m seam height, progressively
increasing the number of slices up to 6, the
resultant subsidence would be expected 3.6
m at the ground surface. Where as in this
research work it is calculated that after
extraction of 5th slice the ground surface
above the extracted coal face to be 3.75 m.
So it is commenced that the mine
authorities should take this analogical
comparison between the studies, as a
means of mine fate, unless a deadly event
may observe in the country’s first mining
industry.
Conclusion
The advancement of long wall face in the
coal seam, the support from the overlying
strata is detached and hence the original
equilibrium of these strata is disturbed. The
main concern relating to subsidence
occurrence at the ground surface of the
BCMC site is the development of subsidence
trough. From the calculation, it is estimated
that at around 0.75 m ground subsidence
may occur due to the mining of 1101 coal
face of BCMC. The mine design plan
expected that 5 slices will be mined out
through the course of mine life. From the
analysis, it is estimated that the rate of
subsidence is relatively large enough (0.75
m) in the case of 1st slice, where from
successively it may be assumed that after
mining 5th slice the rate of ground
subsidence may 2.25 m, of which is
relatively difficult to control the ground
response and a violent interaction effects
may anticipated. The development of
subsidence trough above multi slice long
wall face give rise to the generation of
fracture plane and opening of pre-existing
weakness planes between the mining
horizon and the surface. The generation of
fracture planes sufficient to intercept a
surface water body can give rise to forming
a direct flow path between the surface and
the mining horizon. Similarly a major fault
or the sedimentary dyke could be
402 CHOWDHURY QUAMRUZZAMAN, A.K.M. GOLAM MOSTOFA
M. FARHAD HOWLADAR and FARID AHMED
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 396-402
sufficiently opened by undermining as to
allow water body to drain into the mine
workings below. Therefore it is
recommended to allow longer and more
productive coal face to be worked without
increasing the disturbance of the Gondwana
Formations above the mining horizon, and
without increasing the risk of inundation
from the Dupi Tila Formation. Again it is
mandatory for the mine authority to carry
out a detail study for the ground response
and expansion of the materials.
Reference:
[1] Allgaier FK (1982) Surface
Subsidence over long wall panels in
the western U.S., Proc., state –of-
the- art of ground control in long
wall mining and mining subsidence,
SME- AIME, September, pp199-210.
[2] Bakr, M.A., Rahman, Q.M.A., Islam,
M.M., Islam, M.K., Uddin, M.N.,
Resan, S.A., Haider, M.J., Sultan-Ul-
Islam, M., Ali, M.W.,
Chowdhury,M.A., Mannan, K.H. and
Anam, A.N.M.H., (1996) Geology and
coal deposit of Barapukuria basin,
Dinajpur Districts, Bangladesh.
Records of Geological Survey of
Bangladesh, vol.8 part 1p36.
[3] CMC, February, (1994) Preliminary
Geology and Exploration Report of
Barapukuria Coal Mine, Bangladesh.
[4] Guha, D.K., (1978) Tectonic
Framework and oil and gas prospect
of Bangladesh. Proc., of 4th Annual
Conference, Bangladesh Geological
Society, Dhaka. p65-78.
[5] Khan, A.A and Rahman T. 1992. An
analysis of gravity and tectonic
evaluation of north-western part of
Bangladesh. Tectophysics, vol.-206,
p351-364.
[6] National Coal Board (1975)
Subsidence Engineers’ Handbook,”
Production Department, London,
U.K., 49 pp.
[7] Peng, S. (1986) Coal Mine Ground
Control, 2nd Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 491 pp.
[8] Peng, S. and Chiang, H. (1984)
Longwall Mining,” John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., NewYork, NY, 708 pp.
[9] SME Mining Engineering Handbook
(1992) Hartman, Howard L. Society
of Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration, Inc. Port City Press,
Baltimore.
[10] Whittaker (1990) Unpublished
report of Wardell Armstrong, An
Alternatie method of thick seam
mining of the Barapukuria Coal
Basin, Dinajpur, Bangladesh.
[11] Wardell Armstrong (1993)
Techno- Economic Feasibility Study,
Barapukuria Coal project, Dinajpur
District, Bangladesh, Vol. 1 & 2,
Chapter 1 & 2.
Appendix:
Table: 1 Calculation sequence for the determination of subsidence profile.
Table: 2 Calculation sequence of predicting strain profile.
403 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
#02020503 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron
Formation of Tirthamalai, Dharmapuri District,
Tamil Nadu, India
A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU*, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
*E -mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Banded Iron formation (BIF) of Tirthamalai region is situated about 12 km north-
east of Harur in Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu state, India. The rocks of the area are
mainly consist of banded magnetite quartzite associated charnockite and gneiss. There are
four bands of iron formation (Banded Magnetite Quartzite; BMQ) occurred as in the hilly
terrain. It is essentially composed of quartz and magnetite with ferrous aluminosilicates.
Totally, 36 representative banded magnetite quartzite samples were collected from the
study region, in which 20 samples were analyzed for major, trace and REE. The results of
analyses show that the banded magnetite quartzites are mostly composed of SiO2 (average.
=47.71 wt %) and Fe2O3 (51 wt %). The Al2O3 and TiO2 contents are remarkably low,
suggesting that detrital components were starved during the deposition when iron-
formations occurred. Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 ternary diagram suggests that iron-formations in
study area are of Pre-Cambriannature. Plot of Chondrite-normalized (Ce/Sm)CN vs.
(La/Sm)CN for banded magnetite quartzites show that these are clastic metasediments.
The plot of trace elements of Co+Cu+Ni vs. ΣREE content shows that the rocks of study
region differ from the hydrothermal field. Elemental ratio plots for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb, and Y/Ho
show that 0.1% hydrothermal fluid and hydrogenic Fe-Mn crust field. The results of this
investigation, compared with other investigations of iron-formations of world led to the
following conclusions: The REE content and distribution patterns in the study area of iron-
formation have been significantly changed during diagenesis and metamorphism. The
positive europium anomaly of the iron formations can be used as an indicator for knowing
the presence or absence of oxygen in the atmosphere during the Precambrian times. The
ultimate source of material for the iron formations might have been derived from the oldest
continental crust. The banded magnetite quartzites of study region can be interpreted to
have been older than 3.2 Ga on the basis of evolution diagram of Eu/Eu* values normalized
to the average Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies.
Keywords: REE geochemistry; Tirthamalai region; magnetite quartzite; banded iron
formation (BIF); India.
Introduction:
Banded iron formations (BIF’s) are
deposited during the Pre-Cambrian, with the
majority of these rocks formed in between
~3.8 and 1 billion years (Ga). These
formations occur in Tirthamalai, Godumalai,
Tattayangarpettai, Vellalakundam and
Kanjamalai regions of Tamil Nadu state,
India. (King and Foote, 1864; Holland,
1893; Dubey and Karunakaran, 1943;
Krishanan and Aiyangar, 1944; Saravanan,
1969; and Ramanathan, 1972); Saravanan,
1969; and Anjaneya Sastry et al. 1970)
considered these iron ores have resulted
from metamorphism of the originally
existing ferruginous sediments enriched in
silica. This study presents the rare earth
element geochemistry of iron formation of
Tirthamalai region. The distribution of Rare-
Earth Elements (REEs) in Pre-Cambrian iron-
formations (IFs) provides valuable insight
into the composition of contemporaneous
seawater and evolution of the atmosphere,-
hydrosphere-lithosphere system. The
general consensus is that the rocks are of
sedimentary origin, which have been
404 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,
Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
subjected to a fairly degree of
metamorphism (Gole and Klein 1981; Morris
1985). The effects of post-depositional
process (diagenesis, metamorphism, surface
weathering) have been studied based on
primary REE and Y in BIF by Bau (1993) and
Bau and Dulski (1996). Also, several
researchers have attempted to derive the
evolution of the BIF deposits in equilibrium
with normal seawater (Fryer, 1977; Fryer,
et al. 1979). There are few publications that
deal with REE geochemistry of BIFs
distributed within the granulite terrain of
India. Enormous amount of banded iron-
formations (BIFs) occurring mainly at the
Archaean and Proterozoic times that have
received worldwide attention from tectonic,
climatic, and environmental conditions
during the early history of the earth.
Although various models have been
proposed for the genesis of BIFs, the source
of FeO and SiO2 are highly debated (Cloud,
1973; Goodwin, 1973; Trendall and Morris,
1983; Holland, 1984; La Berge, 1986; Klein
and Beukes, 1989; Derry and Jacobsen,
1990; Gross, 1991; Khan et al. 1992;
Morris, 1993 and Khan and Naqvi, 1996). As
there is very limited work on the REE
chemistry of banded iron-formation of
granulite region of southern Peninsnsular
India, the present study is undertaken with
measurements of major, trace and REEs in
banded iron-formation of Tirthamalai.
Study Area and Geological Setting:
The study area is shown in Fig. 1 which is
abundant with banded iron ores. The
Tirthamalai and associated hills are
geographically the northern extension of the
Chitteri hills. The general trend of the hill and
the direction of strike of the rocks are in N-S
but, near the Ponnaiyar River the strike is more
nearly to NE direction. The average rainfall of
the study area is about 896 mm.
The area in and around of Tirthamalai forms a
part of the Archaean Peninsular complex that
has undergone high grade regional
metamorphism with folding, faulting and
shearing structures. The major rock types of
area are banded magnetite quartzite,
charnockites and epidote hornblende gneisses
(Figure 1). There are four bands of magnetite-
quartzite on this hill separated by charnockite
rocks. The first band is 3.21 Km long, with a
maximum width of 121.92 m occurs near the
Tirthamalai Temple which is situated in N-S
direction. A little east to this band, the second
band is seen in the peak 979 m, extending for
about 15.24 m thickness. The third band
appears to be an offshoot of the second one
and shows a maximum thickness of 30.48 m. A
kilometer south of Andiyur there is a fourth
short band on Tirthamalai hill. This area has
been investigated by the Geological Survey of
India in detail between 1961to 1963. The iron
ore of the hill is estimated with the reserves
more than 60 million tons with average iron
content of 38 to 40 %.
Materials and Methods:
About 60 magnetite quartzite samples were
collected from the study region, among which,
20 samples were collected from the first band,
15 samples were collected from 2nd band, 10
samples were collected from 3rd band and 15
samples were collected from the fourth band.
Twenty samples were selected for major, trace
and REE chemical analysis. All samples were
ground to a powder in a tungsten carbide
vessel. Chemical analyses were carried out at
Activation Laboratories (ACT-LABS), Canada.
The measurements were calibrated against
international reference materials namely TM1,
18; SY-3; FK-N; NIST 694, 696 and 1633b;
DNC 1; BIR 1 and GBW 07113 which were
analyzed routinely with each sample run.
Precision was better than 10% in all cases. The
accuracy for major element determination is
estimated between 1 and 5% except for TiO2
(±20%); and for minor elements, between 5
and 20%, except for determinations close to
detection limit, where the accuracy found to be
more variable; and for REE, better than 10%.
Results and discussion:
The concentrations of major elements are given
in Table 1.
Major elements:
The Fe2O3 and SiO2 contents of these
samples are considerably high (50-60 wt
%). All other major oxides like TiO2, CaO,
MgO, MnO, Na2O, and K2O are less than 0.1
wt % in the samples reflecting the
dominance of magnetite and quartzite. The
low values of Al2O3 and high TiO2 indicate
405 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH
K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
that contribution of high amount of clastic
contaminent (Evers and Morris 1981). To
distinguish the iron formations of post Pre-
Cambrian BIF from Pre-Cambrian BIF, the
ternary plot of Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 (Govett
1966) has been plotted. The samples of
study area fall within the Pre-Cambrian field
(Fig. 2) and thus, the iron formation of the
study area belongs to Pre-Cambrian age.
The average major element concentrations
of the Tirthamalai region are compared with
other BIFs of Kanjamalai, Godumalai,
Superior Lake and Quartz Magnetite of Isua
iron formation (Rajendran 1995; Rajendran
et al. 2007; Dymek and Klein, 1981; Gross
and Macleod, 1980) and given in Table 2
and Fig. 3. It can be observed that the iron
formations of study area are similar to other
banded iron formations of the world.
Trace Elements:
Average concentration of Sc, V, Cr, Co, Ni,
Cu and Zn are compared with the
normalized average crustal abundance of
the earth (Shaw, 1980; Table 4)
concentration of trace elements in
Tirthamalai iron formations are less than
that of the average crust and tend to
increase in relative depletion with
decreasing atomic number viz. Sc and V
exhibit relative depletion; Cr and Co are
within 10 % average crust; and Zn, Cu and
Ni are enriched similar to crust. When the
average concentrations of transition metals
in the Tirthamalai banded magnetite
quartzite samples are compared to average
Isua iron-formations (Fig. 4; Table 4), the
BIFs of Tirthamalai area are similar to those
of Isua. Chromium, Ni and Zn are strongly
enriched but Sc, V, Co and Cu are strongly
depleted. In order to know the source for
silica in the early Archaean BIF and banded
magnetite quartzs of Tirthamalai area, the
data are compared with other iron
formations using (Ge/Si) ratio of the 2.3 Ga
old Hamersley BIF of W. Australia (Hamade
et al. 2003). The relationship between Ge/Si
ratios and silica content of the banded
magnetite quartz are given Table. 3 and
shown in Fig. 5. The results show that the
decrease of Ge/Si (molar ratio) is similar to
the product of clastic aluminous
metasediments. Thus, the formations of the
study area are similar to meta-sedimentary
type (Saravanan, 1969) and Anjaneya
Sastry et.al, 1970).
Rare Earth Elements:
The REEs are characterized by low to
medium Σ REEs, ranging from 4.16 to 13.21
ppm. The abundances of these elements are
similar to that of Isua magnetite iron
formation (Dymek and Klein 1988).
Chondrite- normalized rare-earth element
patterns for the Tirthamalai banded
magnetite quartzite (Fig. 6) show relative
depletion light REE, flat trend of HREE,
positive Eu anomalies and negative Ce
anomalies. When the sums of REEs are
plotted against Co+Cu+Ni (Fig. 7), the
samples of study area fall closer to the field
of hydrothermal deposits (Bonnot-Courtois
(1981). When the normalized average REE
values of Tirthamalai iron-formation samples
are compared with Godumalai, Kanjamalai
and Isua iron formations [Table 6 and Fig.
8], the Isua and Tirthamalai iron formations
are roughly similar but differ Kanjamalai,
Godumalai iron formations. However, all the
patterns are in similar trend of the banded
iron formations of the Pre-Cambrians. Rare
earth elements and Y abundances (Table 5
and Table 2) of the Tirthamalai iron-
formation are generally similar with other
iron formations particularly and that of Isua
formation (Bolhar et al., 2004). Cerium
anomaly data suggest that (Fig. 9) quartz
magnetite iron formations of Isua, clastic-
metasediments, amphibolites and
Tirthamalai are depleted in Ce suggesting
meta-sedimentary origin (Fryer 1983,
Dymek and Klein 1988). Plot of chondrite
normalized Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu* to the
banded magnetite of Tirthamalai shows that
the similar characters that observed
elsewhere Kuruman and Penge IFs (Bau and
Dulski, 1996; Fig. 10). The exhibited Eu
anomalies >1 and enriched LREEs (Bau and
Moller, 1993) suggest the characteristics of
the continental crust.
The two component mixing calculations [Bau
and Dulski, 1999; Alibo and Nozaki, 1999;
Fig. 11 a, b, c] of the banded magnetite
quartzites provide further constraints on
their origin. The plots Y/Ho vs. Eu/Sm and
Eu/Sm vs Sm/Yb ratios show that all the
406 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,
Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
samples of the study area are away from
the field of hydrothermal fluids (>3500C,
Bau and Dulski, 1999) and seawater (<500
m Alibo and Nazaki, 1999) but close to
hydrogenetic Fe - Mn crusts (Bau et al.
1996). Plot of Sm/Yb vs. Y/Ho shows that
the samples of the study area falls away to
the ratios mixing of hydrothermal fluids. All
of these interpretations suggest that BIF of
Tirthamalai is similar to those of Kuruman
and Isua iron formations. The component
mixing model [Ce/Ce*CN] vs.[Pr/Pr*CN],
Bolhar et al. 2005; (Fig. 12) also indicate
that Tirthamalai formations are similar to
Kuruman and Penge iron formation
suggesting that these are differ from those
of hydrothermal fluids and seawater. The
plot of Tirthamalai banded magnetite
quartzites on a discrimination diagram, with
respect to Ce anomalies, we note that CeCN
of all samples do not display positive
anomalies.
Crustal contamination could have a
considerable effect on the primary
composition of hydrogenous sediments. The
diagram of Eu/Eu*CN vs. Pr/Sm CN (Fig.
13) to demarcate the crustal contamination
in the samples in the study area. From the
Fig. 14, it can be observed that the crustal
contamination can be ruled out for
Panorama jasper iron-formation because
Archaean shales and volcanic tuffs are
generally devoid of significant positive Eu
anomalies (Taylor and McLennan, 1985) in
contrast to the samples of Tirthamalai iron
formations and show systematic trend of
crustal contamination. An evolution
diagram (Sreeniva and Murakami, 2005) for
Tirthamalai iron-formation (Fig.15), the
Tirthamalai banded magnetite quartzites
show positive normalized Eu anomalies and
fall within the 3.5 Ga age group.
Conclusions:
The study area forms a part of the great
Archaean Peninsular complex having
intensive high grade regional
metamorphism. Geochemically, the major
oxides of iron formations of Tirthamalai
region signify chemical precipitates and low
concentrations of ferromagnesian trace
elements characteristic of metasediments.
Plot of data on Al2O3-SiO2-Fe2O3 diagram
suggests clastic chemical similarity of other
Pre-Cambrian iron formation of the world.
Molar ratios of Ge/Si, show characteristics
of metasediments but poor in hydrothermal
characteristics.
The chondrite normalized REE patterns of
the banded iron formation, well defined
positive Eu anomaly and depleted LREE with
respect to MREE and flat HREE are salient
features of the study area. Two and three
components mixing ratio models indicate
that all the rocks appear to have very poor
in hydrothermal and seawater sources. On
the other hand, characteristic of Fe-Mn
crust. The enrichment of Ce indicates that
supergene oxidation process was high
during Archaean period. The positive
Eu/Eu* anomalies of magnetite quartzite of
study area normalized to the average
Eu/Eu* of oxide-facies of BIFs of Hamersley
falls within the >3.5 Ga that confirms Pre-
Cambrian age. Finally, it is concluded that
the banded magnetite quartzite derived
form weathering of continental land mass
that interpreted for Isua and Kuruman
Penge iron formation.
Acknowledgement:
The authors are thankful to Actlab, Canada
for providing results of chemical analyses of
samples by ICP-MS. The financial support
and facilities provided by University Grants
Commission (UGC-RGNF F16-6/6/SA II),
and Department of Science and Technology,
Projects – GEMIORD (SR/FTP/ES-01/2000)
and SPECSIGNS (NRDMS/11/1153/06), New
Delhi, for that we are grateful.
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K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
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shallow seawater, Precambrian Research,
vol 137-pp. 93-114.
[27] Robert Frei Peter, S. Dahl Edward, F.
Duke et al (2008) Trace element and
isotopic characterization of Neoarchean
and Paleoproterozoic iron formations in
the Black hills (South Dakota, USA):
Assessment of chemical change during
2.9-1.9 Ga deposition bracketing the 2.4-
2.2 Ga first rise of atmosphere oxygen,
Precambrian Research, vol 162-pp. 441-
474.
[28] Saravanan, S (1969) Origin of iron
ores of Kanjamalai, Salem District,
Madras State, Indian Mineralogist, vol
10-pp. 236-244.
[29] Shaw, D.M (1980) Development of the
early continental crust, Part III. Depletion
of incompatible elements in the mantle.
Precambrian Research, vol 10-pp. 281-
300.
[30] Sreenivas, B, Murakami, T (2005)
Emerging views on the evolution of
atmospheric oxygen during the
Precambrian. J. Mineral. Petrol. Sci. vol
100-pp. 184-201.
[31] Trendall, A. F and Blockley, J. G.
(1970) The iron formations of the
Precambrian Hamersley Group, Western
Australia, with special reference to the
associated Crocidolite. Geological survey
Bulletin, vol 119-pp. 366
Fig.1 Geology and location
map of the study area
409 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH
K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Table.1 Major element data for banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai region
(all values in wt %)
Table.2 Comparison of major elements of
banded magnetite quartzite of study area
with other parts of the world.
Average Tirthamalai iron formation (oxide
facies), N=20 (this study).
Average Godumalai iron-formation
(Rajendran et al, (2007)
Average Kanjamalai iron-formation
(Rajendran, 1995)
Average Lake superior silicate facies iron-
formation from North America (Gross and
Macleod, 1980)
Average Quartz-Magnetite IF (10 analyses)
Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Fig.2 Plot of the Tirthamalai iron-formation
in the Precambrian field of SiO2 - Al2O3 -
Fe2O3 (after Govett, 1966)
Fig.3 Average major elements of
Tirthamalai iro formations are compared
with Godumalai and Kanjamalai (Rajendran
et al 1995) and Isua iron-formations (Gole
and Klein 1981).
410 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,
Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Table.3 Trace element data of iron ores of Tirthamalai region (all values in ppm)
Table.4 Concentrations of trace elements compared to other
1 2 3 4
Sc 1.05 0.33 0.15 0.05
V 7.4 4.5 0.13 0.08
Cr 20 7 0.54 0.19
Co 2.2 4.1 0.16 0.29
Ni 21.5 28.5 1.08 1.43
Cu 13 7.6 0.76 0.45
Zn 30 41.4 0.55 0.75
Average ferromagnesian trace element Tirthamalai region
Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua (Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Average ferromagnesian Tirthamalai region/Shaw (1980)
Average ferromagnesian trace element Isua/Shaw (1980)
411 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH
K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Table.5 Rare earth elements of banded magnetite iron-formation of Tirthamalai region
Data normalizing using the Nakamura and Taylor and Mclennan (1984) Eu/Eu*=
(Eu/0.67Sm+0.33Tb)CN; Ce/Ce*= (Ce/0.5La+0.5Pr)CN; Pr=(Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd)CN;
G/Gd*=(Gd/2Tb-Dy)CN
Table.6 Average REE data of banded magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai,
Godumalai, Kanjamalai and Isua regions and seawater,
1. Average REE of Tirthamalai region; 2. Average REE of Godumalai 3. Average REE of
Kanjamalai; 4. Average Isua; 5. North Atlantic Sea water, 600 m depth (converted from
values given as mol kg1; elderfield and Greaves, 1982); 6. Hydrothermal fluid, EPR at 210
N; average of 5 analyses (Michard et al., 1983); b Not analysed
412 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,
Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Fig.5 Silica (wt%) vs. Ge/Si ratio. All the
samples are falls in decrease of molar ratio
characteristics of clastic metasediments
(after Hamade et.al, 2003)
Fig.6 Co+Cu+Ni abundances vs. total REE
content (La+Ce+Nd+Sm+ Eu++Tb+Yb+Lu)
for analyses listed in Table.2. The field
labled hydrothermal deposits represents
data from the FAMOUS and Galapagos
areas, which are mostly green
muds/nontronite, whereas the field labeled
“metalliferous deep-sea sediment’
represents mostly DSDP samples from
eastern Pacific sites (see Bonnot-Courtois
(1981) for an extended discussion of these
data). The samples of Tirthamalai region are
poor in trace and total REE concentration
and not having the characteristics of
“hydrothermal or Metalliferous deep-sea
sediments”. Isua quartz magnetite iron-
formation represented by Dymek, R.F. and
Klein, C. (1988)
Fig. 7 The chondrite abundances are those
of Tirthamalai banded magnetite iron-
formation. Data used for these plots are
from Table 1.
Fig.8 Comparison of chondrite normalized
REEs with Kanjamalai, Godumalai
(Rajendran et. al 1995, 2007) and Isua
Dymek and Klein 1988) iron formations
413 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH
K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Fig.. 9 Plot of chondrite-normalized
(Ce/Sm) vs. (La/Sm) in samples from the
Tirthamalai iron formation. The clastic
metasediments and amphibolites plot along
the SLA indicating no anomalous behavior
for Ce, whereas all the BIFs plot below this
line indicating that they possess negative Ce
anomalies (see text for discussion. (after
Dymek, R.F. and Klein, C. (1988)
Fig. 10 Plot of Chondrite-normalized Sm/Yb
and Eu/Eu* for Tirthamalai IF, and including
data for 3.7 Ga Isua Ifs (Bolhar et al.,
2004), 2.5 Ga Kuruman and Penge Ifs (Bau
and Dulski, 1996), shallow (<500 m) Pacific
seawater (Alibo and Nozaki, 1999), and
high-T hydrothermal fluids (>3500C, Bau
and Dulski, 1999). Note break in horizontal
axis. Isua samplesw are those considered by
Bolhar et al, 2004) to reflect
contemporaneous seawater. The yellow
shaded area represents the range of values
for 62 pelites from the Pongola Supergroup
sampled by Wronkiewicz (1989), and
crossed square represents Post-Archean.
Average shale (PAAS, McLennan, 1989). The
Tirthamalai iron-formation exhibit Eu/Eu*
between that of the Isua and Kuruman Ifs,
yet display Sm/Yb values similar to
continental crust and lower than Mozaan
iron-formation. All iron formation samples
have significantly lower Sm/Yb and Eu/Eu*
than high-T hydrothermal fluids.
Fig. 11a Elemental ratio plots for data sets
presented in with two-component
conservative mixing line for Eu/Sm, Sm/Yb,
and Y/Ho. 11a, Y/Ho versus Eu/Sm,
showing a 0.1 % high-T hydrothermal
(>3500C, Bau and Dulski 1999) fluid
contribution to waters with shallow (<500
m) seawater. REY distributions (Alibo and
Nozaki, 1999) is sufficient to explain Eu/Sm
ratios in the Tirthamalai iron formation.
Fig. 11b Y/Ho versus Sm/Yb, indicating that
a significant higher contribution of
hydrothermal fluid in the Tirthamalai iron-
formation,
414 Rare Earth Element Geochemistry of Banded Iron Formation of Tirthamalai,
Dharmapuri District, Tamil Nadu, India
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Fig. 11c Sm/Yb as a function of Eu/Sm
demonstrating that relatively smal (0.1%)
contributions of block smoker fluid can
model Sm/Yb and Eu/Sm behavior in the
Kuruman and Isua Ifs, but do not
adequately account for the relative
distribution of these elements in the
Tirthamalai iron-formation. (after Bau and
Dulski, 1999)
Fig. 12 Plot of Ce/Ce*CN
([Ce/(0.5La+0.5Pr]CN) Vs. Pr/Pr*CN
([Pr/0.5Ce+0.5Nd]CN) used to differentiate
between La and Ce anomalies in seawater-
derived sediments. In Tirthamalai banded
magnetite iron-formation samples lacking Ce
anomalies and positive La anomalies.
Jasper-siderite samples are distinct from
Holocene microbialites (Webb and Kamber,
2000), Devonian reefal carbonates
(Nothdurft et.al, 2004), late Archaean
Campbellrand stromatolites (Kamber and
Webb, 2001), early Archaen Strelley Pool
Chert stromatolites and early Archaean BIFs
from Greenland (Bolhar et al., 2004), Late-
Archaean BIFs from Transvall Group (Bau
and Dulski, 1996)
Figure 13 The Eu/Eu*CN versus Pr/Sm CN
ratio plot for Tirthamalai banded magnetite
quartz. All the samples fall within the crustal
contamination. Strong but discrete
correlation exist for jasper and siderite
samples defining distinct trends. The locus
of intersection is inferred to be an
approximation to Archaean seawater (i.e.
moderate positive Eu anomaly, depleted
LREE relative to MREE). The steep positive
array for jasper samples suggests mixing
between shallow seawater and a
hydrothermal fluid component with strongly
enriched Eu (i.e. high-T), while elevated
LREE/MREE with slightly decreasing Eu/Eu*
suggests contamination with terrigenenus
material. Composition of possible ambient
shallow seawater is approximated by
composition of strelley Pool chert
stromatolites. Compositions for modern
seawater and hydrothermal fluids. Data
sources Alibo and Nozaki, 1998; Bau and
Dulski, 1999; German and elderfield, 1989;
Bolhar et.al., 2004; Kamber and webb,
2001; Webb and Kamber, 2000). (after
Robert Bolhar et.al, 2005) (Low grade(
Magnetite))
415 A. THIRUNAVUKKARASU, S. RAJENDRAN, B. POOVALINGA GANESH
K. SHANKAR, K. MAHARANI, M. RAJAMANICKAM and S. RAJA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 403-415
Fig.14. Ce/Ce* vs. Pr/Pr* discrimination
diagram banded magnetite iron formation
samples of Tirthamalai region superimposed
with data from the other world iron
formation. The data from the Kuruman and
Penge iron-formations (Transvaal, South
Africa; Bau and Dulski, 1996). All the
banded magnetite iron-formation do not
display CeCN anomalies (they
predominantly plot in field IIA), Precambrian
iron-formation show negative Ce anomaly
compare to Early and Middle Paleoroterozoic
. This feature is interpreted to be result of
overall trend decreasing event at 3.5 Ga.
(discrimination diagram established by Bau
and Dulski (1996).
Fig.15. Chondrite normalized Eu/Eu*
anomalies (normalized to oxide-facies
Hamersley BIFs, Western Australia (Alibert
and McCulloch, 1993). The average
normalized Eu anomalies value of banded
magnetite quartzite samples of Tirthamalai
region plotted with evolution diagram (data
in Table 5). All the samples fall within the
<3.5 field. These are indicated lacking of
oxidation process in the Archaean time.
(after Sreenivas and Murakami, 2005).
416 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
#02020504 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-
Noamundi Basin – A Review
SMITA S. SWAIN Department of Geology and Geophysics, IIT Kharagpur, West Bengal-721302
Email: [email protected]
Abstract: The pear-shaped epicontinental Kolhan basin lie unconformably over the
Singhbhum granite in the east and has a faulted contact with the Iron Ore Group in the
west. Structurally it represents a dome and basin. The basin has four lithostratigraphic units
- Kolhan conglomerate, Kolhan sandstone, Kolhan limestone and Kolhan shale. The
sandstones are composed of sub-litharenite to quartz arenite. Two broad lithofacies have
been found in sandstones - hummocky cross stratified sandstone facies and planar cross
stratified sandstone facies. The sediments were deposited in embayed shallow marine
environment / tidal flat environment.
Key words: Basin, Kolhan, Singhbhum, Structure.
Introduction:
The Singhbhum craton in eastern India is
mainly composed of Archean granitoids
forming the nucleus rimmed by a
Proterozoic mobile belt to the north and east
(Saha, 1994). Towards the western part of
the Singhbhum granite the Kolhan Group of
sediments are preserved as a linear belt
covering an area of 800 sq.km, first
recognized by Dunn (1940). The Kolhan
Group of rocks represents one of the least
studied basins in the Singhbhum-Orissa–
Iron Ore craton. The Kolhan Group is
preserved as linear belt extending for 80-
100 km with an average width of 10-12 km
revealing deposition of Kolhan sediments in
narrow and elongated troughs. The Kolhan
Group is similar in many respects with
Manganese-bearing Wyllies Poort Formation
of 1.8-1.96Ga of Soutpansberg Group,
Northeast Kaapvaal Craton, South Africa
suggesting a possible Indo-African
connection during the Neo-Archean age
(Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 2004).
The Kolhan Group lying unconformably
above the Singhbhum granite is bounded by
the Jagannathpur lavas on the southeast
and south and the Iron Ore Group on the
west. The western contact of the basin is
faulted against the Iron Ore Group. Saha
(1994) has divided the Kolhan Group of
sediments into four detached sub-basins -
Chaibasa-Noamundi basin, Chamakpur-
Keonjhargarh basin, Mankarchua basin and
Sarapalli-Kamakhyanagar basin. The
geological and tectonic setting of the Kolhan
Groups in Singhbhum Iron ore craton is
shown in Fig. 1 (Saha, 1994).
Chaibasa-Noamundi basin:
The main basin extends in NNW-SSE
direction for about 60km from Noamundi
(850 28′ – 220 09′) in the south to Chaibasa
(850 48’ – 220 33’) in the north with a
maximum width of about 12km
(Mahadevan, 2002). The metasedimentary
rocks comprising of basal conglomerate,
sandstone, limestone and phyllitic shale lie
unconformably over the Singhbhum granite
in the east and partly over, folded and
thrust-faulted, Iron-Ore Group to the west.
The geological map of the Chaibasa-
Noamundi basin is well documented by
Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig. 2).
Geology of the area:
The Chaibasa-Noamundi sub basin
represents a shallow pear-shaped
epicontinental basin (Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya, 1969) with a low westerly 5-
10° dip. The sediments have undergone
gentle tectonic deformation and very low
grade metamorphism. Some works have
been done on various aspects of
sedimentology, lithology, structure,
stratigraphy and depositional settings by
Ray and Bose (1959, 1964), Saha (1948a,
417 Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A Review
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
1948b), Chatterjee and Bhattacharya
(1969), Mukhopadhyay et al., (2006),
Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004),
Chakraborty et al.(2005), Bhattacharya and
Chatterjee (1964). The main basin
comprises of a sequence of basal
conglomerate, sandstone, limestone and
shale. The shale succession in its basal part
often laterally grade to calcareous shale and
encloses lenticular bodies of limestone,
interbedded limestone-shale sequence and
thin interval of manganese oxide
interbedded with shale. Recently the whole
rock Rb/Sr dating gives a maximum 1531
My for the Kolhan shale. But according to
Saha (1994) this age may be the
approximate age of metamorphism. The
actual date of deposition may be ~ 2000
Ma.
Stratigraphy and Structure of the basin:
The type area of Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin
represents a sequence of basal
conglomerate, sandstone, impersistent
limestone and phyllitic shale with general
westerly dip. The maximum thickness of this
formation is about 100m. The thin
sandstone overlain by thick shale represents
an asymmetry in vertical basin-fill
architecture. The
basin is characterized by a dome and basin
structure, locally passing into a dome-in-
dome structure on small to intermediate
scale (Ray and Bose, 1964). The Kolhan
stratigraphy is best visualized in the section
along the river Gumua Gara near village
Rajanka (22° 26’, 85° 44’) (Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya, 1969).
There is a general variation of thickness of
Kolhan basin, attributed to the basement
structure, but a gradual increase in
stratigraphic thickness of the deposit
towards west and north indicate a
deepening of the basin towards west. This is
supported by the longitudinal and transverse
sections as recorded by Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya, 1969 (Fig.3). As suggested by
many workers, tectonically Kolhan Basin
represents an epicontinental basin whose
NNE-SSW alignment is controlled by the
trend of the older Iron Ore Group
synclinorium which also run in the same
direction in South Singhbhum and parallel to
the Eastern Ghat strike. The very low dip of
the Kolhan near the granite contact and with
a progressive increase to the west away
from the granite is characteristic (Fig.2).
The incompetent shale has developed
cleavages as a result of the deformation and
is more disturbed towards the west
(Bhattacharya and Chatterjee, 1964). As stated by Ray and Bose (1959, 1964),
the basin was involved in a triaxial
deformation, due to oblique stress acting on
a small thickness of strata against a rigid
basement. The eastern part of this basin is
characterized by shallow belt of sandstone-
conglomerate-limestone and has a rolling
dome and basin structure of 1-100m across
in diameter. The structures are diastrophic
in origin and pass into areas of enechelon
brachy anticline and brachy syncline (Ray
and Bose, 1964). To the west of the belt,
the shales have a homoclinal dip that
progressively steepens further westwards
and abut against a thrust fault (Iron Ore
Group boundary).
Lithofacies and Environment:
The lithofacies association represents a
varied lithological provenance, which
includes a rudaceous, calcareous and
argillaceous facies within a few tens of
meters of thickness. Regional distribution
patterns of lithofacies indicate the
transgressive nature of the deposits.
Detailed studies of facies characteristics and
lithotypes have been carried out in the
Chaibasa–Noamundi basin (Saha, 1994;
Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969; Singh,
1998; Mahadevan, 2002; Bandopadhyay
and Sengupta, 2004) which established four
lihounits:
• Kolhan shale
• Kolhan limestone
• Kolhan sandstone
• Kolhan conglomerate
418 SMITA S. SWAIN
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
Kolhan conglomerate:
It occupies the basal portion of the lithologic
section. The conglomerate is thin
impersistent, and becomes more oligomictic
to the south with chert and jasper pebbles.
In the northern part of the basin the
conglomerate is polymict with quartz and
granite pebbles. According to Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya (1969), these conglomerates
are mostly submature to immature, devoid
of structures, with a sandy matrix more or
less very similar to the overlying sandstone.
Ferric oxides and argillaceous matter is
often preserved in this sequence. The
individual pebbles are mostly elliptical,
disorganized, and vary considerably in size,
the maximum being 6.5 cm. along the long
axis. The conglomerates occur as (a)
crudely stratified with tabular bed geometry
(b) massive sheets with wavy upper
bounding surfaces. The first category is
poorly sorted, matrix supported, non-graded
in nature and are interbedded with cross
stratified coarse / pebbly arkose. The
interbedded crudely stratified poorly sorted
conglomerate are likely to be products of
sheet floods along steep slopes and were
deposited under fluvial environment. The
massive conglomerate is poorly sorted and
exhibit matrix supported character and are
products of debris flow. The conglomerates
with gently undulating wavy mega-ripple
geometry imply that they were deposited in
wave dominated foreshore –shore face
depositional settings. The debris flow
conglomerates and intebedded cross–
stratified arkosic deposits are typical of a
gravelly alluvial fan-braided plain at
tectonically active semiarid basin margins
(Nemec and Steel, 1984; Collinson, 1996).
Kolhan sandstone:
The conglomerate grades upward to
medium-fine grained arenite –sub-lithic
arenite sandstone, 15-20m in thickness. In
this litho-facies plane-bedded sandstones
are interbedded with minor thin beds and
lenses of conglomerates, pebbly sandstones
and thin and impersistent layers of shale.
The sandstones are typically red and purple
in color, rich in ferric oxide and mostly
consist of quartz arenite and sub-lithic
arenite. Sedimentary structures in the
Kolhan sandstone enable distinction of plane
bedded and cross-bedded, both planar and
trough types (Bandopadhyay and Sengupta,
2004). Framework quartz amounting 77%
on average and the matrix less than 15%
characterizes the petrography of the quartz
arenite sandstone. Feldspars amounting to
10% of the framework detritus are mostly
orthoclase, a few are microcline and albite is
virtually absent. Lithic clasts except shale
and rounded chert grains are absent. The
framework grains are poor to moderately
well sorted, angular, subrounded and
occasionally well rounded and have syntectic
quartz overgrowths occupying the
framework interstices. These sandstones can
be divided into two facies - hummocky
sandstone bodies (hummocky cross
stratification - HCS) and planar to cross
stratified sandstones (Fig. 4) (wavy planar
beds of Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006). The
field photographs of different sedimentary
structures like wavy sandstone facies, planar
stratified sandstone facies which includes
sheet sandstone and rhythmic sandstone
units, ripple laminated sandstone and cross
stratified sandstone facies around Chaibasa
are shown in Fig. 4.
In the first category, the sandstone bodies
are fine grained (0.2 mm) and continuous in
the outcrop scale. The bed geometry and
internal sedimentary structures of these
sandstones however vary considerably. The
sandstone bodies show an overall
hummocky topography formed either by
preservation of the bedform morphology
(passive variety) or developed through
erosion of substrate as indicated by
truncation of bedding plane (active variety;
Harms et al.,1975). Present either as single
bed (up to 0.2 m thick) or as amalgamated
beds (up to 1.4 m thick), the hummocky
cross stratifications (HCS) constitutes the
swelling parts of these sandstone bodies.
Also large wavy ripples are seen in the
contact of the two layers with wavelength
varies 3-40 cm and height varies 0.5-10 cm.
Individual bed of HCS are up to 0.4 m thick
and are composed of lamina sets that are
usually 6-15 cm thick (maximum 20 cm).
Internally, the hummocky cross
419 Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A Review
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
stratifications are either aggradational or
originate from laminae draping shallow and
very low angle truncation, basically
characterized by erosional lower bounding
surfaces dipping mostly less than 10°. In
the latter case, the sandstones are well
sorted coarse sandstone which represents
the alternation between two units, plane
lamination and chevron cross-stratification
(the typical v-shaped stratification with
straight ridge, where the v’s closes in down
current direction). Sandstone beds in this
facies tend to be sheet like with constant
bed thickness along the strike. The chevron
cross-stratification is present in coset (avg.
thickness 8-10 cm). Paleocurrent azimuth
obtained from this cross-stratification
reveals bimodal E-WSW pattern. On bedding
planes there is a rare preservation of
straight crested near symmetric ripple like
forms, whose wavelength and amplitudes
are 6.2 cm and 0.5 cm respectively
(Chakraborty, et al., 2005).
Both wavy and chevron cross–
stratification shows the dominance of
oscillatory flow. The broad ripple like forms
with straight and occasionally bifurcated
crests and high wavelength–amplitude ratio
possibly replicate shore parallel swash ripple
or antidunes, commonly present in wave
dominated shoreface. Chevron cross
stratification in this facies are interpreted as
products of fair weather wave ripples and
provide indication for E – WSW
palaeoshoreline orientation. The hummocky
sandstone bodies are overlain by cross
stratified bodies which are then capped by
tens of cm thick thin bedded rippled fine
sandstones. Recurrent development of this
stacked, shallowing upward facies
succession possibly resulted from repeated
progradation of the shore line, alternating
with abrupt transgression. (Dalabehera and
Das, 2007).
Kolhan Limestone:
The Kolhan limestone (thickness <20m)
exhibits variation in color, texture, structure,
composition. The limestone in its lower part
show a color variation from white-pale grey
pale pink-pale green with argillaceous
matrix. Besides calcite, the limestone
constitutes quartz, chlorite, opaque ores,
very rarely other carbonates and
argillaceous matrix. It is believed that the
lower limestone horizon is the result of
chemical precipitation in shallow warm sea
water. The upper horizon which is extremely
variable in thickness represents a
metasomatic rock, formed by low
temperature replacement of the overlying
phyllitic shale by lime bearing solutions
derived from the primary carbonate layer
(Saha, 1948). The absence of interbedded
resedimented deposits led Mukhopadhyay et
al. (2006) to suggest a gently dipping
homoclinal ramp depositional setting
(beyond the zone of coarse clastic
sedimentation) for these limestones. But
Bandopadhyay and Sengupta (2004) opines
that the limestones have deposited in near
shore lagoonal environment because of the
presence of high content of manganese,
phosphorous and sodium.
Kolhan Shale:
The end phase of sedimentation is
represented by a monotonous reddish brown
thin bedded shale unit (Jetia Shale, Singh
1998), 100m thick. Mukhopadhyay et al.
(2006) reported this shale to be devoid of
any siliciclastic / carbonate components
coarser than mud and therefore, suggest a
deepwater outer ramp/shelf to basin
depositional environment. On the other
hand Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, (2004)
believes this shale to be calcareous towards
its basal part and contains laterally
impersistent layers and lensoid bodies of
limestone and interbedded sequences of
limestone and shale/calcareous shale. At
places, manganese oxide is present at the
contact of shale and sandstone (Dunn,
1940). Presence of fine laminations in
individual beds, fine grain size and absence
of tide or storm generated structure led
Bandopdhayay and Sengupta (2004) to
suggest an extremely low energy calm
environment for the deposition of the shale
from suspension load.
Such an interpretation together with
lateral facies variations in basal part of the
shale supports a lacustrine setting. Within
the siliciclastic lake basin, development of
fault controlled local topographic lows
coupled with changes in chemistry of the
420 SMITA S. SWAIN
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
lake water possibly prompted the deposition
of carbonate mud at the total exclusion of
fine siliciclastics, resulting in the formation
of lenticular units of limestone. The
association of the shale with fluvial deposits
(Picard and High, 1981; Elmore et al., 1989)
is a basis for suggesting a lacustrine setting
for the shale.
Conclusion:
Various workers have carried out
sedimentological studies in Chaibasa-
Noamundi basin. According to Saha (1994),
the Kolhan basin represents an intracratonic
marine basin within the Singhbhum – Orissa
Iron Ore craton. Depending upon the source
area and other environmental conditions,
the lithology of the basin varies.
Petrography and geochemistry of Kolhan
sediments by Bandopadhyay and Sengupta
(2004) suggest passive margin tectonic
setting, an intensely weathered low-relief
provannce dominantly composed of
granitiod rocks and a warm and humid
palaeoclimate. Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006)
are of the opinion that the Kolhan sediments
have deposited in a deep water cratonic
depositional setting beyond the reach of
coarser detritus. The basin represents an
event of major transgression and relative
sea level rise. Petrofacies analysis
(Dalabehera and Das, 2007) is suggestive of
sediments in the Chaibasa and Noamundi
basin was derived from various acid plutonic
rocks and the Iron Ore Group. These
sandstones are quite mature and fall in the
terrestrial recycled zone. The hummocky
cross stratification and planar cross
stratification are the two dominant
sedimentary structures indicative of
sediment deposition in shallow marine
environment / tidal flat environment
(Chakraborty et al., 2005). The main basin
has undergone a phase of extension. During
this phase, the eastern side of the Iron Ore
synclinorium was faulted giving rise to a half
graben structure, which leads to the
sedimentation (Panda and Das, 2007).
Sedimentological study by Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya, 1969 the basin to be an
embayment from a geosyncline. The basin is
characterized by transgressive a marine
deposit which usually depicts a medium to
low energy environment.
Acknowledgements:
The author acknowledges the help,
cooperation and constant guidance extended
by her supervisor Prof. Subashis Das. The
author is highly grateful to the Head of the
Department of Geology and Geophysics IIT
Kharagpur for providing necessary facilities
to carry out the present investigation.
References:
[1] Bandopadhyay, P.C., Sengupta, S
(2004) Paleoproterozoic supracrustal
Kolhan Group in Singhbhum craton,
India and the Indo-African
Supercontinent- Gondwana Research,
Vol 7(4)-pp.1228-1235.
[2] Bhattachrya, A.K., Chatterjee, B.K
(1964) Petrology of Precambrian
Kolhan formation of Jhinkpani,
Singhbhum district, Bihar-
Geologische Rundschau, Vol 53-pp.
758-779.
[3] Chakraborty, P. P., Paul, S. Das, A
(2005) Facies development and
depositional environment of the
Mungra sandstone, Kolhan Group
Eastern India-Jour Geological Society
India, Vol 65-pp.753-757.
[4] Chatterjee, B.K. Bhattacharya, A.K
(1969) Tectonics and sedimentation
in a Precambrian shallow
epicontinental basin-Journal
Sedimentary Petrology, Vol 39 (4)-
pp.1566-1572.
[5] Collinson, J. D (1996) The Coast. In:
H.G. Reading (Ed.), Sedimentary
Environments: Processes, Facies and
Stratigraphy. 3rd Edition, Blackwell
Science, London, United Kingdom,
pp. 37-81
[6] Dalabehera, L., Das, S (2007)
Petrofacies analysis of the
sedimentary rocks of Kolhan Basin- a
case study from Chaibasa-Noamundi,
West Singhbhum, Jharkhand-Vistas
in Geological Research, U.U Spl. Publ.
in Geology, Vol 6-pp 1-13.
[7] Dunn, J.A (1940) The stratigraphy of
North Singhbhum-Memoir Geological
421 Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A Review
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Survey of India, Vol 63(3)-pp. 303-
369.
[8] Elmore, R.D., Milavec, G. J., Imbus,
S.W. ENGEL (1989) The Precambrian
Nonesuch Formation of the North
American mid-continental rift,
sedimentology and organic
geochemical aspects of lacustrine
deposition-Precambrian Research,
Vol 43-pp. 191-213.
[9] Harms, J.C., Southard, J.B.,
Spearing, D.R., Walker, R.G (1975)
Depositional environment as
interpreted from primary
sedimentary structures and
stratification sequences-Society of
Economic Paleontologist and
Mineralogist, Vol 2-161pp.
[10] Mahadevan, T. M (2002)
Geology of Bihar and Jharkhand. DST
Publication, Geological Society of
India, Bangalore, 563pp
[11] Mukhopaddhyay, J., Ghosh,
G., Nandi, A.K., Chaudhuri, A.K
(2006) Depositional setting of the
Kolhan Group: its implications for the
development of a Meso to
Neoproterozoic deep-water basin on
the South Indian Craton-South
African Journal of Geology, pp.183-
192.
[12] Nemec, W., Steel, R.J (1984)
Alluvial and coastal conglomerates:
their significant features and some
comments on gravelly mass flow
deposits. In: Koster, H.E., Steel, R.J.
(Eds.), Sedimentology of gravels and
conglomerates: Canadian Society of
Petroleum Geologists Memoir, Vol 10,
pp.1-31
[13] Panda, M., Das, S (2007) The
Kolhan Basin-A Riview. Vistas in
Geological Research U.U Spl. Publ. in
Geology, Vol 6-pp. 50-57.
[14] Picard, M.D., High, L.R (1981)
Physical stratigraphy of ancient
lacustrine deposits in recent and
ancient non-marine depositional
environments: models for
exploration-SEPM. Special
Publication, Vol 31-pp. 233-259.
[15] Ray, S., Bose, M.K (1959)
Fold patterns in the Kolhan
formation-46th Indian Sci. Congr.
Proc., pt. III, 202pp.
[16] Ray, S., Bose, M. K. (1964)
Unique fold pattern in shallow basin-
Rept. 22nd Session, Internationla
Geological Congress, Vol 4-pp.163-
170.
[17] Saha, A.K (1948a) A study of
limestone near Chaibasa. Geol. Min.
Met. Soc. India, Quart. Jour., Vol 20-
pp.49-58.
[18] Saha, A.K (1948b) The Kolhan
Series-Iron –Ore Series boundary to
the west and southwest of Chaibasa,
Bihar- Science and Culture, Vol 14-
pp.77-79.
[19] Saha, A. K (1994) Crustal
evolution of Singhbhum-North
Orissa. Eastern India- Memoir
Geological Society of India, Vol 27-
338 pp.
[20] Singh, S.P. (1998)
Precambrian stratigraphy of Bihar-An
overview. In: B. S. Paliwal, (Ed.),
The Precambrian, Scientific Publ.,
Jodhpur, pp. 376-408
422 SMITA S. SWAIN
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
Fig.1 Map of the Singhbhum craton showing the distribution of Kolhan Group in Singhbhum
Iron-Ore craton (Saha, 1994)
Fig.2 Geological map of the Chaibasa-Noamundi basin (modified after Chatterjee and
Bhattacharya, 1969)
423 Proterozoic Kolhan Sedimentation in Chaibasa-Noamundi Basin – A Review
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 416-423
Fig.3 Schematic cross sections showing the distribution of the lithofacies in the Precambrian
Kolhan basin (Chatterjee and Bhattacharya, 1969)
Fig.4 a) Ripple laminated sandstone facies (b) alternation of sandstone and shale units
(rhythmic sandstone facies) (c) cross-bedded sandstone facies (d) sheet sandstone facies
from Rajanbasa village (Hammer for scale)
424 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
#02020505 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic
Performance of a Horizontal Plate Breakwater
SUBBA RAO1, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL2, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE3 AND PRASHANTH S.4 Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics, National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Surathkal, Srinivasnagar, D. K. District, Karnataka, India, Pin 575025. E-mail:1- [email protected], 2- [email protected], 3- [email protected], 4- [email protected]
Abstract: Employing submerged breakwaters for inducing wave breaking is a well adopted
technique in many places to provide partial protection from waves. They permit exchange of
surface water but obstruct the movement of a major portion of the sediments. Plate
breakwater can also be used to induce wave breaking and dissipate wave energy. It has the
advantages of low interference with current and sediment transport while saving substantial
quantity of material. It permits exchange of surface and subsurface water and hence,
suitable for ecologically sensitive region. The paper explains the physical model studies to
evaluate the transmission, reflection and loss coefficients and wave forces on a thin
submerged horizontal plate breakwater at varying wave climate and plate submergence. It
is observed that effectiveness of horizontal plate breakwater increases with deep water
wave steepness and relative depth but decreases with plate submergence. The study shows
that the breakwater consisting of a single horizontal plate is effective for attenuating short
waves with a transmission of less than 60% for waves steeper than 0.005 when the
submergence ratio is less than 0.33.
Key words: Plate breakwater; submergence; wave transmission; reflection; wave
attenuation wave force
1. Introduction:
Breakwaters are structures constructed to
protect the shore from the destructive action
of waves and to create a calm lagoon to
facilitate various port activities. The major
ports need high protection whereas the
minor harbours can be permitted to have
some amount of wave activity. There are
tourist places and recreational and water
sporting areas and aquaculture location
which need some wave activity throughout
the year for their successful operations. In
such cases, submerged breakwaters which
will reduce the wave activity to the desired
limit and provide partial protection is a
natural choice. Submerged breakwaters with
or without the core are used worldwide for
coastal protection. They are efficient at
sites where tidal fluctuation is moderate.
They are economical as they require smaller
armour stones when compared to the
conventional breakwater. They are
environmental friendly as they allow
exchange of surface water.
However the submerged breakwaters
obstruct the currents and cause settlement
of most of the sediment transported, which
in turn increase the tendency of erosion on
the downstream side. The structures need
strong foundation soil which may not be
available at all the locations. Their
economical viability depends on the
availability of armour stones in the nearby
quarries. Alternative types of breakwaters
are being investigated universally to
economise the utilisation of construction
materials and to provide eco-friendly
solution to coastal engineering problems
(Subba Rao et al., 1999).
1.1 Concept of plate breakwater:
Ocean waves are surface water phenomena.
Most of the wave energy is concentrated in
the surface region. Hence the wave activity
in an area can be controlled by providing
obstruction in the surface region. The
particle orbits which are circular in deep
water condition and elliptical in shallow
water region can get modified by the plate
interference. Investigations show that fixed
425 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a
Horizontal Plate Breakwater
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
horizontal plate kept at surface or slightly
below the surface can attenuate the wave
energy primarily by inducing wave breaking
and by turbulence and friction.
1.2 Literature Review:
Dattatri et al. (1978) studied hydraulic
behaviour of various shapes of submerged
breakwaters and observed that the incident
wave steepness has an important influence
on wave breaking. The waves near critical
steepness may be induced to break by the
submerged breakwater. The relative depth
(d/L, where d is the depth of water, L is the
wave length at the site) shown significant
influence in wave transmission for relative
depth of submergence (ds/d, where ds is
the depth of top of breakwater from still
water level) values in between 0 to 0.2
A general solution for the problem of wave
scattering on a fixed horizontal plate was
attempted by Patarapanich (1984). The long
wave solution for surface plate and
submerged plate was extended to obtain the
hydrodynamic forces and overturning
moments exerted on the plate. The
dimensionless vertical force on the surface
plate (Fy/ρgaB) = 1 (where Fy is the
vertical component of force, ρ is the specific
weight of water, ‘a’ is the wave amplitude,
and B is the length of breakwater) in shallow
water region and it reduced to a value in
between 0.75 to 0.5 depending on the
relative width (B/L). The maximum
dimensionless force decreased with increase
of submergence. Normalised force did not
show significant variation with respect to the
relative depth (d/L) in shallow water but it
decreased with increase of d/L in
intermediate water depth.
Cheong and Patarapanich (1992) have
attempted to derive analytically the
reflection and transmission coefficients of
double plate. Experiments were also
conducted using random waves on
breakwater consisting of a leeward surface
plate and a submerged seaward plate. The
width of plate and the longitudinal distance
between the plates was kept as 1.0 m. It
was observed that the transmission was
least when the relative submergence of the
plate (ds/d) was about 0.10 to 0.20 and the
corresponding transmission coefficient is in
between 0.3 to 0.5.
Experimental investigations on fixed
horizontal plate in deep water conditions
revealed that minimum transmission of
waves occurred when the fixed plate is kept
at the still water level, but the loss of energy
was maximum when the plate was slightly
below the still water level with ds/d = 0.06
(Neelamani and Reddy, 1992).
Wang and Shen (1999) conducted
mathematical model analyses to evaluate
the performance of multiple-plate
breakwater. The reflection and transmission
coefficients have shown increasing and
decreasing patterns with increase of B/L.
The minimum value of Kt was when B/L is
0.32. The ratio of depth of submergence of
first plate to the total depth (ds/d)
influenced the reflection coefficient (Kr). The
optimum results were when ds/d = 0.25. It
was found that the Kr and Kt depend on
plate length, submergence of top plate,
relative water depth (d/L) and the gap
between the plates.
A twin plate breakwater system consisting of
a horizontal surface plate and an identical
submerged plate just below the surface
plate was investigated analytically based on
linear potential wave theory. Kt values
reduced with increase of relative
submergence (d/L) for all plate spacing.
Optimum s/d = 0.23 for which the Kt value
was in between 0.55 to 0.75. The
performance of twin plate system was better
than that of the single plate breakwater
(Usha and Gayatri 2005).
Physical model study on a single surface
plate and twin plate barriers with regular
and random waves shown that reflection
increases and transmission decreases
corresponding to the increase of B/L ratio.
Twin plate acted just like a single plate
when the spacing was 0.04. The reflection
increased by 20 to 30% when the s/d
increased to 0.4. The value of Kt showed
oscillatory nature with increase of s/d. The
transmission coefficient was minimum (Kt =
0.60) for s/d = 0.12 compared to (Kt =
0.76) for a single surface plate (Neelamani
and Gayathri, 2006).
426 SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
Multiple-layer breakwater consisting of
several horizontal plates was investigated
using physical model (Wang et al., 2006).
The transmission coefficient decreased with
increase of relative width. Kt is below 0.5
when B/L > 0.25. When the B/L is below 0.2
the reflection increased with B/L but when
B/L > 0.2, Kr does not increase evidently.
With the increase of wave steepness (H/L),
Kr increased and Kt decreased. The Kt and Kr
were not significantly influenced by the
relative gap (s/H) of the plates.
Shirlal et al. (2007) have suggested possible
use of submerged reef for coastal protection
as it reduces the wave energy in the leeward
side and produces turbulence and hence
reduces the silt accumulation behind the
structure. It is shown that submerged reef
can be designed with B/d ratio of 0.67 to
1.33, h/d ratio > 0.675 and X/d ratio in
between 6.25 to 8.33, for which Kt < 0.6.
The study of available literature shows that
the horizontal plate can attenuate some of
the wave energy. It has potential to be used
as a costal protection measure at sites with
low tidal variation. Most of the previous
works were carried out using a thick and
long plate. The present study was conducted
to find the effectiveness of a thin short plate
and to examine the influence of various
parameters on Kt, Kr, Kl and wave force.
2 Oblectives:
The objectives of the investigation were to
study the transmission, reflection and loss
coefficients and the forces acting on a
breakwater consisting of a fixed horizontal
plate acted upon by monochromatic waves
in varying water depth and relative
submergence.
3 Experimental Procedures:
3.1 Wave flume:
Fig.1a. shows the two-dimensional wave
flume in which physical model studies of the
submerged plate breakwater were
conducted. The flume is 50m long, 0.71m
wide and 1.1m deep and has a smooth
concrete bed for a length of 42m with a 6m
long wave-generating chamber at one end
and a beach of 1V:10H slope consisting of
rubble stones at other end. The flume is
provided with a bottom-hinged flap-type
wave generator. The wave generator is
operated by an 11 kW, 1450 rpm induction
motor which can rotate at 0–155 rpm and is
regulated by an inverter drive (0–50 Hz).
The system can generate regular waves with
wave height ranging from 0.02 to 0.24m
and wave periods ranging from 0.8 to 4s at
a maximum water depth of 0.5 m.
3.2 Data Acquisition:
Capacitance-type wave probes along with
amplification units were used for data
acquisition. Four such probes were used
during the experimental work, three for
acquiring incident and reflected wave
characteristics (Hi and Hr) and one for
transmitted wave characteristics (Ht) as
shown in Fig. 1a. The spacing between
probes was kept near to one third of the
wave length to ensure the accuracy. The
signals from wave probes were verified
online during the experimentation and
recorded by the computer through the data
acquisition system. These were then
processed for separating the incident and
reflected components using a programme
based on the method developed by Issacson
(1991).
3.3 Model:
Model of plate breakwater was constructed
using smooth steel plate of 3.0mm
thickness. It was supported by steel flats
from the top which provide stability against
oscillation. The plate was maintained
horizontal at the required depth of
submergence using adjustable screws at the
top of the supporting structure as depicted
in Fig. 1a. The load cells for measuring
wave forces were connected to the
supporting frame as shown in Fig. 1b. The
plate and the frame were connected to the
supporting frame by using two pairs of
hinged links. The system has one degree of
freedom which is in the vertical direction. A
load cell connected to the frame measures
the vertical load acting on the plate and also
makes the system fully rigid. A similar
arrangement is done for measuring
horizontal load also. The vertical and
horizontal loads were measured separately.
427 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a
Horizontal Plate Breakwater
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
The system along with the load cells has
been calibrated for the range of force that is
expected to be acting on the plate
breakwater for sufficient accuracy.
3.4 Calibration of experimental set-up:
The wave flume was filled with ordinary tap
water to the required depth (d) of 0.5m.
Regular waves of height (Hi) of 0.05m,
0.10m, and 0.15m with varying periods (T)
of 1.0s, 1.6s and 2.2s were generated. The
flume was calibrated to produce the incident
waves of different combinations of wave
height and wave periods before starting the
experiment. Combinations that produced the
secondary waves in the flume were not
considered for the experiments. During the
experiment, the waves were recorded by the
probes which were calibrated at the
beginning and at the end of the test runs.
The incident wave heights are recorded
using the first three probes and transmitted
wave heights were measured using the
fourth probe. Incident and transmitted wave
heights were also measured manually to
crosscheck the instrumental data.
3.5 Computation of non-dimensional
wave parameters:
Non dimensional parameters such as
Transmission coefficient (Kt), Reflection
coefficient (Kr), coefficient of loss (Kl) are
calculated from the incident, reflected and
transmitted wave heights.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Where
Hi is the incident wave height,
Ht is the transmitted wave height,
Hr is the reflected wave height.
The horizontal and vertical forces measured
using load cells. The non-dimensional
parameters such as normalised horizontal
forces|| Fx and normalised vertical forces
|| Fyare calculated.
Where
gaBFxFx ρ/|||| = (4)
gaBFyFy ρ/|||| = (5)
|| Fx= the maximum horizontal force acting
on the plate
|| Fy= the maximum vertical force acting on
the plate
ρ = specific gravity of water,
a = wave amplitude,
B = width of plate,
g = acceleration due to gravity.
3.6 Variables involved and their range:
Fig 2 shows the sketch explaining the
variables used in the study. The primary
variables and their range in the
experimental programme and the non
dimensional parameters derived for the
study are given in Table 1 and Table 2
below.
Table.1 Variables and their selected range
for the experimental investigation
Variables Range
Wave period 1.0 - 2.2 sc
Wave height 5 -15 cm
Water depth 30 -50 cm
Depth of
submergence
of top edge/
free board
0 -15 cm
Length of
plate
50 cm
428 SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
Table.2 Non dimensional parameters and
their range for the experimental
investigation
Non
dimensional
parameters
Range
Deep water wave
steepness
parameter
(H0/gT2)
0.001 to
0.016
Relative depth at
site (d/L)
0.08 to 0.35
Relative
submergence of
plate (ds/Hi)
0.0 to 3.0
Submergence
ratio (ds/d)
0.0 to 0.50
4 Results and Discussion:
The experiment was carried out for plate
length of 0.50m and for the entire range of
other parameters. The incident, reflected
and transmitted wave heights were recorded
using wave probes. The horizontal forces
acting on the plate were measured by using
load cells connected to the frame. Graphs
are plotted for Kt, Kr, Kl against various non
dimensional parameters such as d/L, H0/gT2,
ds/Hi, ds/d. Variation of normalised vertical
force is also plotted against relative depth.
Major observations are presented below.
4.1 Variation of transmission coefficient
(Kt):
The most important parameter of the study
is the transmission coefficient. For
submerged breakwater, Kt generally
decreases with increase of wave steepness
and relative depth. Plate breakwaters also
found to exhibit similar trend. Submerged
breakwaters are generally designed for a
transmission coefficient of 0.6. The detailed
analyses are given below.
4.1.1 Influence of deep water wave
steepness (H0/gT2):
Fig 3 illustrates the best fit line for variation
of Kt with H0/gT2 for different ranges of
ds/d=0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33, and 0.38
to0.50. It is observed that for the entire
range of experiments Kt decreases with
increase in H0/gT2. It drops from 0.80 to
0.30 (63%) for ds/d=0, from 0.83 to 0.30
(64%) for ds/d=0.1 to 0.2, from 0.85 to
0.42 (51%) for ds/d=0.25 to 0.33and from
0.87 to 0.48 (45%) for ds/d=0.38 to 0.50.
For ds/d from 0 to 0.33, the value of Kt is
below 0.6 for value of H0/gT2 > 5×10-3 for
all depths. Small amplitude wave theory
shows that the particle velocity decreases
with the level of particle below still water
surface and the velocity at the top 1/3 of
water depth is considerably higher than that
of the lower layers. Horizontal plate when
placed in the top 1/3 portion offers higher
intensity of interaction with water particles,
which reduces their speed due to friction.
This causes the waves with steepness higher
than 5x10-3 to break and reduces the
transmission coefficient below 0.6. The
influence of horizontal plate is less when
ds/d>0.33 or when H0/gT2 < 5x10-3 since
the particle velocity is low and the waves
are relatively in stable condition.
4.1.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L):
Fig 4 shows the best fit line for variation of
Kt with d/L. The value of Kt is varying from
0.29 to 0.88 for the entire range of the
experiment. The general trend shows that Kt
decreases as d/L increases. This is because
the wave activity is more predominant in the
surface region as d/L increases. The highest
values of Kt is for ds/Hi = 3.0 for which the
trend line varies from 0.85 to 0.58 as d/L
varies from 0.08 to 0.33. The lowest value
of Kt is from 0.83 to 0.29 observed when
ds/Hi = 0.5. In this case the plate is
situated where the particle velocity is high
and it will be in contact with water even
when the trough of the wave passes the
plate, thereby ensuring full time contact and
maximum interaction of plate with water.
In the cases where the relative plate
submergence ds/Hi = 0, 0.33, 0.50, 0.67
and 1.0, the trend lines are very close to
each other with highest values of Kt around
0.8 at d/L = 0.08 and low values of Kt
around 0.29 to 0.42 at d/L = 0.33. Trend
lines of ds/Hi = 1.5 varies from 0.86 to 0.5
and that of ds/Hi = 2.0 varies from 0.87 to
0.54 respectively. The plate breakwater with
ds/Hi ≤1.0 can be used where d/L > 0.17
since Kt is < 0.6.
429 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a
Horizontal Plate Breakwater
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
Fig 5 shows variation of Kt with d/L for a
horizontal plate fixed at still water level. Kt
decreases from 0.83 to 0.31 as d/L
increases from 0.08 to 0.33. The results of
other investigators from their physical and
mathematical model studies are compared
with those of the present study. The
present results converge well with that of
the physical model study of Gayathri (2003)
for d/L > 0.15. For smaller ranges of d/L
varying from 0.08 to 0.15, results of the
present study fall between those of Gayathri
(2003) and mathematical models of Usha
and Gayathri (2005) and Patarapanich
(1984). It is noticed that the mathematical
models tend to predict conservative values
of Kt. This may be because they do no take
in to account of the loss of energy due to
friction and turbulence during the wave
transmission across the breakwater, as
concluded by Usha and Gayathri (2005).
4.2 Variation of reflection coefficient
(Kr):
Some of the energy of the incident waves is
reflected by the submerged structure. The
reflection depends on the submergence ratio
and the wave parameters. Rubble mound
structures are reported to have low
reflection and vertical wall structures have
high reflection. Horizontal plate also shows
low reflection similar to conventional
structures. Influence of various parameters
is discussed below.
4.2.1 Influence of deep water wave
steepness (H0/gT2)
Fig 6 shows variation of Kr with H0/gT2. The
reflection coefficient is in between 0.05 to
0.33 for the entire range of the study.
Variation of Kr with respect to H0/gT2 for any
particular ds/d value is negligible for all ds/d
values. The values of Kr is maximum for
plate close to the still water level ie. ds/d =
0.1 to 0.2, The values of Kr for a plate at
still water level is also very close to this.
This is found to be matching with the
observation of Neelamani and Reddy (1992)
who had reported maximum reflection when
the plate is at the surface. The reflection
decreases with increase of ds/d.
4.2.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L):
Fig 7 shows that Kr is between 0.05 and
0.33 for the entire range of d/L and ds/Hi.
The reflection is maximum when ds/Hi =
0.33 and minimum when ds/Hi = 1.5. For
ds/Hi = 0.5, Kr shows very little variation
with d/L and the maximum value of is about
0.20. The study shows that a non specific
relationship exists between ds/Hi and d/L
with Kr. The wave reflection from the thin
plate may be mainly because the horizontal
plate forms a rigid boundary which does not
permit the free vertical motion of the
particle. The water particles rebound from
the bottom of the plate and causes waves
which propagates in both seaward and lee
ward directions. The seaward component is
recorded as reflected wave. The values are
near to that found by Nallayarasu et al.
(1994) who reported Kr variation from 0 to
0.15 for ds/d = 0.5. Cheong and
Patarapanich (1992) found Kr varying in
between 0.3 to 0.5 using experimental
study. Their values are higher than that of
the present study probably because of they
used thicker (12 mm) and longer (1.0 m)
plate.
4.3 Variation of coefficient of loss (Kl):
Effectiveness of a breakwater is to be
judged by the portion of the energy it
dissipates through friction, turbulence and
wave breaking. High value of loss coefficient
and low value of Kr is desirable. It is found
that there is considerable loss of energy,
which emphasises the importance of
physical model study since most of the
mathematical models neglect the energy
loss.
4.3.1 Influence of deep water wave
steepness (H0/gT2):
The variation of Kl with H0/gT2 for various
values of ds/d is depicted in Fig 8. General
trend of Kl is to increase with H0/gT2 up to a
value of H0/gT2 = 0.011, after which Kl does
not increase significantly. Kl increases from
0.0.56 to 0.96 (71%), 0.58 to 0.96 (65%),
0.54 to 0.89(65%) and 0.50 to 0.85 (70%)
for ds/d = 0, 0.1 to 0.2, 0.25 to 0.33 and
0.38 to 0.50 respectively as H0/gT2
increases from 0.001 to 0.011. It can be
430 SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
seen that the loss is almost same for ds/d 0
to 0.2.
4.3.2 Influence of relative depth (d/L):
Kl varies with d/L as shown in Fig 9. General
trend of Kl is to increase sharply as d/L
increases from 0.08 to 0.25 and moderately
there after. Maximum Kl varies from 0.6 to
0.93 for ds/Hi = 0.5, which corresponds to
the minimum values of Kt. The minimum
values of Kl observed is in between 0.50 to
0.8 for ds/Hi = 3.0. The minimum values of
Kl are found to be in good agreement with
that of Cheong and Patarapanich (1992)
who reported variation from 0.4 to 0.8.
4.4 Variation of normalised forces:
Horizontal and vertical forces are measured
during the experiments. The horizontal
force is found close to zero and hence
negligible in comparison with the vertical
force. Similar observations were made by
Nallayarasu et .al. (1994). The variation of
normalised vertical force with d/L for various
ds/d are shown in Fig.10. The maximum
value is about 0.58 and the minimum is
about 0.15. |Fy| increased sharply while d/L
increased from 0.08 to 0.23 and there was
no significant increase thereafter. The
increase of force due to increase of d/L may
be due to the fact that the wave energy is
concentrated more near the surface in the
case of deep water waves. The force on the
plate is maximum when ds/d = 0.1 to 0.2. It
decreases when the plate is at the surface
and also when it moves further down. Lower
force observed at the surface level is
because of the water force acting only on
the bottom side. The decrease of force as
submergence increases is quite expected
since the particle velocity decreases with the
depth.
5 Summary of Observations:
The observations made during the physical
model study can be summarised as
presented below.
• Kt decreases with increase of H0/gT2
and d/L for the range of experimental
values considered in the present
study.
• Kt is below 0.6 for H0/gT2 > 0.005 for
ds/d ≤ 0.33.
• Kt is below 0.6 for d/L > 0.17 for
ds/Hi ≤1.0.
• Lowest value of Kt is when ds/Hi =
0.5.
• Lowest values of Kt does not
correspond to the highest values of
Kr
• Kr does not depend on H0/gT2 and
d/L significantly.
• Kl increases with increase of H0/gT2
and d/L for the present range of
experimental values
• Wave force increases with d/L and
decreases with submergence,
however the highest force is when
the plate is just below the surface the
surface.
6 Conclusions:
Physical model study has been conducted
using the wave to analyse the
characteristics of wave propagation over a
horizontal thin submerged horizontal plate
using monochromatic waves in a laboratory
flume. Our results are found in agreement
with other authors reasonably. It is found
that horizontal plate of length 0.50 is
effective in breaking high waves and it
transmits only about 60% of the wave
heights for H0/gT2 > 0.005 when ds/d<=
0.33 and for d/L > 0.17 when ds/Hi ≤ 1.0.
This encouraging result prompts the
horizontal plate breakwater as a structural
measure to control the harsh wave climate.
7 References:
[1] Cheong H. F. and Patarapanich M.
(1992) Reflection and transmission of
random waves by a horizontal
double-plate breakwater, Coastal
Engineering (18) 63 –82.
[2] Dattatri J. (1978) Analysis of regular
and irregular waves and performance
characteristics of submerged
breakwaters, Ph. D Thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT
Madras.
[3] Gayathri, T., (2003) Wave interaction
with twin-plate breakwater,
431 Experimental Investigation of Hydraulic Performance of a
Horizontal Plate Breakwater
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
Department of Ocean Engineering.
MS Thesis IIT, Madras.
[4] Issacson M., Measurement of regular
wave reflection (1991), Jr.
Waterways Port, Coastal, and Ocean
Engg.(117) 553 –569
[5] Nallayarasu S., Cheong H. F. and
Jothi Shankar N., (1994) Wave
induced pressures and forces on a
fixed submerged inclined plate Jr.
Finite Elements in Analysis and
Design, (18) 289-299.
[6] Neelamani S. Gayathri T.,(2006)
Wave interaction with twin plate
wave barrier, Ocean Engineering (33)
495–516
[7] Neelamani, S., Reddy, M.S., (1992).
Wave transmission and reflection
characteristics of a rigid surface and
submerged horizontal plate. Ocean
Eng. 19 (4) 327–341
[8] Patarapanich, M., (1984) Forces and
moment on a horizontal plate due to
wave scattering. Ocean Eng. (8)
279–301.
[9] Shirlal K.G., Subba Rao, Manu,
(2007) Ocean wave transmission by
submerged reef—A physical model
study, Ocean Eng. 34 (2007) 2093–
2099
[10] Subba Rao, N. B. S. Rao and
Sathyanarayana V. S., (1999)
Laboratory investigation on wave
transmission through two rows of
perforated hollow piles. Ocean Engg,
(26) 677-701.
[11] Usha R., Gayathri T., (2005)
Wave motion over a twin-plate
breakwater Jr. Ocean Eng. (32)1054–
1072.
[12] Wang, K.H., Shen, Q., (1999).
Wave motion over a group of
submerged horizontal plates. Int. Jr.
Eng. Sci. (37) 703–715.
[13] Wang Y., Wang G. and Li G.
(2006) Experimental study on the
performance of the multiple-layer
breakwater, Coastal Eng. (33)
1829—1839.
432 SUBBA RAO, KIRAN G. SHIRLAL, ROOBIN V. VARGHESE AND PRASHANTH S
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 424-432
433 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
#02020506 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir
and its Catchment
ANAND V. SHIVAPUR*, B. VENKATESH** and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI*** * Department of Civil Engineering, SDM College of Engineering and Technology,
Dharwad – 580 002, Karnataka, India
** Hard Rock Regional Centre, National Institute of Hydrology, Hanuman Nagar,
Belgaum – 590 001, Karnataka, India
*** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Srinivasnagar – 575 025, India
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract: The Neersagar watershed is about 200 km2, which is west flowing river situated
in plains of Western Ghats on eastern side in Karnataka State. In the present study Soil
conservation Service (SCS) model has been used to estimate the yield from the watershed.
This method involves various types of information related to vegetation, Hydrologic Soil
Group and antecedent moisture condition of watershed. GIS software was used for the
rectification of soil and land use map and also to derive SCS Curve Number (CN) for study
area. The SCS model was then applied to estimate the yield values of watershed. The
estimated annual yield of the tank is 0.4MCM. The results generated using SCS-CN and by
monthly water balance method have been then compared. The accuracy of SCS-CN method
is higher than the other method; therefore, we can use this method as an alternate method
for estimating the yield from any watershed in this region.
Key words: antecedent moisture condition; soil conservation services; curve number;
land use; yield.
Introduction:
Water scarcity is among the main
problems to be faced by many societies and
the world in the 21st century. Water scarcity
causes enormous problems for the
populations and societies. The available
water is not sufficient for the production of
food and for alleviating hunger and poverty
in the regions, where quite often the
population growth is larger than the
capability for sustainable use of the natural
resources. In regions of water scarcity, the
water resources are probably already
degraded or subjected to processes of
degradation in both quantity and quality,
which adds to the shortage of water. Under
these conditions, societies face very large
problems when a drought occurs or when
man-made shortages are created. However,
the concept of water availability based on
indicators driver from the renewable water
resources divided by the total populations
should be taken with great care.
The water availability of any region depends
on its climate and then on the topography
and geology. Its sufficiency depends on the
demand placed on it. In semi-arid, arid and
dry sub-humid regions affected by water
scarcity, the processes leading to the water
scarcity have specific characteristics, quite
different from those of humid or temperate
areas. It is important to underline these
characteristics that act strongly upon the
availability of water and its management.
Most of these areas that are likely to be
affected by water scarcity have similar
factors that make up the identity of their
ecosystem and particularly the functioning
of the water cycle. These common features
are to be found in the climate, the rainfall
regime, the conditions of surface runoff and
soil infiltration, and in the replenishment
regime of deep and surface aquifers. Of
equal importance to the above, are also
some non-physical processes that may lead
to water scarcity such as population growth,
mismanagement of resources and climate
change.
In the present study, an attempt has been
made to understand the water availability in
434 Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
the Neersagar reservoir, which is a main
source of domestic water supply to the twin
cities of Hubli-Dharwad in Karnataka State.
Of late, it has been felt that, the yield of the
reservoir has been depleted due to
anthropogenic interference and watershed
developmental activities such as water and
soil conservation structures are the main
reasons. Initially, the reservoir was
designed to store 9MGD of water, but at
present it provides only 3 MGD, hence the
scarcity (shortage) of water for the people
of these cities. Keeping this in view, it is
planned to study the water yield of the
catchment by SCS method.
Since 1950’s the SCS has been applying to
relate the amount of surface runoff from
rainfall to soil cover complexes. The
underlying theory of the SCS-CN procedure
is that runoff can be related to soil cover
complexes and rainfall through a parameter
known as a Curve Number (CN). The
physical processes involved are; that before
runoff can occur, rainfall must exceed the
infiltration capacity of the soil and any initial
abstractions in the watershed that is runoff
begins after some rainfall has accumulated,
and then becomes asymptotic to a 45
degree line. The SCS-CN procedure is a
lumped approach to rainfall-runoff, in that it
does not consider time in the calculations:
there is an input value of rainfall and an
output value of runoff (Hawkins, 1978). The
SCS method was applied to the small
watersheds of the order of 10-50 ha. Ponce
(1989) writes that “its indiscriminate use for
catchments in excess of 250 km2,…. without
catchment subdivision is generally not
recommended. The runoff curve number
was originally developed by SCS for use in
midsize rural watersheds… therefore its
extension to large basins requires
considerable judgment” However, Johnson
(1998), investigated the applicability of SCS
method for the catchment more the 25000
ha for a reasonable estimate of the daily
flows. Mishra, et.al., (2005) have
incorporated the antecedent moisture
condition to compute the direct runoff. The
results indicates that, the estimates are
reasonable even for the catchments of the
higher order (i.e., >300 km2). The various
studies reported that the estimates obtained
through the SCS are with an higher accuracy
of 98% for shorter interval (may be event
based at sub-hourly intervals). However, at
the daily time steps, the estimates are with
an accuracy between 80-90% (Mishra et.al.,
2005). In the present study, an attempt is
made to compute the runoff from a
watershed of the order of 200 km2, by sub-
dividing the watershed on basis of land
cover type for computing the storage and
curve number.
Study Area:
The study area (Fig.1) falls under the basin
of river Bedti in Dharwad district, Karnataka
state. Geographical area of the catchment is
181.84 sq.km and it is located between
latitude 15° 26′40″ and longitude 74°54′30″.
The elevation of the catchment is about
674.1 MSL. The climate is characterised by
average maximum temperature of 37° C and
minimum of 14° C., the humidity of the
region lies in the range of 65% to 89%. The
catchment receives rainfall mainly from
southwest monsoon (June to Sept). The
average rainfall of the catchment is 700
mm. The soil type found in the catchment is
moderately well drained with coarser
textures. The major portion of the
catchment is under cultivation (75%) and
scrub (13%). The forest cover is about 10
%.
435 ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
Methodology:
One of the major activities in applied
hydrology is the estimation of storm event
(i.e, runoff) from ungauged small
watersheds. Such estimates are often
required in the engineering design of small
hydraulic structures. Soil Conservation
Service (SCS) Curve Number Method has
proven to be very successful tool for the
derivation of runoff from small catchment.
Curve number is a dimensionless co-efficient
which reflects hydrologic soil group, land
cover type and antecedent moisture
conditions. The modifications suggested by
the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India
(1972) to suit Indian condition are included
in the study. A brief account of the SCS
method adopted for the present study is
given below.
The fundamental hypotheses of SCS method
are Runoff starts after the initial abstraction,
Ia, has been satisfied.
The ratio of actual retention of rainfall to
potential maximum retention ‘S’ is equal to
the ratio of direct runoff to rainfall minus
initial abstraction.
The initial abstraction Ia is related to S as
Ia= aS with the value of ‘a’ being a function
of antecedent moisture condition (AMC) and
type of soil. For Indian conditions, the
relationship between runoff depth R (in mm)
and rainfall P (in mm) in a rainfall event in a
catchment is given as (Mishra et.al.,2005,
Chandramohan, et.al., 2007)
( )( )SP
SPR
9.0
1.02
+
−= (1)
Where 25425400
−=CN
S (2)
In which CN is a coefficient called Curve
Number
This equation is for black soils and AMC of
type II and III.
The curve number CN is a relative measure
of retention of water by a given soil-
vegetation-land use (SVL) complex and
takes on values from zero to hundred.
For black soils having AMC of type I and for
all other soil types having AMC of types I, II
and III the above equation is modified as
( )( )SP
SPR
7.0
3.02
+
−= (3)
If P is less than 0.1S in above equation or
less than 0.3S, then the runoff is taken as
zero.
The curve number mainly depends on soil
type, land use and antecedent moisture
conditions. The first two can be obtained by
field survey, while the third parameter refers
to the moisture content present in the soil at
any given time. The AMC values intended to
reflect the effect of infiltration on both the
volume and rate of runoff. The following
relationships may be used to compute the
Curve Number for any AMC conditions
knowing Curve Number for AMC type II, the
relationship are
)(058.010
)(2.4)(
IICN
IICNICN
−= (4)
)(13.010
)(23)(
IICN
IICNIIICN
+= (5)
Data Preparation and Analysis:
To undertake the study of estimating the
runoff by SCS method, the model requires
the daily data pertaining to rainfall of the
stations, which are within the catchment
area. The soil map, land use map and slope
map.
Derivation of Slope Map for the Study
Area:
The slope map was derived using the
contours of the catchment area, which are
taken from the survey of India toposheet at
the scale of 1:50,000. The density of
contours on the maps can be used for
preparing the slope map that gives various
groups or categories of slopes. For the study
area following categories of slopes (Fig. 2)
are derived (Table 1).
436 Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
Table.1 Percentage area under each slope
category
Slope
Category
Area
(Km2)
% of
Area
1 29.95 16.5
2 52.19 28.8
3 30.48 16.81
4 18.28 10
5 25.78 14.2
6 18.81 10.3
7 2.65 1.4
From the above table, it can be inferred that
the major part (62%) of the catchment area
lies in the slope category 1 to 3, which
means the catchment is gently sloping. The
area under steep category is only 12%,
which is negligible. Hence the major part of
the catchment is unfavorable for runoff
generation.
Hydrological Soil Groups:
Soil properties influence the process of
generation of runoff form rainfall and they
must be considered. When runoff from
individual storms is the major concern, the
properties can be represented by hydrologic
parameters. Only those soil properties are
considered that influences the minimum rate
of infiltration, which are obtained from a
bare soil after prolonged wetting. The
influencing factors for minimum rate of
infiltration are seasonal depth of high water
table, prolonged wetting and depth up to
very slowly permeable layer.
The parameter, which indicates the runoff
potential of the soil, is the qualitative basis
of the classification. The classification is
broad but the groups can be divided into
sub-groups whenever such a refinement is
justified. In the current case, the soil map of
Karnataka prepared by the National Bureau
of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning (NBSS &
LUP, 1988). The land use map is then
superimposed over the catchment area to
know the extent of each hydrologic soil
group present in the respective area. The
hydrologic soil groups identified in the study
area are tabulated in the Table 2. The B, C
and D hydrological soil groups include
factors that produce higher amounts of
runoff in the basin. The runoff potential map
was prepared based on the soil groups
identified in the basin (Fig.3)
437 ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
Table.2 Hydrological soil groups
Soil
Group
Area
(Km2)
% of Area
B 96.91 53.3
C 72.35 39.79
D 6.74 3.7
Tank 5.82
Land Use and Land Cover:
Land use and land cover broadly denotes,
everything the land is being put to use, as
expressed in the vegetation and other
human interventions, covering the land
surface. Land use pattern generally reflects
the extent of resources utilisation and
indicate the productivity of the area.
Therefore, various land use and land cover
category is very important for the resources
management.
For the present use, the catchment land use
pattern was taken from the toposheets that
are surveyed in the year 1985 and these
data were verified and updated using the
recent maps developed by the Karnataka
State Remote Sensing Agency. The
categories identified were forest area, scrub
land and crop land (Fig.4). The area under
each category is shown in Table 3.
Table.3 Land use pattern
Category Area
(Km2)
% of
Area
Forest 17.37 9.55
Scrub 22.5 12.4
Crop 136.15 74.87
Tank 5.82
The major portion of the catchment falls in
the category of crop land. However, the
percentage areas under different land use
category are subjected to the correction as
we had used the data of recent years, since
the catchment is subjected to significant
development activities and therefore, the
changes in the areas of all the categories of
land use.
Rainfall Analysis:
Most of the hydrologic problems require
knowledge of the average depth of rainfall
over the catchment area. In the present
study, Theissen polygon method was used
for computing areal average depth of
precipitation. (weight station data based on
relative area represented by each station.
This is done trivially using Natural
Neighbor interpolation)
The catchment is being gauged for rainfall at
three locations namely, Mugad, Dharwad
and Dhummawad. As mentioned above, the
Theissen’s network was constructed and the
respective areas of influence were obtained
and the same is presented in Table 4. The
estimated average rainfall over the
catchment is tabulated in Table.7
Table 4. Theissen’s method
Raingauge
Station
Area
(Km2)
% of
Area
Mugad 80.07 44
Dharwad 40.81 22
Dhummawad 60.95 34
Results and Analysis:
The runoff curve number procedure for
runoff determination, as described by the
SCS, uses rainfall data, watershed
characteristics in order to estimate the
maximum runoff. The runoff curve number,
438 Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
CN, for the drainage area is determined for
average soil-land cover complex and soil
moisture conditions. The CN parameter
varies between 0 and 100 and is a function
of the dominant soil type, infiltration
behavior of the soil, vegetative cover,
antecedent soil moisture content and land
use. Guidelines for the determination are
documented in USDA-SCS, 1972 which also
presents criteria for discrete partitioning of
soil moisture between wet conditions with
high runoff potential AMC, III., average
conditions with high runoff potential AMC-II
and dry conditions with low runoff potential
AMC-I. This partitioning suggests that the
rainfall-runoff relationship is discrete,
implying sudden shifts in CN with
corresponding quantum jumps in calculated
runoff. In reality, CN varies continuously
with soil moisture and thus has continuous
values instead of only three. Therefore, the
accuracy of runoff simulation can be
improved considerably by using soil
moisture accounting procedure to estimate
S for each storm. It is often needed to use
local runoff data when they are available to
estimate correct CN values. Long runoff
records are needed because the classic
method for deriving CN from measured
runoff data (USDA, SCS, 1972). Thus, a
method for determining CN from limited
rainfall-runoff record is desirable (Hauser &
Jones, 1991b; Woodward, 1991). However,
Hauser and Jones (1991b) found the median
of curve numbers derived from field data
pairs for short records estimated the curve
number close to that of SCS method in the
Western Great Plains.
In the present study, the catchment is not
gauged for the discharge, however, the
rainfall amount are being gauged at three
locations. Also, the soil and land use maps
which were prepared as explained in the
previous section were used. Later on, these
layers (such as soil, land use layer) were
superimposed one on the other to identify
the land use under different soil type
classification. The classified land use groups
are tabulated in the Table 5 below.
The Curve Number for the above said class
was derived by assuming the AMC-II as the
other two AMC conditions represents the
extreme conditions of the catchment. It is
reported that, AMC-II conditions would
estimates the runoff under any given
situation (Yoo, et al, 1993). As the study
area fall under the transition zone of sub-
humid to semi-arid region, the AMC-II
condition would a better option to use. Using
the AMC-II situation, the curve number for
different classes is arrived and the average
curve number for the catchment is
presented in Table 6.
Table.5 Area under different soil type
Land
Use Area under soil
type (Km2)
Area
(Km2)
B C D
Forest 4.2 10.07 3.09 17.37
Scrub 10.31 12.19 Nil 22.50
Crop 82.4 50.09 3.65 136.14
Tank 5.8
Table.6 CN for different land use and land
cover
Land use
classification
Area
(Km2)
CN Area *
CN
Forest (Open)
B 4.2 44 184.8
C 10.7 60 604.2
D 3.09 64 197.89
Scrub land
B 10.31 47 484.57
C 12.19 64 780.16
Crop Land
B 82.4 86 7086.4
C 50.09 90 4508.1
D 3.65 93 339.45
Tank 5.81 100 581
Average CN=81
Maximum retention, S=75.82
The runoffs were calculated using the
derived CN and S values for AMC-II for the
areal average rainfall observed in the
catchment for 20 year. The estimated
runoff values with respect to the rainfall
values are given in the Table 7.
439 ANAND V. SHIVAPUR, B. VENKATESH and RAVIRAJ H. MULANGI
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
Table.7 Estimated Runoff for Neersagar
using the Curve Number
Arial Average
Rainfall
(mm)
Estimated runoff
(mm)
(SCS method)
753.33 89.18
1220.86 280.49
1125.81 208.04
910.23 125.57
638.59 98.47
775.91 213.71
957.35 221.54
783.8 194.18
737.81 103.4
827.26 127.12
973.6 172.57
600.52 92.18
851.73 124.74
Determination of Yield:
The yield of the reservoir was estimated
using the observed monthly average water
level in the reservoir and the monthly
average runoff. The losses such as
evaporation and seepage were considered.
The estimated yield of the reservoir is given
in the Table 8.
Correlation between Runoff and
Rainfall:
Runoff coefficient represents the integrated
effect of the catchment losses and hence
depends upon the nature of the surface,
surface slope and rainfall intensity. The
relationship between the rainfall and the
resulting runoff is quite complex and is
influenced by a most of factors relating the
catchment and climate. Further, there is the
problem of paucity of data which forces one
to adopt simple correlations for the
adequate estimation of runoff. A relationship
has been established between runoff and
the rainfall of the area using the different
available types of regression tools. The
relations developed are
Linear Equation: R = 0.0006 P +0.0787
r2 = 0.6884 (6)
Power Equation: R = 0.0109 P0.554
r2 = 0.7391 (7)
Where R is the runoff and P is the
precipitation.
Summary:
The study was carried out for the higher
order catchment with a complex land-cover
type to determine the general applicability
of SCS method, as this method is only
applied for a smaller catchments (area
ranging from 10-100 km2). The present
study on Neersagar can summarize the
following points.
1. The catchment on the whole is gently
sloping. About 62 % of the area falls in
the category of 1 to 5% slope. The soils
present in the cathcment are B, C and D.
Almost half of the catchment is covered
with the soil type B and about 40% of C
type.
2. The relationship between rainfall and
runoff with power type equation yields
better estimates.
3. The annual yield of the reservoir is about
416000 cubic meters
4. There is no gauged flow to compare the
results thus obtained by the procedure.
Acknowledgements:
The authors deeply acknowledge the
Principal and the Management of S.D.M.
College of Engineering and Technology,
Dharwad for the support and
encouragement given for carrying out this
study.
440 Yield Studies on Neersagar Reservoir and its Catchment
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 433-440
Table 8. Estimated yield
Month Monthly
Average
Tank
Level
(m)
NTL
(m)
Area
(Sq.m)
Monthly
average
Runoff
(mm)
Yield
(m3)
Monthly
Yield
(m3)
Jan. 8.61 577.7 2666523.29 0.001 3.13301 97.123
Feb. 8.11 577.2 2666113.92 0.000 0 0
March .69 576.78 2396526.6 0.014 32.50177 1007.55
April 7.16 576.25 2277085.13 0.231 526.8902 15806.70
May 6.72 575.81 2206550.74 0.432 952.5778 29529.91
June 6.98 576.07 2275077.3 1.215 2763.693 82910.77
July 7.42 576.51 2279985.32 0.985 2244.972 69594.13
Aug. 8.44 577.73 2667464.84 0.910 2427.257 75244.95
Sept. 8.64 577.73 2668283.57 0.776 2070.786 62123.58
Oct. 9.11 578.2 2948913.31 0.68 1999.028 61969.86
Nov. 9.12 578.21 2955921.89 0.14 415.6448 12469.34
Dec. 8.87 577.96 2780707.4 0.06 165.803 5139.89
Total 415893.84 m3
References:
[1] Chandramohan.T, Dilip G. Durbude.,
and Venkatesh.B., (2007) “Sensitivity
of Runoff Curve Number to initial
abstraction coefficient”, Vol.88,
Journal of Agricultural Engineering
Division, The Institution of Engineers
(India) pp. 39-43.
[2] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R.,
(1991a) “Runoff curve number for
the Southern High Plains”,
Transactions of the ASAE:34(1):
pp.142-148.
[3] Hauser,V.L., and Jones, O.R.,
(1991b) “SCS curve numbers from
short runoff records”, Jl. of ASAE
Paper No.91-2614, St. Joseph, MI:
ASAE.
[4] Hawkins, R.H., (1978) “Runoff curve
numbers with varying site moisture”,
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage
Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 104 (IR4). Pp. 389-398.
[5] Johnson, R.R., (1998) “An
Investigation of Curve number
applicability to Watersheds in Excess
of 25000 Hectares”, Journal of
Environmental Hydrology, 6:
Paper.7., July.
[6] Mishra, S. K., Jain, M. K., Pandey, R.
P., Singh, V. P., (2005) “Catchment
area-based evaluation of the AMC-
dependent SCS-CN-based rainfall-
runoff models”,
[7] Hydrological Processes, Volume 19,
Issue 14 , pp. 2701 - 2718
[8] National Bureau of Soil Survey and
Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP),
(1998) “Soils of Karnataka”, Soils of
India Series, Publ. No 47, pp. 88.
[9] Ponce, V.M., (1989) “Engineering
Hydrology – Principles and Practices”,
San Diego State University.
[10] USDA Soil Conservation
Service, (1984), User’s guide for the
CREAMS computer model, USDA-SCS
Engineering Division, Technical
Release 72, Washington, DC.
[11] Woodward, D.E., (1991),
progress report ARS/SCS curve
number work group, Jl. of ASAE
Paper No.91-2607, St Joseph, MI:
ASAE.
[12] Yoo, K.H., Soileau, M., (1993),
Runoff Curve Number determined by
three methods under conventional
and conservation tillage, Jl. of ASAE,
Vol.36(1), pp. 57-62.
441 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
#02020507 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume
High-Performance Concrete
M. NAZEER*, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN**, and S.V. RAJEEVA*** *Department of Civil Engineering, TKM College of Engineering, Kollam, India.
** Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal,
Srinivanagar-575025, India
***Department of Civil Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engg, Bangalore, India
* E-mail:[email protected]
Abstract: This paper presents the results of an investigation dealing with the effects of
curing periods and the level of replacement of cement with silica fume on the strength and
chloride diffusion rate of a few High-Performance Concrete (HPC) Mixes. Laboratory
investigations were carried out to determine the chloride diffusion characteristics by Simple
Immersion Test and Rapid Chloride Permeability Test. HPC was designed for a target mean
strength of 70 MPa. A part of cement was replaced by silica fume at 8, 10 and 12% by mass
of cement and the concrete was examined for both strength development and chloride
penetration resistance. All mixes were prepared with w/b ratio 0.3, total binder content 483
kg/m3 and coarse aggregate content 1050 kg/m3. Four different mixes with varying silica
fume content were examined. The fine aggregate content was modified in silica fume
admixed mixes in order to keep the paste volume constant. The experimental study shows
that the prolonged moist curing and higher silica fume content improve the chloride
penetration resistance of concrete.
Keywords: hpc; supplementary cementitious materials; silica fume; permeability; chloride
diffusion
Introduction:
Corrosion is the process by which a refined
metal reverts back to its natural state by an
oxidation reaction with a non-metallic
environment (Broomfield, 1997). The
corrosion of steel in concrete is basically an
electrochemical process. The damage of
concrete resulting from corrosion of
embedded steel manifests in the form of
expansion, cracks, spalling of concrete,
reduction in steel cross sectional area and
reduction of bond between steel and
concrete. Depending on the oxidation
condition, the volume of rust may increase
upto six times the volume of pure iron
(Mehta and Monteiro, 1997). Concrete is a
strong alkaline medium (pH 12-13).
According to Pourbaix diagram of
electrochemical potential verses pH value,
(Hou et al., 2004) corrosion of steel occurs
only at pH values lower than 9 or higher
than 14. A protective, thin, impermeable
iron oxide film on the surface makes the
steel passive to corrosion. This passive state
can be inhibited by the destruction of this
passive film due to the entry of aggressive
ions like chlorides and sulphates or by an
acidification of the environment closer to the
steel reinforcement by carbonation (Poupard
et al., 2004).
The reinforcement corrosion in concrete
exposed to marine environment is due to
ingress of chloride ions into concrete
through the pores. To reduce the ingress of
chloride into concrete, it is necessary to
make the concrete less permeable. Addition
of supplementary cementitious materials
(SCM) will reduce the volume of pores to a
greater extent and the pores will also be
discontinuous, resulting in better strength
and durability performance. The
discontinuity in capillary pores of such
concrete is due to the continued cement
hydration and also due to pozzolanic
reactivity. Also, for lower w/b ratios, pore
volumes will be minimum and thus the
moisture exchange between hardened
concrete and the environment is minimized
(Zhang et al., 1999). A large volume of
literature (Mullick, 2000., Papadakis, 2000.,
442 Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
Dehwah et al., 2002., shi, 2004) is available
on the strength and durability studies of
concretes incorporating SCMs. The addition
of mineral admixtures in concrete may
create a dilution of its alkalinity in the
beginning; however it improves the pore
structure on hardening. The pozzolanic
activity further improves the pore structure
by forming secondary cementitious material
after consuming calcium hydroxide (CH)
resulting from hydration of cement. Hence it
is important to study chloride diffusion in
concrete with SCM.
Experimental Investigation:
In the present investigation, four concrete
mixes have been studied for strength and
performance to chloride diffusion. Chloride
diffusion was examined by the Simple
Immersion Test (SIT) and by Rapid Chloride
Permeability Test (RCPT). Among the mixes,
one was prepared with cement as the only
binder (control mix) and the other three
mixes were prepared by partially replacing
the cement content with silica fume at 8, 10
and 12 percent (by mass). The water/binder
ratio, superplasticiser dosage and coarse
aggregate content were kept constant for all
mixes.
Materials Used:
A brief description of the materials used and
their physical properties are discussed
below:
Cement:
Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS
12269-1987 was used.
Fine Aggregate:
Locally available river-bed sand having
specific gravity 2.60 and fineness modulus
of 2.17 was used as fine aggregate. The
grading of fine aggregate conforms to ZONE
III of IS 383-1970.
Coarse Aggregate:
Crushed granite chips having specific gravity
2.67 and fineness modulus 6.67 were used
as coarse aggregate. The particle size varied
from 6mm to 20mm.
Silica fume:
Silica fume required for the work was
supplied by Elkem India.
Superplasticiser:
A commercially available sulphonated
naphthaline polymer based high range
water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) was
used. Its optimum dosage (2.25 percent by
mass of binder) was determined by Marsh
cone test method.
Water: Tap water, fit for drinking, was used
for casting and moist curing of specimens.
The chemical compositions of cementitious
materials are presented in Table 1. Cement
is examined for different characterisation
tests as per the relevant standards and the
results are presented in Table 2. Scanning
Electron microscope images of cementitious
materials are shown in Plate 1 and Plate 2.
Coarse aggregate and fine aggregates used
for the investigation were tested for particle
size distribution and specific gravity, and the
results are presented in Table 3.
Mix Proportions:
Concrete mix was proportioned for a target
mean strength of 70MPa. The method
adopted for the design was similar to the
one recommended in the ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice (ACI 211). The design
basically involves the determination of w/b
ratio for the required compressive strength.
After selecting suitable water content,
depending on the dosage of superplasticiser,
the cement requirement was then
determined. The coarse aggregate content
was fixed based on the average shape of the
aggregate particles. The coarse aggregate
content was kept constant in all the mixes
under investigation as its variation may
affect the mechanical properties of resulting
mix. The fine aggregate content was then
calculated using the absolute volume basis.
The volume of entrapped air was assumed
to be 2 percent (Aitcin, 1998). The total
coarse aggregate content was of two
fractions, namely,
Fraction I : Size varying from 10mm to
20mm, and Fraction II : Size varying from
6mm to 10mm, blended in the ratio 60:40.
Concrete mixes with partial cement
443 M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
replacement by silica fume were arrived by
adjusting the total sand content in order to
keep the paste volume constant for all
mixes necessitated by the difference in the
specific gravity of cement and silica fume.
The details of mix proportions used in the
investigation after modifying the trial mix
are presented in Table 4.
Casting of Specimen:
Concrete cylinders of dimensions 150mm
diameter and 300mm long and 100mm
cubes were prepared from the different
mixes mentioned. A horizontal shaft mixer
was used for this purpose and the mixing
sequence as outlined below was followed:
� The mixer was initially loaded with
coarse aggregate and run for 30
seconds adding just sufficient water
for wetting the surface of aggregate.
� The fine aggregate was introduced to
the mixer and mixed continuously till
the wet mixture looked
homogeneous.
� Cement and silica fume were added
to the mixer and about three-fourth
of the water, pre-mixed with the
required quantity of superplasticiser
was poured in gradually.
� Mixing was continued for a period not
less than four minutes.
� The balance of water-superplasticiser
mixture was added and the mixing
was continued for a further period of
not less than one minute.
� This mix was used for casting
specimens.
Preparation and Testing of Specimen:
Cylindrical specimens were cast in cast-iron
moulds 150mm diameter and 300mm long.
After 24 hours of casting specimens were
demoulded and put in water for curing. After
their attaining sufficient strength, the
specimens were sliced to 50mm thick discs
using a diamond toothed saw after
discarding 25mm of concrete from the top
and bottom of the cast cylinders. The curing
process was continued for periods of 3, 7
and 14 days. Cubes (100mm size) were also
prepared from each mix for the compressive
strength determination.
Compressive Strength:
The cubes were tested for the compressive
strength after 3, 7, 28, 56 and 90 days of
moist curing.
Simple Immersion Test:
The sliced specimens (150mmΦx50mm)
taken out of water, after specified period of
curing, were surface dried and coated with
bituminous material to prevent the entry of
chloride ions except through one face. This
ensures unidirectional movement of ions
through concrete when it was immersed in
anionic solution. The specimens were
immersed in 5% NaCl solution. The
specimens were then taken out after 7, 28,
56 and 90 days of immersion and split
length-wise. The split surface was sprayed
with Silver nitrate solution. The depth of
chloride ion penetration was measured from
the colour change along the thickness of the
specimen at six locations on each split piece
and their average was taken to calculate the
coefficient of diffusion.
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test:
The sliced specimens (150mmΦx50mm)
taken out of water, after specified period of
curing were placed in a dirt-free
environment till testing. The testing was
done at the age of 28, 56 and 90 days. A
potential of 60V DC was applied between
two electrodes placed on the opposite
surfaces of the specimen which had been
exposed to 0.3 M NaOH solution on one side
(Anode) and 3% by weight NaCl solution on
the other side (Cathode). The test runs for 6
hours and the total charge passed through
the specimen during this period is calculated
from the current-time plot (Basheer, 2001).
Results and Discussion:
It is observed that the addition of silica fume
caused a reduction in slump value as shown
in Table 4, which however did not affect the
mouldability of the concrete. On hardening
within moulds the specimens did not show
any honeycombing. It was noted that at the
administered dosage of superplasticiser
(2.25 percent by mass of binder), there was
a little delay in the hardening of control
concrete, while earlier setting was observed
444 Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
for silica fume admixed concretes. This
indicates that the pozzolanic reaction of
silica fume started even at the early hours
of hydration. The development of
compressive strength of all mixes upto an
age of 90 days is shown in Fig. 1. Higher
level of replacement of cement with silica
fume caused increase in compressive
strength at all ages of test. However, the
strength of SFC12 shows a lower value at
later age mostly due to the imperfect
compaction. Also, the rate of strength
development of such mixes was much faster
in early ages (upto 28 days).
The depths of chloride ion penetration from
simple immersion test are used to calculate
the chloride ion diffusion coefficient
(Basheer, 2001) to get an idea of
permeability of concrete. The equation used
is as follows:
Eqn(1)
Where Xd – the chloride penetration depth
in m,
t - the time of exposure in s, and
D – chloride diffusion coefficient in m2/s.
The calculated diffusion coefficient values
are used to classify the concrete in terms of
their permeability as per the
recommendations of the Concrete Society as
given below (Basheer, 2001):
High permeability concrete: >5x10-12
m2/s.
Average permeability concrete: (1 to 5) x
10-12 m2/s.
Low permeability concrete:< 1 x 10-12
m2/s.
The variation of diffusion coefficient with
period of exposure for different curing
conditions is plotted and is shown in Fig. 2
to Fig. 4. From these plots, it is clear that
for all mixes the coefficients are less than
those specified for low permeability
concrete. However, the early age test result
shows rather higher values of diffusion
coefficient at 7 days for control mix and SFC
8 mix. The progressive decrease in values
indicates that, the pore refinement is a
continuous process for all mixes. It is also
observed that the control mix requires
longer period of moist curing for pore
refinement. The differences in diffusion
coefficient values for a particular age of test
with different curing conditions are higher
for control concrete and this reduces with
the increase in silica fume content. Mixes
with higher silica fume content require
minimum moist curing for pore refinement;
this is due to the enhanced pozzolanic
activity of silica fume.
The current (ampere) values observed in the
Rapid Chloride Permeability Test are used to
calculate the total charge passed through
the specimen in Coulombs. The area under
the current vs time plot is calculated using a
formula given in ASTM C1202. To account
for the non-standard dimension (diameter)
of the specimen used in the test, the
calculated charge values are corrected using
Eqn (2).
Eqn (2)
where Qs is the charge passed through
100mm diameter standard specimen, Qx is
the charge passed through x mm diameter
test specimen. The total charge passed
through the specimen at the age of 56 and
90 days and for different curing conditions is
plotted against the silica fume content and
presented in Fig. 5.
It is observed that, the addition of silica
fume in concrete reduces the total charge
conductivity. The reduction is more
pronounced upto a replacement level of 10
percent. For higher percentages, there is a
tendency of increase in charge passed
except for concretes, which are moist cured
for a longer (7 days or more) period. The
probable reason for this higher current
through concrete mix with 12% replacement
may be due to the poor compaction
achieved owing to the reduced workability.
All the curves shown in Fig. 5 follow an
exponential relation in the form:
Eqn(3)
Where C is the total charge passed through
the specimen during the test period in
Coulombs, A is a factor depending on the
period of moist curing and age of concrete
at the time of test, r is a factor depending
on age of concrete at the time of test, and s
is the percentage silica fume content in
445 M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
concrete. The approximate value of the
factor r is 0.09 for 90 days test and 0.08 for
56 days test. Whereas, the factor A may be
computed from the relation:
Eqn(4)
where Cp is the moist curing period in days
and P is a constant, 1050 for 90 days test
and 1200 for 56 days test.
There is an interesting relation between the
initial current, I0 (in mA) and the total
charge passed, C (Coulombs) through the
specimen over six hours test period. Fig. 6
shows this variation irrespective of the silica
fume content. This variation satisfies a
linear relation in the form:
Eqn(5)
Accounting for the silica fume content, the
parameter k may be written as:
Eqn(6)
Based on the total charge passed through
the specimen, the concrete can be rated as
follows as per the ASTM standards:
Chloride
permeability
Total
charge
passed
rating (Coulomb)
Negligible < 100
Very low 100-1000
Low 1000-2000
Medium 2000-4000
High > 4000
The total charge passed through the
specimens at the age of 90 days is plotted
against the period of moist curing and
shown in Fig. 7. It is clear that, the charge
passed reduces with the addition of silica
fume. For any mix, prolonged moist curing
causes the reduction in the value of charge
passed. This is more pronounced for control
mix. For all silica fume admixed concretes,
the curves almost coincided, showing that
even a small percentage of silica fume
addition causes pronounced reduction in
chloride penetrability of concrete. All
concrete mixes have total charge passed
between 100 and 1000 Coulombs and fall
under the category of very low permeability
concrete.
Conclusions:
The effect of silica fume on workability,
strength and resistance to chloride ion
penetration are investigated and compared
for three different curing ages. For the given
mix proportions, the addition of silica fume
reduces the workability of concrete. Use of
high range water reducing admixture is
essential to enhance the workability of
concrete. For higher levels of replacement of
cement with silica fume, higher dosage of
superplasticiser may be required for
maintaining workability. There is a general
trend that the strength of concrete mix
increases as the replacement level increases
except for SFC12 mix, probably due to
imperfect compaction. The chloride ion
diffusion coefficients calculated from the
depths of chloride ion penetration from
simple immersion tests indicates that, 7
days of moist curing makes the silica fume
admixed concrete more impermeable. The
pore refinement increases with increase in
silica fume content. The total charge passed
through the specimen in RCPT decreases
with increase in silica fume content. The
optimum replacement level of cement is 10
percent with respect to the total charge
passed through the specimen. There exists a
linear relationship between the total charge
passed and the initial current in RCP test.
Both prolonged moist curing and higher
silica fume content improve the chloride
penetration resistance of concrete.
Acknowledgements:
The authors acknowledges the support of
M/s ELKEM INDIA (P) LIMITED, M/s FOSROC
CHEMICALS (India) Pvt. Ltd. and M/s
GRASIM INDUSTRIES LIMITED for the
supply of silica fume, superplasticiser and
cement respectively used during the
present investigation.
446 Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
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Malhotra VM, Kim KS, and Kim JC,
Concrete Incorporating
Supplimentary Cementing Materials:
Effect on Compressive Strength and
Resistance to Chloride Ion
Penetration, ACI Materials Journal,
Vol. 96(2), (1999), 181-189.
447 M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
Table 2: Physical Properties of Cement.
Plate 1: SEM Image of Cement.
Plate 2: SEM Image of Silica fume.
Table 3: Properties of Aggregate.
Property
Fine
aggregate
Coarse
aggregate
Specific gravity 2.6 2.67
Fineness
modulus 2.17 6.65
Grading zone
(IS 383) Zone III -
448 Investigations on Chloride Diffusion of Silica fume High-Performance Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
Table 4: Trial Mix Details.
Fig.1 Development of compressive strength.
Fig.2 Comparison of diffusion coefficient for
mixes moist cured at 3 and 7 days.
Fig.3 Comparison of diffusion coefficient for
mixes moist cured at 3 and 14 days.
449 M. NAZEER, MATTUR C. NARASIMHAN, and S.V. RAJEEVA
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 441-449
Fig.4 Comparison of diffusion coefficient for
mixes moist cured at 7 and 14 days.
Fig.5 Effect of silicafume content, moist
curing period and test age on total charge
passed through the specimen.
Fig.6 Relation between total charge passed
and initial current.
Fig.7 Effect of silica fume content and
period of moist curing on charge passed at
90 days RCP Test.
450 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
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#02020508 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength
Characteristics of High Strength Concrete
K. CHINNARAJU*, K. SUBRAMANIAN** AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR*** * Structural Engineering Division, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
** Department of Civil Engg, Coimbatore Inst. of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
*** P.P.G. Institute of Technology, Saravanampatti, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract: To study the role of silica fume and Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag
(GGBS) on the strength characteristics of high strength concrete a test program has been
carried out. A set of 24 different concrete mixtures were cast and tested with different
cement replacement levels (0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) of GGBS with silica fume as addition
(0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement). For each mixture, super
plasticizer has been added at different dosage values to achieve a constant range of slump
for desired workability with a constant water-binder (w/b) ratio. Based on the test results
the influence of such admixtures on strength aspects were critically analyzed and discussed.
A statistical model has been developed to relate compressive strength with flexural and split
tensile strengths.
Key words: GGBS, Silica Fume, High Strength Concrete, Compressive Strength, Flexural
Strength, Split Tensile Strength
Introduction:
The use of GGBS as additive to cement is in
use for a reasonably long period due to
overall economy in its production as well as
the improved performance characteristics of
concrete in aggressive environments. GGBS
is a glassy material from by-product of blast
furnace iron making. It mainly contains
calcium silico aluminate with high reactivity
[1]. GGBS can improve the fluidity of fresh
concrete, reduce its bleeding and postpone
the setting when Portland cement is partially
replaced by GGBS in concrete. The early-age
strength of the concrete with Portland
cement partially replaced by GGBS is almost
equal to that of the concrete before
replacement while the strength at later ages
is even much higher. The introduction of
GGBS has a great effect on the
microstructure of concrete, which includes
the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between
aggregates and the hardened bulk cement
paste. The ITZ is a weak zone in the
microstructure of concrete, but it is one of
the most important factors influencing the
performance of concrete. The existence of a
water-membrane and pores at the ITZ of
aggregates results in a much more open
microstructure and a high orientation of
calcium hydroxide crystals in the zone [4].
The rate of hydration due to addition of
GGBS is known to be very slow and hence
the silica fume which is very rich in reactive
silica content is added along with the GGBS
to accelerate the hydration process and
compensate the draw backs [5 - 9]. The
effect of silica fume in concrete can be
explained in two mechanisms, namely the
filler effect and the pozzolanic effect. A
properly proportioned GGBS and silica fume
in concrete mix improves properties of
concrete that may not be achievable
through the use of Portland cement alone
[8].
Experimental Program:
To study the effect of GGBS and silica fume
in the strength properties of high
performance concrete specimens as
mentioned in Table 3. GGBS has been used
as cement replacement material for 0%,
10%, 20% and 30% cement replacement
levels with different values of silica fume
(0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by
weight of cement) as addition.
451 Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of
High Strength Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
Materials
The properties of the selected materials for
this experimental study have been reported
as below:
Cement
Ordinary Portland cement 53 grade with
physical and chemical properties as given in
table 1 has been used in this experimental
study.
GGBS
Slag(GGBS) obtained from Andhra Cements,
Vizak, India confirming to IS: 12089 as
mineral admixture in dry powder form has
been used in this study. Its physical and
chemical properties are given in table 1.
Silica fume
The silica fume obtained from the M/s
ELKEM Pvt Ltd , Bombay, India confirming to
ASTM C1240 was used for this study. Its
physical and chemical properties are given
in table 1.
Fine aggregate
Locally available river sand (coarse sand)
confirming to Grading Zone II of IS: 383 –
1970 was used in this experimental work.
Its physical properties are dealt in table 2.
Coarse aggregate
Locally available crushed blue granite stones
confirming to graded aggregate of nominal
size 12.5 mm as per IS: 383 – 1970 was
used in this experimental work. Its physical
properties are dealt in table 2.
Super Plasticizer
Chemical admixture based on Sulphonated
Naphthalene Formaldehyde condensate
‘CONPLAST SP430’ conforming to IS: 9103 –
1999 and ASTM C – 494 was used in this
study.
Water
Potable water with pH value of 7.0 and
confirming to IS 456-2000 was used for
making concrete and curing the specimen as
well.
Mix Proportions
A total of 24 concrete mixtures were
designed as per ACI 211.4R having a
constant water/binder ratio of 0.32 and total
binder content of 583 kg/m3. The control
mixture of grade M60 included only ordinary
Portland cement (OPC) as the binder while
the remaining mixtures incorporated the
GGBS as cement replacement material and
silica fume as addition. The replacement
levels for GGBS was 10%, 20% and 30%
while those of silica fume were 2.5%, 5%,
7.5% 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement
as addition. The mixture proportions are
summarized in Table 3 in which the mixtures
were designated according to the type and
the amount of cementitious materials
included.
Casting and Testing
For the compressive strength determination,
100 mm size cube specimens were used,
while 150 x 300 mm cylinder specimens
were used for determining the split tensile
strength, and for flexural tensile strength,
100x100x500 mm beam specimens were
used. A symmetrical two-point loading
setup, with beam span of 400 mm, was
used for the flexural test. All the specimens
were moist cured under water at room
temperature until testing. Average of the
strength of three specimens has been
considered as the strength value. Specimens
were tested according to relevant Indian
Standards.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
All the 24 mixtures were tested for their
corresponding strengths and their results
are shown in figures 1 through 4.
Figure 1 shows the compressive strength on
7th day whereas figure 2 shows compressive
strength on 28th day. From these results it
can be seen that at 7th day the compressive
strength due to the addition of GGBS as
partial replacement of cement is less than
the control mix. This is due to the fact that
the hydration process will be slow with the
addition of GGBS. However when the silica
fume is added an appreciable increase in the
compressive strength is noticed which is due
to the higher percentage of silica content in
it. Also it is observed that the ultimate
compressive strength reaches when the
silica fume addition is 10 percent. The rate
of increase in compressive strength is high
at 7days and less at 28 days. It can be seen
that the increase in compressive strength at
28 days is almost negligible.
Split Tensile Strength
Figure 3 represents the variation of split
tensile strength at 28 days due to the
452 K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
addition of GGBS as cement replacements
up to 30% with the addition of silica fume
up to 12.5% by weight of cement. It is
observed that the increase in split tensile
strength is moderate when silica fume
addition is up to 10% beyond that there is
no increase of split tensile strength instead
of that a appreciable drop in split tensile
strength is noticed. It is also observed
during tests that the failure of the specimen
was sudden because of more brittleness.
The ultimate split tensile strength was
obtained for the combination of GGBS at
cement replacement level of 20% along with
the addition of 10% silica fume.
Flexural Strength
Figure 4 shows the variation of flexural
strength at 28 days age for cement
replacements up to 30% by GGBS with silica
fume addition of up to 12.5%. The change in
flexural strength is very limited for most of
the combinations except at cement
replacement level of 20% by GGBS along
with the addition of 10% silica fume. It is
also observed that the flexural strength
decreases with higher rate beyond the
addition of 10% silica fume.
Correlation Analysis
Figure 5 shows the correlation between
square root of compressive strength at 28
days and split tensile strength and Figure 6
shows the correlation between square root
of compressive strength at 28 days and
flexural strength. A linear regression
analysis has been made and the relationship
between compressive strength and split
tensile strength, flexural strengths have
been arrived along with their corresponding
regression coefficient and shown in the
figures 5 and 6 for various addition of silica
fume. For all these relations the value of
regression coefficients shows the better
degree of reliability over the relations. By
knowing the compressive strength of
concrete for the percentage of addition of
silica fume along GGBS replacement levels
the corresponding flexural / split tensile
strengths can be arrived at with the
appropriate correlation equations.
Conclusions
Extensive experimentation has been carried
out to determine the effect of addition of
silica fume with the different cement
replacements by GGBS on the compressive,
split and flexural strengths of high
performance concrete. A statistical analysis
also has been performed to get the
generalized relations between the said
strengths. Based on the above experimental
and analytical analysis the following
conclusions can be drawn.
1. There is no enhancement in
compressive strength at 7 days due to
replacement of cement by GGBS,
however due to addition of silica fume
there is appreciable increase in
compressive strength and also noticed
that the increase in compressive
strength is maximum at 10% addition
of silica fume.
2. Even though the compressive strength
decreases at 7th day due to the addition
of GGBS, the 28th day compressive
strength attains almost the control
specimen value. This shows that the
rate of decrease of compressive
strength at early stage is compensated
at the later stage due to the addition of
GGBS and the contribution of silica
fume for the later developments of
strength is negligible.
3. Based on the results obtained it can be
concluded that the 10 % addition of
silica fume with any level of cement
replacements by GGBS gives the
optimum value of compressive strength,
split and flexural strengths as well. It
can also be concluded that the
replacements of 20% by GGBS with
10% addition of silica fume yields an
overall optimum value.
References:
[1] Ganesh Babu, K., Sree Rama Kumar,
V., “Efficiency of GGBS in concrete”,
Cement and Concrete Research, 30,
(2000), pp. 1031– 1036.
[2] Feng Nai-Qian, “High Performance
Concrete”, China Architecture and
Building Press, Beijing, 1996.
[3] Tan Ke-Feng, Xin-Cheng Pu,
“Strengthening effects of FGFA,
GGBS, and their combination”,
Cement and Concrete Research, 28
(12), (1998), pp. 1819–1825.
453 Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of
High Strength Concrete
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
[4] Gao, J.M., Qian, C.X., Liu, H.F..
Wang, B., Li. L., “ITZ microstructure
of concrete containing GGBS”,
Cement and Concrete Research, 35,
(2005), pp. 1299– 1304.
[5] Hassan, K.E., Cabrera J.G., Maliehe,
R.S., “The effect of mineral
admixtures on the properties of high-
performance concrete”, Cement and
Concrete Composites, 22, (2000),
pp.267– 271
[6] Malhotra, V.M., Mehta, P.K.,
“Pozzolanic and cementitious
materials”, Advances in Concrete
Technology, Gordon and Breach,
London, 1996.
[7] Gengying Li and Xiaohua Zhao,
“Properties of concrete incorporating
fly ash and ground granulated blast
furnace slag”, Cement concrete
research, 25, (2003), pp. 293 – 299.
[8] Ganesh Babu.K., Surya Prakash.P.V.,
“Efficiency of Silica Fume in
Concrete”, Cement and Concrete
Research, 25 (6), (1995), pp. 1273 -
1283.
[9] Rajamane,N.P., Annie Peter,J.,
Dattatreya,J.K., Neelamegam, M.,
and Gopalakrishnan, S.,
“Improvement in properties of High
Performance Concrete with Partial
Replacement of cement by Ground
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag”,
Institution of Engineers (I) – CV, 84,
(2003), pp. 38 – 41.
Table.1 Physical and Chemical properties of cement and admixtures
Property/ composition Cement GGBS Silica fume
Physical properties
Specific Surface Area
(Blaine Fineness)
(m2/kg)
385
400 to 600
20900
Specific Gravity 3.15 2.85 to 2.95 2.20
Standard Consistency 31% - -
Initial Setting Time 2 hrs - -
Final Setting Time 4 hrs - -
Bulk density
(kg/m3) -
1050 to 1375 600 to 700
Physical form - Powder form Powder form
Chemical composition
Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 20.78 % 33.05 % 90 - 96 %
Aluminium Oxide
(Al2O3) 4.44 % 20.62 % 0.5 - 0.8 %
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 2.88 % 1.34 % 0.2 - 0.8 %
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 63.78 % 34.09 % 0.1 - 0.5 %
Magnesium Oxide
(MgO) 3.66 % 9.06 % 0.5 - 1.5 %
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 2.75 % 0.58 % 0.1 - 0.4 %
Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.46 % 0.23 % 0.2 - 0.7 %
Potassium Oxide (K2O) 0.64 % 0.30 % 0.4 - 1.0 %
Loss on Ignition 0.61 % - 0.7 - 2.5 %
Table.2 Basic Properties of Aggregates
454 K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
Table.3 Mix proportions
455 Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of
High Strength Concrete
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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
Table.4 Test Results
40
50
60
70
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Slica Fume Content (%)
Compressive Strength (MPa)
GGBS 0
GGBS10
GGBS20
GGBS30
Fig 1 Compressive Strength on 7th Day
456 K. CHINNARAJU, K. SUBRAMANIAN AND S.R.R. SENTHIL KUMAR
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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Slica Fume Content (%)
Compressive Strength (MPa)
GGBS 0
GGBS10
GGBS20
GGBS30
Fig 2 Compressive Strength on 28th Day
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Slica Fume Content (%)
Split Tensile Strength (MPa)
GGBS 0
GGBS10
GGBS20
GGBS30
Fig.3 Split Tensile Strength
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Slica Fume Content (%)
Flexural Strength
GGBS 0
GGBS10
GGBS20
GGBS30
Fig.4 Flexural Strength
457 Role of Silica Fume and GGBS on Strength Characteristics of
High Strength Concrete
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ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 450-457
Fig.5 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Split Tensile Strength
Fig.6 Square Root of Compressive Strength Vs Flexural Strength
458 International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
#02020509 Copyright © 2009 CAFET-INNOVA TECHNICAL SOCIETY. All rights reserved.
Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid
Waste Composting in a Rotary in-vessel with
Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
MONSON C. C*, MURUGAPPAN. A* and GOVINARAJAN. M**
* Department of Civil Engineering Annamali University, India
** Muthiah Polytechnic College, Annamalainagar, India
E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Kinetic studies on the degradation of vegetable solid waste by microbial
composting process in a rotary in-vessel under controlled conditions and varying periods of
rotational spells in batch process are important for the design of large scale operations. The
composting of vegetable waste was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel at 3 rpm for 14
days, in four sets of experiments with varying periods of rotational spells, namely (i)
Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12
hour rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in two
trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational spells
followed by 1-hour idle condition in two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously for the entire
24 hours in a day in two trials C1 and C2. The combination of bulking agents used in
Control Mix1, A1, B1 and C1, were paddy straw and dry leaves while in Control Mix 2, A2,
B2 and C2, wood shavings and dry leaves were used. In all the trials, cow dung was used as
a starter along with the bulking agents. The reduction in C/N ratio of the waste in the
control mixes and in all the trials is critically compared. Kinetic studies have shown
remarkable improvement in the reduction of C/N ratio indicating high decomposition rate
and carbon loss. The reaction is found to follow first order kinetics. Trial C1, where the
rotational spell was continuous for 24 hours, had resulted in a maximum reduction in C/N
ratio of 15.9 along with a temperature rise of 64.5ºC and a higher reaction rate constant of
0.032 day-1.This is considered to be the best when compared with other cases where their
periods of rotational spells were lesser and intermittent. This confirms rotations have to be
given continuously as it has greatly influenced the decomposition process ensuring the
reduction of composting period.
Keywords: vegetable solid waste, composting, rotary in-vessel, Bulking agents, kinetics
Introduction:
Solid waste management (SWM) is largely
becoming a complex problem due to high
rate of industrialization and population
growth in many Indian cities. The
enforcement of the environmental
legislation, the rising land cost, the shortage
of dumping sites and the evolution of 50-
60% of methane from landfill emissions
leading to global warming has all created
much more complexity in India (Gupta et al,
1998). Measures adopted to solve them
have only multiplied the problems to several
folds, as open dumping with poorly designed
land fillings have contaminated the soil and
underground sources, Moreover, the burning
of wastes in open dumps using poorly
designed incinerators have led to
atmospheric air pollution. These wide spread
practices have brought significant health
risks for the public and rapid degradation of
a healthy environment (Kalamdhad et al,
2009a). Meanwhile, the indiscriminate use
of chemical fertilizers for crop production
has left the soil totally depleted of its
indigenous nutrients and fertility (Deluca
and Deluca, 1997). Scientists and
environmentalist pursuing for fast, eco-
friendly and cost effective solid waste
management alternative for disposing the
heterogeneous nature of Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW) have considered source
reduction with decentralized composting as
the preferred waste management strategy
(Stelmachowski et al,2003).
459 Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting
in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Composting, which is the oldest traditional
way of disposal in India helps to degrade the
organic portion of waste, so that it may be
effectively composted and returned to the
soil (Iyengar and Bhave prashant, 2006).
The major drawback of such traditional
composting is its long process duration,
leading to loss of some nutrients in the
heterogeneous nature of the end product.
In-vessel composting is an effective
alternate method to compost in which the
high temperature required for destroying
pathogenic organisms is achieved and also
the organic matter get composted in a much
shorter duration, in a better oxygenated
environment (Haug, 1993). The in-vessel
composting system has several advantages
over the windrow system such that food
waste and other organic wastes can be
successfully composted. It requires less
space, and provides high process efficiency
in a controlled atmosphere better than
windrows (Kim et al, 2008).
Composting, though an oxygen consuming,
heat-generating microbial process in a
highly dynamic system, is moisture
dependent for the function of the microbial
composting process but, if there is excessive
moisture; it will reduce the airspace in
compost matrix and causes oxygen
limitation to microbes (Sunderberg and
Jonsson, 2008). Though various large
composting systems have been proposed,
many of them have failed in providing
optimal operating parameters for effective
degrading environment (Bongochgetsakul
Nattakorn and Tetsuya Ishida, 2007). This
study was conducted to evaluate the
performance of composting in a bench scale
motorized in-vessel by adopting variations in
rotational spells.
Out of 39 tonnes of MSW collected from
Chidambaram town in Cuddalore district of
Tamilnadu state, 12 tonnes are vegetable
wastes mainly from the market that can be
easily segregated at the source, before they
are dumped in landfills in the town outskirts
without any proper treatment. Organic
fractions of these vegetable wastes were
taken for the study in a motor driven rotary
in-vessel developed in the laboratory and
composted with proper amendments in
controlled conditions for 14 days. The
kinetics of the composting are studied in this
work for varying periods of rotational spells,
so that the composting time period is
reduced.
Investigation objectives are to find out the
(1) decomposition rate of composting
vegetable solid wastes with an initial C/N
ratio of around 35 in the experiments. (2)
Kinetics of the different trials for varying
period of rotational spells and (3) the
maturity value of C/N ratio of resultant
compost during different trials.
Materials and Methods:
In this study, vegetable wastes collected
from the town were taken from the mixed
bunch and are shredded to a size of 25 mm
as recommended by Rynk (1992) for
providing better porosity, aeration and
moisture control. The wastes were amended
with cow dung for proper microbial
inoculation along with bulking agents of
combinations of paddy straw and dry leaves
in one trial, wood shavings and dry leaves in
the other trial of each set of experiment to
provide stability, porosity and integrity to
the structure as per Zhang Yun and Yong He
(2006). The composting of vegetable waste
was carried out, in a motor driven in-vessel
at 3 rpm for 14 days, in four sets of
experiments with varying periods of
rotational spells, namely (i) Control Mix1
and Control Mix 2 in idle condition without
any rotational spell (ii) a total of 12 hour
rotation in a day with 3-hour rotational
spells followed by 3-hour idle condition in
two trials A1 and A2, (iii) a total of 20 hour
rotation in a day with 4-hour rotational
spells followed by 1-hour idle condition in
two trials B1 and B2 and (iv) Continuously
for the entire 24 hours in a day in two trials
C1 and C2. Physical and chemical analyses
of the substrate, from the start to the end of
the trials were carried out. The ratio of the
mix of feedstock materials namely,
vegetable waste –(S), cow dung–(M) and
the bulking agents (B) are presented in
Table 1and 2.
460 MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Process:
The laboratory scale bio-reactor used for bio
conversion of the wastes is a cylindrical
vessel with a capacity of 50 litres, made of
fibre reinforced plastic material with a
coating of Vinylester resin material inside
to take care of the load and temperature
as well as the chemical changes taking
place at the time of the conversion process.
Further, a 6 mm thick insulation cover is
wrapped on the outer surface of the drum to
prevent the heat escape during the initial
stages of the process. The drum is made to
spin around its horizontal axes, with a low
rpm motor and controlled with preset timer
device to switch on/off. The composting
carried out in the Dano reactor typifies the
horizontal drum category, had three or more
meters larger in diameter and is rotated at
1-2 rpm for a short duration of three days
(Haug, 1993 and Dean, 1978). The design
of the Eweson system which differs from
that of the Dano system is divided into
compartments such that the residence time
can be varied throughout the drum
(Golueke, 1960). The speed of 3 rpm was
arbitrarily chosen here in a 0.35m diameter
drum to treat a quantity of 9-11kg of waste.
The air flow is provided centrally by an
aerator through a stationary central pipe
from one end of the drum and with an
exhaust pipe on the other end to let out the
hot gases (Refer figure 1). The air supply is
given steadily with an aerator for the initial
period at the rate of not less than 10 l/min
which satisfies the requirement of 5%
oxygen in the chamber as mentioned by
Rynk(1992) which is regulated periodically
as per the requirement. Fins are provided
inside the periphery of the drum to provide
proper mixing. The vessel was filled to its
90% of capacity, anticipating quick volume
reduction. Cow urine was added along with
water whenever the moisture content was
below the 50% level to accelerate the
process. The ambient temperature at the
time of experiments inside the laboratory
varied between 28° to 32°C.
Measurement of Physical and Chemical
Parameters:
A 50 g sample was taken once every two
days for laboratory analysis. The moisture
content of sample was measured after
drying at 105ºC for overnight. The pH and
Electrical Conductivity (EC) were measured
in the condition of solid-to-water mixture
(weight: volume = 1:10). The multi pronged
probe of Hitachi make was used daily for
instant measurement of temperature, EC
and moisture content. The dried sample was
ground and then used for determination of
Volatile Solids (VS) and Total Organic
Carbon (TOC). The VS was measured after
igniting the sample at 550º C for 2h in a
muffle furnace (APHA, 1995). TOC was
calculated using the formula (100 - %
ash)/1.8 and Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN)
was measured using semi-micro Kjeldahl
method (APHA, 1995, ASAE, 1986). The
initial parameters were given for each trial
in Table 3.
Reaction Rate Constant:
Many researchers have made the kinetic
studies of substrate degradation and
reported that the reaction is based on first
order function. Haug(1993) has given the
model based on the BVS which showed a
good fit to the selected BOD data at
constant temperature over a composting
period of 60-348 days and the degradation
rate follows the equation of the form given
in equation (1).
(1)
where BVS = the quantity of biodegradable
volatile solids (kg), t = time (days) and k =
degradation rate constant (g BVS/day).
Equation (1) is used to define the first order
reaction kinetics of the system. The
assumption of first order kinetics has
worked well in describing numerous
processes involving biological oxidation. A
first order model without temperature
corrections has also shown evidence of
fairly good fit at longer time periods
exceeding 70,84 and 168 days in the
experiments conducted by Bernal et al
(1993).
461 Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting
in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Data on Carbon constituents have been
expressed here on a C-basis assuming the
TOC in percentage as the degradation value
against time, it should be noted that the
TOC content are calculated from the directly
measured values of volatile solids.
(2)
where C is the biodegradable volatile solids
being the remaining mass at any time (%),
k is the degradation rate constant (day-1)
and t is the time (days).The potential
residual amount represents a recalcitrant of
the organic matter or C represented in
equation (2) does not degrade fully and the
degradation function does not reach zero as
it requires long term studies. Integrating the
equation (2) and letting C = Co initially
when t = 0, it gives
(3)
First order reactions are fitted linearly
following equation (3) to find the rate of
decomposition in batch system of study.
Kinetic plots are obtained by plotting the ln
(C/Co) at any time versus time. The R2
value of the best fitted straight line was
obtained in each case. The degradation
reaction rate constant kday-1 was calculated
as the slope of the fittest straight line which
was done for all the three sets of trials. The
decomposition rate is also ascertained by
plotting the C/N ratio versus time. These
values together could be used to determine
the optimum conditions for the desired
period of rotational spells to be given.
Results and Discussions:
Temperature:
The evolution of temperature profile shown
by all the trials is shown in Figure 2 ranges
between a value of 40.5ºC in Control Mix 2
to a peak of 64.5ºC in trial C1 occurring on
the third day after the initial increase shown
on the 1st and 2nd day. The temperature
rose to a high of 64.5ºC in the trial C1
followed by 64ºC < 63.5ºC <61ºC <
60.5ºC< 59 ºC<42 ºC <40.5 ºC, in the
trials C2, B2, B1, A2, A1,Control Mix 2 and
Control Mix 1 respectively. The Trial C1
having 24 hour rotational spell, showed the
highest sustenance of temperature above
55ºC for more than 4 days, fared better
than other trials showing evidence of higher
rate of decomposition.
The trials A1 and A2 have reached a
temperature of 61ºC and 61.5ºC on the
third day and the temperature in the trials
B1 and B2 shot up to 63.5ºC and 61.5ºC
whereas in trials C1 and C2 the temperature
shot up to 64.5ºC and 64ºC respectively on
the third day. Composting conducted by
Kalamdhad et al, (2009b) in a rotary drum
at different time intervals, at the gap of 6 h
(Run A), 12 h (Run B), 18 h (Run C) and
24 h (Run D) for 15 d has resulted in longer
thermophilic phase with a higher rise at
temperature of 58 °C in Run D (24 h turning
frequency) and also obtaining higher
mineralization.
The sustenance of temperature above 55ºC
was observed for a longer period of 4 days
in trials C1and C2 and for the remaining
trials it happened for 3 days and declined
from 4th day on wards, but all the trials
satisfied the stipulations laid by USEPA - 40
CFR Part 503(1994) guidelines that the
materials should reach (a) temperature of
40ºC for at least five consecutive days or
(b) 55ºC for at least three consecutive days
or alternately (c) 55°C for a minimum
period of four hours either in In-vessel or in
windrows or in static composting for
essential pathogenic destruction.
C/N Ratio: The reduction of C/N ratio which is one of
the predominant indicators showing the
maturity of compost (Haug, 1993) is found
to have steep slope in all the trials indicating
good decomposition taking place inside the
vessel except for the trials kept as Control,
the reduction of C/N ratio is from 34.41-
28.57 in Control Mix1 and 36.82-30.48 in
Control Mix2, which is far less compared to
all other trials (refer Table 3). The reduction
of C/N ratio in all other trials carried out
clearly indicated the gradual reduction from
35.36-25.92 in trial A1 and 34.55-23.38 in
A2 shown in Figure 3 and 4. In trials B1 and
B2 where the rotational spell has been
increased to 20 hours a day, there is a
marked improvement in the reduction of
462 MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
C/N ratio from 34.24-17.58 and 35.26-
17.84 respectively, as shown in Figure 3 and
4. The maximum reduction in the C/N ratio
from 34.51-15.90 and 35.31-16.48 is
observed in trials C1 and C2 with rotational
spells for the entire 24 hours, as shown in
Figure 3 and 4. For trials B1 and B2, the
values of C/N ratio are almost close to 17
(17.58 and17.84) as indicated in Table 3 as
well as in Figure 3 and 4. The reduction in
C/N ratio in trials C1 and C2 has obtained
the acceptable value of less than 17 for
compost as indicated by Iyengar and Bhave
prashant (2006).
Decomposition Rate:
The decomposition rates for the trials are
obtained by linear plot between C/N ratios
versus time. Figure 3 shows the reduction
rate of C/N ratio for trials Control Mix1, A1,
B1 andC1 and Figure 4 shows C/N ratio for
trials Control Mix2, A2, B2 andC2 employed
in the study. In Control Mix 1 and Control
Mix 2, the C/N reduction is found to be at
the rate of 0.377 day-1 and 0.382 day-1 .In
trials A1 and A2, the C/N reduction is found
to be at the rate of 0.695 day-1 and 0.718
day-1 respectively. The trials B1 and B2
attained a decomposition rate of 1.153 day-
1 and 1.192 day-1 respectively. The
maximum rate of reduction of C/N ratio of
1.308 day-1 is found in trial C1, and trial C2
showed a value of 1.230 day-1. The straight
lines are best fitted to the reduction in C/N
ratio with time as R-squared values are
ranging in a narrow band of 0.983 for trial
B2 to 0.922 for trial A2.
Reaction Rate Constant:
Correlation between ln(C/Co) with respect to
time has been fitted linearly and the slopes
of the lines have been found to vary with
different trials (Refer Figure 5 and 6). The
rate constants arrived in the trials carried
out by Hamoda et al (1998) indicated high
values of 0.17 for a C/N ratio of 30 for the
0.5kg of MSW treated in a 2 litres
erlenmeyer conical flask provided with a
rate of aeration of 0.3l/h and without any
rotation in an enclosed environment, which
may be due to the smaller amount of
substrate used in that small environment. In
peat composting carried out by Eklind and
Kirchmann (2000) in an octagonal rotatable
drum of capacity 125 litres for a lengthier
period of 590 days by manual agitation
given daily, gave a reaction rate constant of
0.061 for organic carbon decomposition
following a first order degradation function.
Keener and Elwell (1998) has found out the
bioconversion to be of first order reaction
and the reaction rate constant ranges in-
between 0.024 to 0.083 day-1. Figures 5
and 6 show the plots of ln (C/Co) versus
time and the linear fits of trials Control Mix1,
A1,B1 and C1, and for trials Control Mix
2,A2,B2 and C2 respectively. Table 5 shows
the reaction rate constants for reduction in
TOC in different trials.
In Control Mix 1 and Control Mix 2, the
reaction rate constant is found to be at the
rate of 0.005 day-1 and 0.007 day-1
respectively which is of the lowest order
compared to all other trials. The reaction
rate constants in trials A1 and A2 are found
to be 0.008 day-1 and 0.009 day-1
respectively, which are far below the
acceptable range of 0.024 day-1 to 0.083
day-1 suggested by Keener and Elwell
(1998) Trials B1 and B2 with a 20 hour
rotational spells per day showed higher
values of reaction rate constant (0.017 day-
1 and0.016 day-1). These values also fall
below the minimum acceptable range of first
order reaction rate constant of 0.024 day-1
to 0.083 day-1 suggested by Keener and
Elwell (1998). Trials C1 and C2 with
continuous agitation for the entire 24 hours
a day yielded reaction rate constants of
0.032 day-1 and 0.022 day-1 respectively.
The reaction rate constant arrived in trial C1
of 0.032 day-1 employing the bulking
agents paddy straw and dry leaves is found
to be in the acceptable range suggested by
Keener and Elwell (1998) and the linear line
fitted between reaction rate constant and
rotational spell confirms.(refer figure 7)
The lines of fits of the plots of ln (C/Co)
versus time for all the trials showed good R-
squared values ranging from 0.880 for trial
B1 to 0.986 for trial C2 (Refer Table 5). This
is indicative of the bioconversion following
first order reaction in all the trials of the
study.
463 Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting
in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Conclusions:
When the rotational spells are increased
during composting, the rate of
decomposition in the vegetable waste has
increased. This has been duly indicated in
the kinetic studies made. Determination of
decomposition rate based on C/N ratio and
the reaction rate constant based on carbon
loss following a first order function have
been found for all the trials considered in
the study. The decomposition rate in trial
C1, where the rotational spell is continuous
for 24 hours a day, is found to be high at
1.308 day-1.The highest reaction rate
constant of 0.032 day-1 is obtained in trial
C1 compared to other trials where their
periods of rotational spells were lesser and
intermittent. The reduction of C/N ratio
achieved in trials C1 and C2 has also been
found to be high. The C/N ratio attained
after 14 days of composting in trial C1 (with
paddy straw and dry leaves as bulking
agents) and trial C2 (with wood shavings
and dry leaves as bulking agents) are
respectively 15.90 and 16.48. These values
are well below the C/N ratio of 17 regarded
as a good maturity indicator of compost.
Hence, it is concluded that quality compost
could be achieved with increase in period of
rotational spells of in-vessel.
References:
[1] APHA (1995).Methods for the
Examination of Water and Waste
water.19th edn. APHA /AWWA/WPCF,
Washington. DC
[2] ASAE(1986).Standards. ASAES524.
The society for engineering in
agriculture.M I49085-9659.
[3] Bernal M.P.,Lopez-Real J.M., and
Scott.K.M., (1993). Application of
natural zeolites for reduction of
ammonia emissions during the
composting of organic wastes in a
laboratory composting stimulator.
Elsevier publications, Bio-resource
Technology vol 43-pp 35-39.
[4] Dean R.B., (1978) “European
Manufacturers Display Systems at
Kompost ‘77”, Compost Science, vol
19(2)-pp18-22, March/April 1978
[5] Deluca.T.H.,Deluca.D,K.,(1997).
Composting for feedlot manure
management and soil quality. Journal
of production in Agriculture. vol 102-
pp 235-241.
[6] Eklind.Y.,Kirchmann.H.,(2000)
Composting and storage of organic
household waste with different litter
amendments. I: carbon turnover,
Elsevier publications, Bio resource
technology vol 74-pp115-124.
[7] Golueke, C.G.,(1960) “Composting
Refuse at Sacramento, California”,
Compost Science, vol 1(3), Autumn
1960.
[8] Haug.R.T., (1993). The practical
handbook of compost engineering,
Lewis Publishers, Florida, U S A,
[9] Hamoda.M.F., Abu Qdais.H.A.,
Newham.J., (1998) Evaluation of
municipal solid waste composting
kinetics, Elsevier publications,
Resources, Conservation and
Recycling vol 23-pp209-223
[10] Iyengar.S.R., Bhave
prashant.P.,(2006) In-vessel
composting of household wastes,
Elsevier publications, Waste
Management, vol 26-pp 1070-1080.
[11] Kim Joung-Dae., Joon-Seok Park.,
Byung-Hoon In., Daekeun Kim., Wan
Namkoon., (2008). Evaluation of
pilot-scale in-vessel composting for
food waste treatment, Elsevier
publications, Journal of Hazardous
Materials, vol 154-pp 272–277.
[12] Kalamdhad Ajay., Kazmi S., and
Absar.A.,(2009a) Rotary Drum
composting of different organic waste
mixtures, Waste Management and
Research -Sage Publications, vol 27-
pp 129-137.
[13] Kalamdhad Ajay, Kazmi S., and
Absar.A.,(2009b) Effects of turning
frequency on compost stability and
some chemical characteristics in a
rotary drum composter, Elsevier
publications, Chemosphere- vol 74,
(10)-pp 1327-1334.
[14] Keener.H.M.,Elwell.,(1998)
Specifying Design/operation of
composting systems using pilot scale
464 MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Data, Elsevier publications, Applied
Engineering in Agriculture vol 13 (3)-
pp 377-384.
[15] Bongochgetsakul Nattakorn.,
Tetsuya Ishida., (2007).A new
analytical approach to optimizing the
design of large-scale composting
systems, Elsevier publications, Bio
resource technology vol 99(6)-pp
1630-1641.
[16] Rynk R., (1992). On-Farm
Composting Handbook. NRAES.
Ithaca, New York.
[17] Stelmachowski M., Jaststrzebska
Magdalena., Zarzycki Roman.,
(2003)In-vessel composting for
utilizing of municipal sewage-sludge,
Elsevier publications, Applied Energy
vol 75-pp 249-256.
[18] Sunderberg.C., Jonsson.H.,(2008)
Higher pH and faster decomposition
in bio-waste composting by increased
aeration, Elseiveir Publications.
Waste Management vol 28–pp 518-
526.
[19] Shuchi Gupta.,Krishna Mohan.,
Rajkumar Prasad., Sujata Gupta.,
Arun Kansal., (1998)Solid waste
management in India: Options and
Opportunities, Elsevier publications,
Resources, Conservation and
Recycling vol 24-pp 137-154.
[20] USEPA - 40 CFR Part 503 USEPA .,
(1994)- Land Application of
Biosolids[online].Availablefrom:http:/
/www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/biosolids/50
3pe
Table.1 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1(S:M:B)
(5.2:1.14:1)
Materials
Moisture
%
Mass
Kg
Volume
m3
BD
Kg/m3 C N
C/N ratio
Vegetable
waste(S) 55-70 9-Jul 0.028
345-
285
34-
42
0.89-
1.15
34.15-
38.25
Cow
dung(M) 60-75
1.5-
1.74 0.0023
758-
875
29-
33
1.7-2.7 10.74-
14.21
Dry leaves
and Paddy
straw(B) 11-Aug
0.87-
1.73 0.0147
86-
104
45-
60
0.45-
0.65
67.23-
79.07
Table.2 Feedstock characteristics of Control Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2(S:M:B)
(5.91:1.17:1)
Materials
Moisture
%
Mass
KG
Volume
m3
BD
Kg/m3 C N C/N ratio
Vegetable
waste(S) 55-70 9-Jul 0.029
345-
285
34-
42
0.89-
1.15
34.15-
38.25
Cow dung(M) 60-75
1.5-
1.74 0.003
758-
875
29-
33
1.7-2.7 10.74-
14.21
Dry leaves and
Woodshavings(B) 9-12.5
0.91-
1.54 0.013 62-125
55-
85
0.38-
0.61
101.00-
145
465 Effects on Rate of Degradation in Vegetable Solid Waste Composting
in a Rotary in-vessel with Varying Periods of Rotational Spells
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Table.3 Characteristics of the waste on the 0th day and 14th day of each composting trial
Day MC % pH EC
mS/cm
LOI
/Ash
(%)
VS
(%)
TOC/
Carbon
(%)
TKN/
Nitrogen
(%)
C/N
ratio
Control-Mix 1
0th 65.12 6.21 1.54 26.9 73.1 40.61 1.18 34.41
14th 43.23 7.76 1.78 37.56 62.44 37.71 1.32 28.57
Trial A1
0th 63.18 6 1.23 26.8 73.2 40.67 1.15 35.36
14th 45 7.35 2.22 35.14 64.86 36.03 1.39 25.92
Trial B1
0th 61.67 6.61 1.56 30.35 69.65 38.69 1.13 34.24
14th 46.12 7.23 2.04 48.1 51.9 28.83 1.64 17.58
TrialC1
0th 61 6.45 1.34 28.56 71.44 39.69 1.15 34.51
14th 45 8.43 2.07 53.34 46.66 25.92 1.63 15.9
Control-Mix 2
0th 64 5.45 1.37 24.56 75.44 41.91 1.17 35.82
14th 43.33 7.83 1.84 32.52 67.48 37.49 1.23 30.48
TrialA2
0th 63.12 6.87 1.11 23.5 76.5 42.5 1.23 34.55
14th 44.12 8.13 2.48 31.98 68.02 37.79 1.55 24.38
Trial B2
0th 60.17 6.48 1.56 27.33 72.67 40.37 1.145 35.26
14th 43.5 7.83 1.97 42.52 57.48 31.93 1.79 17.84
Trial C2
0th 62 6.58 1.56 29.45 70.55 39.19 1.11 35.31
14th 56.5 7.83 1.88 48.98 51.02 28.34 1.72 16.48
Table.4 Reduction rate of C/N ratio
Trials
Control
Mix 1 A1 B1 C1
Control
Trials A2 B2 C2
C/N
Reduction
rate(day-1) 0.377 0.7 1.15 1.31 0.382 0.72 1.19 1.23
R-squared
value 0.971 0.94 0.98 0.97 0.987 0.92 0.98 0.98
Table.5 Reaction rate constant for reduction in TOC
Trials
Control
Mix1 A1 B1 C1
Control
Mix2 A2 B2 C2
Reaction rate
constant, k
(day-1) 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.007 0.01 0.02 0.02
R – squared
value 0.939 0.96 0.88 0.97 0.956 0.89 0.95 0.99
466 MONSON C. C, MURUGAPPAN. A and GOVINARAJAN. M
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering
ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 02, No. 05, October 2009, pp. 458-466
Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of the Rotary
Composter
Fig.2 Temperature profile of different trials
Fig.3 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control
Mix1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)
Fig.4 Profile of C/N ratio vs. Time (Control
Mix 2, Trials A2, B2 and C2)
Fig.5 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control
Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)
Fig.6 Profile of ln C/Co vs. Time (Control
Mix 1, Trials A1, B1 and C1)
Fig.7 Reaction rate constants vs. Rotational
spell
i
Geological Remote Sensing
S. VISWANATHAN* G.VENKATARAMAN**
* Powai, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Campus, Mumbai-40076, India
**CSRE (Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering), Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Mumbai-400076, India Email: [email protected]
The term ‘Geological Remote Sensing’ is presently used to denote extraction of geological and geo-related information based on the raw digital data obtained through a variety of sensors of the numerous satellites of different international space agencies such as the ISRO(Indian Space Research Organisation). The raw data from American Satellite ‘Landsat’
or IRS (Indian Remote sensing Satellite) of individual band are usually studied for geological information. Better results are obtained through myriad digital processing techniques and the composite images highlight different aspects of geomorphic, geological
and many other geographic features as Soil types and their distribution, Crop pattern, Forest density, Glacier configuration, Forest fires, oil sleeks and land use. Combinations of digital data from different Satellites with different spectral andl spatial resolutions are also attempted for a specified area or scene to understand how far such exercises are helpful in
enhancing specific desired theme. Normally with even single band imagery geomorphic features like topography and drainage
lines, geological features such as layering, large scale shear or fracture zones are fairly traceable. For drainage related studies the satellite images and toposheets of the survey of India are used in conjunction to make out the attitudes and lengths of the streams of different orders. In the case of recognition of specific rock types and exposures of rock units
which are massive intrusive, there doest not seem to have been any break through. It is hence peremptory to undertake serious study by resorting to all possible image processing, image improvement techniques to answer the following:-
1. What is the best Digital Processing Technique to highlight true geologically linear
zones both of larger and smaller dimension? The term lineament is vague and hence
it would be wiser to use the term fracture, shear or fault. 2. Have attempts been made to separate the Deccan lava flows and recognize the
dykes, feeders, and non- feeders based on spectral signatures. Which satellite
image, raw or processed is best suited to study the volcanic terrain?
3. Can layered sedimentaries and parametamorphics be compositionally recognized and if so up to what scale?
4. Boundaries of large bodies of granitoids are demarcated after a strenuous field coverage and sampling. Can the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the apparently homogenous plutons like the close pat granite be tested for any spectral anomalies due to chemical and mineralogical variations?
ii
There are varieties of rocks such as Kimberlites, Carbonatites and the like. They have to be investigated for their spectral reflectance. Like Land-sat, Sea-sat, Carto-sat, days should
not be far when we would have Petro-sat. Till now Aircraft borne multi-spectral data are not available over any part of our country, which perhaps would give more details with cartographic accuracy.
It is thus clear that only when an earth scientist directs his attention to the probing of the specific enhancement techniques to bring out litho-logical and structural features, he can lay his claim as a specialist in geological remote sensing. As it is every field geologist looks at remote sensing as a preliminary tool to avail of what-ever feature is possible in the ISRO’s
satellite data products.
Report on Workshop
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERED LANDFILLS (October 3-4, 2009)
A workshop on “solid Waste Management and Engineered landfills” was organized in the department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam on the occasion of 126th birthday Karl von Terzaghi, acclaimed worldwide
as the father of Soil Mechanics. The workshop was organised by Indian Geotechnical Society Visakhapatnam Chapter in association with The Institution of Engineers (India) Visakhapatnam Local Centre. Mr B. Jayarami Reddy, Chief Engineer, GVMC, inaugurated the
workshop which was presided over by Prof P.S.N. Raju, Principal, A.U. Engineering College. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy, Andhra University and Honorary Secretary, IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter coordinated the workshop. The workshop started with an overview of Solid waste by Dr Sasidhar (Managing Director, SAGES), who emphasized the need to
look at micro management of landfills, as silting of large landfills is becoming a challenge all over the country. This was followed by Engineered Landfills as option for disposal of solid waste and Geosynthetics applications for landfills applications by Dr G. Venkatappa Rao. His
comprehensive coverage of the topic helped participants to appreciate the varied applications of geosynthetics. Prof. C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy shared his experience of working on Jerosite landfill Construction with reinforced Zinc Slag bund at Hindustan Zinc limited, Visakhapatnam and demonstrated how geosynthetic application was carried out in
that engineered landfill to contain the solid waste. Prof. S. Ramakrishna Rao of Environmental Engineering shared his experience of solid waste management project carried out in Vizianagaram and highlighted some of the current challenges in the solid waste management across the city. Various product manufacturers, M/s Garware Wall Ropes,
Pune, M/s Maccaferri, Mumbai, M/s KK Enterprises, Kolkata and M/s GeoSol, Hyderabad shared their experiences of site applications of geosynthetics in engineered landfills and indicated that this is a viable sustained solution for growing issue of solid waste. The two
day workshop also covered overview of various regulations that are required to be complied with in regard to solid waste management. A book on “Solid Waste Management and Engineered Landfills”, authored by Dr G Venkatappa Rao and Dr R S Sasidhar (a SAGES Publication), was released on this occasion which was well received as the first of its kind of
book on this topic, with Indian scenarios and case studies. More than 120 Delegates from different engineering departments namely GVMC, VUDA, Visakhapatnam Port Trust, Essar Steels, Coramandal Fertilizers Limited, HPCL, ITDC, Irrigation Department, Public Health
Engg. Dept., AP Pollution Control Board etc., researchers and academicians participated in the event.
(C.N.V. Satyanarayana Reddy)
Honorary Secretary
IGS Visakhapatnam Chapter
iii
Nuclear minerals -Uranium
Nuclear mineral Production in the world
Canada, Australia and Kazakhstan produce over half of world’s production of uranium minerals. A statistical records about recoverable resources of Uranium (tonnes U, %0 of
world indicates Canada produces the largest share of uranium from mines (23% of world supply from mines), followed by Australia (24%) and Kazakhstan (17%). (Canada 9%), USA (7%), South Africa (7%) Namibia (6%) Brazil (6%) Niger (5%), Russia Fed. (4%), Uzbekistan (2%) Jordon (2%), India (1%), China (1%), others (6%).World total tones
U=4,743,000
Reasonably Assured Resources plus Inferred Resources, to US$ 130/kg U, 1/1/05, from OECD NEA & IAEA, Uranium 2005: Resources, Production and Demand.(WNA-2009)
What is uranium? How does it work?
• Uranium is a very heavy metal which can be used as an abundant source of concentrated energy.
• It occurs in most rocks in concentrations of 2 to 4 parts per million and is as
common in the Earth's crust as tin, tungsten and molybdenum. It occurs in seawater, and can be recovered from the oceans.
• It was discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, in the mineral
called pitchblende. It was named after the planet Uranus, which had been discovered eight years earlier.
• Uranium was apparently formed in supernovae about 6.6 billion years ago. While it is not common in the solar system, today its slow radioactive decay provides
the main source of heat inside the Earth, causing convection and continental drift.
• The high density of uranium means that it also finds uses in the keels of yachts
and as counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as well as for radiation shielding.
• Its melting point is 1132°C. The chemical symbol for uranium is U. (WNA,2009)
Nuclear power in the World
• The first commercial nuclear power stations started operation in the 1950s. • There are now some 436 commercial nuclear power reactors operating in 30
countries, with 372,000 MWe of total capacity. • They provide about 15% of the world's electricity as continuous, reliable base-
load power, and their efficiency is increasing. • 56 countries operate a total of about 280 research reactors and a further 220
reactors power ships and submarines(Source-World Nuclear Association, March 2009)
Nuclear Power in India (May 2009)
• India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power program and expects to have 20,000 MWe nuclear capacity on line by 2020. It aims to supply 25% of electricity from nuclear power by 2050.
• Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons program, it has been for 34 years largely excluded from trade in nuclear plant or
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materials, which has hampered its development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.
• Due to these trade bans and lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium.
• From 2009, foreign technology and fuel are expected to boost India's nuclear power plans considerably.
• India has a vision of becoming a world leader in nuclear technology due to its expertise in fast reactors and thorium fuel cycle.
• However, India has reserves of 290,000 tonnes of thorium - about one quarter of the world total, and these are intended to fuel its nuclear power program longer-term(Source-WNA,2009)
(Permitted use WNA website-Warwick Pipe-Web Manager Warwick Pipe <[email protected]> for IJEE)
Discovery of water molecules in the polar regions of the moon
NASA, USA scientists have discovered water molecules in the polar regions of the moon. Instruments aboard three separate spacecraft revealed water molecules in amounts that are greater than predicted, but still relatively small. Hydroxyl, a molecule consisting of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, also was found in the lunar soil. The findings were
published in Thursday's edition of the journal Science. NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper, or M3, instrument reported the observations. M3 was
carried into space on Oct. 22, 2008, aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft. Data from the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, or VIMS, on NASA's Cassini spacecraft, and the High-Resolution Infrared Imaging Spectrometer on NASA's Epoxi spacecraft contributed to confirmation of the finding. The
spacecraft imaging spectrometers made it possible to map lunar water more effectively than ever before.
The confirmation of elevated water molecules and hydroxyl at these concentrations in the moon's Polar Regions raises new questions about its origin and effect on the mineralogy of the moon. Answers to these questions will be studied and debated for years to come.
"Water ice on the moon has been something of a holy grail for lunar scientists for a very long time," said Jim Green, director of the Planetary Science Division at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "This surprising finding has come about through the ingenuity,
perseverance and international cooperation between NASA and the India Space
Research Organization."
From its perch in lunar orbit, M3's state-of-the-art spectrometer measured light reflecting off the moon's surface at infrared wavelengths, splitting the spectral colors of the lunar surface into small enough bits to reveal a new level of detail in surface composition. When the M3 science team analyzed data from the instrument, they found the wavelengths of
light being absorbed were consistent with the absorption patterns for water molecules and hydroxyl.
"For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to water and hydroxyl-bearing materials," said Carle Pieters, M3's principal investigator from Brown University, Providence,
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R.I. "When we say 'water on the moon,' we are not talking about lakes, oceans or even puddles. Water on the moon means molecules of water and hydroxyl that interact with
molecules of rock and dust specifically in the top millimeters of the moon's surface. The M3 team found water molecules and hydroxyl at diverse areas of the sunlit region of the moon's surface, but the water signature appeared stronger at the moon's higher
latitudes. Water molecules and hydroxyl previously were suspected in data from a Cassini flyby of the moon in 1999, but the findings were not published until now. "The data from Cassini's VIMS instrument and M3 closely agree," said Roger Clark, a U.S.
Geological Survey scientist in Denver and member of both the VIMS and M3 teams. "We
see both water and hydroxyl. While the abundances are not precisely known, as
much as 1,000 water molecule parts-per-million could be in the lunar soil. To put
that into perspective, if you harvested one ton of the top layer of the moon's
surface, you could get as much as 32 ounces of water."
For additional confirmation, scientists turned to the Epoxi mission while it was flying past
the moon in June 2009 on its way to a November 2010 encounter with comet Hartley 2. The spacecraft not only confirmed the VIMS and M3 findings, but also expanded on them.
"With our extended spectral range and views over the north pole, we were able to explore the distribution of both water and hydroxyl as a function of temperature, latitude, composition, and time of day," said Jessica Sunshine of the University of Maryland. Sunshine is Epoxi's deputy principal investigator and a scientist on the M3 team. "Our
analysis unequivocally confirms the presence of these molecules on the moon's surface and reveals that the entire surface appears to be hydrated during at least some portion of the lunar day."
NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., manages the M3 instrument,
Cassini mission and Epoxi spacecraft for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in
Washington. The Indian Space Research Organization built, launched and operated
the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft.
(For additional information and images from the instruments, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/topics/moonmars .
(For more information about the Chandrayaan-1 mission, visit: http://isro.gov.in/chandrayaan/htmls/home.htm .
(For more information about the EPOXI mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/epoxi . (For more information about the Cassini mission, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/cassini
The Editor-in-Chief, IJEE wish to acknowledge NASA/Jet propulsion, Laboratory
California, USA-for permitting the reproduction of the above data
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Announcement/ Forthcoming Seminars/Symposiums/Technical meets
Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India, the nodal agency for promotion of Earth Sciences related studies in the country plans to launch 1) a major programme in Andaman and Nicobar Island to understand the geodynamics of the region and to 2) to
develop damage scenarios for various urban centres that lie in the vicinity of the Himalayas. Proposals are solicited from scientists/academicians working in the related areas of different institutions in the country; Proposals may be submitted to address the following issues:
1. Crustal structures studies
2. Earthquake occurrence processes
3. Detailed plate motion
4. Geodynamic models
5. Tsunami modeling
6. 6 Structure safety and public awareness,
Details and further information can be obtained from Head, Geosciences/Seismology Division, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Room NO.507,Sat,Met Building ,Mausam Bhavan, Lodhi Road, New Delhui-11003, Email:[email protected]
International seminars on earthsciences and engineering view web site for details: http://www.conference-service.com
2010
3rd International Perspective on Current & Future State of Water Resources & the Environment , 5 to 7 January 2010, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India, http://content.asce.org/conferences/india2010/index.html
ICESE 2010: "International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering”, Cape Town, South Africa, January 27-29, 2010
The International Conference on Earth Sciences and Engineering aims to bring together academic scientists, leading engineers, industry researchers and scholar students to
exchange and share their experiences and research results about all aspects: http://www.waset.org/conferences/2010/capetown/icese/
Safety Conference, Austria, Leoben Jan, 2010 Construction in Soils and Rock, Germany, Jan 26-27, 2010
IDC-6 — 6th International Dyke Conference 04 Feb 2010 → 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India
http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 04 Feb 2010 → 07 Feb 2010; Varanasi, India
http://www.igpetbhu.com/ 2010 RPSD, IRD & BMD Joint Topical Meeting — Radiation Protection and Shielding Division, Isotopes and Radiation Division and the Biology and Medicine Division (RPSD, IRD and BMD)
Joint Topical Meeting 2010, 19 Apr 2010 → 23 Apr 2010; Las Vegas, NV , United States
weblink: http://www.ans.org/meetings/index.cgi?c=t
Third International Conference on Debris Flows, 24 May 2010 → 26 May 2010; Milan, Italy,
http://www.wessex.ac.uk/10-conferences/debris-flow-2010.html
Fifth International Symposium on Computational Wind Engineering (CWE2010 Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, May 23-27, 2010,
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http://www.cwe2010.org
3rd International Workshop on Rock Mechanics and Geo-Engineering in Volcanic Environments, as ISRM Sponsored, Spain Cruz (Tenerite, Puerto de la,31May-1 June,2010 Conference on Nuclear Fuels and Structural Materials for the Next Generation Nuclear Reactors ,13 Jun 2010 → 17 Jun 2010; San Diego, California, United States
http://www.new.ans.org Uranium 2010 Conference, 14 Aug 2010 → 18 Aug 2010; Saskatchewan, Canada related
subject(s): Mining & Mineral Processing, http://Ed_Lam.com The International Mineralogical Association- 20 th General Meeting of in Budapest Hungary,
21st to 27th to August, 2010th
http://www.univie.ac.at/Mineralogie/IMA20 ISRM-EUROCK-2010-Rock Mechanics in Civil Engineering, Switzerland, Lausanne
15th June-18th June, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf
ICCE 2010 — 32nd International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Shanghai, China, 30 Jun 2010 → 05 Jul 2010;
http://www.icce2010.cn/
ISRM-5th International Symposium on In-Situ Rock Stress ,China-, Beijing,25-27 th Augut http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf
IAEG2010 — 11th Congress of the International Association for Engineering and the Environment, Auckland, New Zealand.05 Sep 2010 → 10 Sep 2010;
http://www.iaeg2010.com/ Plutonium Futures - The Science 2010 19 Sep 2010 → 23 Sep 2010; Bloomfield, CO, United States
http://www.new.ans.org/meetings/c_2 IX Congress of the Carpathian Balkan Geological Association CBGA2010 Thessaloniki,
Greece, 23 - 26 September 2010 www.cbga2010.org International Workshop on Glacier Hazards, http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf
SEG 2010 — Society of Economic Geologists Conference, Keystone, Colorado, United States of America, 02 Oct 2010 → 05 Oct 2010;
http://www.seg2010.org/ 11th Congress of the IAEG (IAEG-2010) 59th Geomechanics Colloquy-2010, Austria. Saizburg, 7th-8th, August, 2010
http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf International Society of Rock Mechanics (ISRM) International Symposium on Advances in
Rock Engineering, New Delhi, India, 25 -27th October, 2010 http://www.isrm.net/conferencias/detalhes.php?id=1113&show=conf Geological Society of America (GSA) Annual Meeting
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Denver, Colorado, United States, 31 Oct 2010 → 03 Nov 2010;
http://www.geosociety.org/calendar/2010meet.htm
5th National Conference on Coastal and Estuarine Habitat Restoration, 13 to 17 November 2010, Galveston, Texas, United States
http://www.estuaries.org
2011
IUGG XXV General Assembly Earth on the Edge: Science for a Sustainable Planet,
Melbourne, Australia, 27 June - 8 July 2011 13th International Conference on Wind Engineering, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, July 10-15, 2011
http://www.icwe13.org/ ISRM 2011 — 12th International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Beijing, China, 16 Oct 2011 → 21 Oct 2011,
http://www.isrm2011.com/
American Geophysical Union — 2011 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 12 Dec 2011 → 16 Dec 2011
http://www.agu.org/
2012
2012, Shanghai, China 7th International Colloquium on Bluff Bodies Aerodynamics & Applications (BBAA 7)
11th International Symposium on Landslides, Canada, Banff 3-6 June-, 2012
American Geophysical Union — 2012 Fall Meeting, San Francisco, California, United States, 14 Dec 2012 → 18 Dec 2012
http://www.agu.org
34th International Geological Congress (IGC) Australia 2012 Brisbane, Australia -2-10 August 2012 www.34igc.org
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The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC)
AUSTRALIA 2012
Brisbane, Australia, 2–10 August, 2012
Oceania Invites You: The 34th International Geological Congress (IGC), to be known as
AUSTRALIA 2012, will be held at the Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC), Queensland, from 2nd-10th August 2012. This high profile event will be of considerable interest to all people involved in geoscience, be they in universities, industry, government or the broader public. The IGC has a tradition dating back to 1878, and is generally held
every four years.
AUSTRALIA 2012 Organization: The legal entity responsible for AUSTRALIA 2012 is the Australian Geoscience Council (AGC) Incorporated, the peak representative body of Australia’s geoscientists comprising the Presidents or Chief Executive Officers of eight geoscience-related societies in Australia. This has been formalized in an agreement between
the Australian Academy of Science and the AGC. As the national geo-science and geospatial information agency, Geo-science Australia (GA, see www.ga.gov.au) is making considerable contributions towards AUSTRALIA 2012 in the
form of financial and in-kind support. GA is providing the President – Dr Neil Williams – and the Secretary General – Dr Ian Lambert – who will represent the 34th IGC Organizing Committee at meetings of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Executive and Council, and the international IGC Committee. In addition, GA is contributing to
promotions of AUSTRALIA 2012, and providing personnel as required facilitating delivery of products for the 34th IGC. State and Northern Territory geological surveys and GNS New Zealand is contributing some
funding towards the Congress and organizing field trips. Circulars for the 34th IGC will be distributed electronically. Arrangements will be made for getting printed circulars to countries where electronic communications prove difficult.
Local Organizing Committee: The core Organizing Committee for AUSTRALIA 2012 has been appointed and held several meetings. It comprises:
President – Dr Neil Williams (GA)
Secretary General – Dr Ian Lambert (GA)
Deputy Secretary General, Canberra – Mr Paul Kay (GA)
Deputy Secretary General, Brisbane – Dr Paulo Vascencelos (University of Queensland)
Treasurer – Ms Miriam Way (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy)
Scientific-Program Co-ordination– Dr Lynton Jaques (GA/Geological Society of Australia)
Exhibitions – Ms Andrea Rutley (Australian Society of Exploration Geophysicists)
Sponsorship – Ms Shalene McClure (Petroleum Exploration Society of Australia)
Field Trips – Mr Dave Mason (Geological Survey of Queensland)
Australian Geo-science Council representatives – Dr Trevor Powell, Dr Michael Leggo
New Zealand representative – Dr Des Darby (GNS New Zealand)
A Brisbane-based Professional Conference Organizer (PCO) – Carillon Conference
Management – has been appointed to work with the Organizing Committee.
Delegate Information: The state-of-the-art Brisbane Convention and Exhibition Centre (BCEC) venue will readily hold more than 7,000 delegates.
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Regional participation will be maximized by integrating meetings of the major Australian and regional geo-scientific societies into AUSTRALIA 2012. Efforts are also being made to attract
a range of international groups to hold meetings timed close to, or during, the IGC. The registration fee in Australian dollars, to be set in 2011, is anticipated to be similar to that for the 33rd IGC. A modest abstract handling fee will also apply.
Scientific Program:
AUSTRALIA 2012 will have a wide-ranging scientific program under the theme ‘Unearthing our Past and Future’. This theme will encompass the crucial contributions of geo-science in meeting societal needs and sustaining planet Earth – with particular emphasis on future
mineral and energy supplies, climate change and its impacts on land and water management, and mitigation of geo-hazards. The comprehensive technical program will comprise plenary ‘theme-of-the-day’ sessions,
symposia on a wide range of geo-scientific topics, poster sessions, workshops and short courses. In an effort to minimize overlap between symposia, with consequent small audiences, we are planning:
• a limit of one oral presentation per delegate, although an individual will be able to co-author several oral papers;
• symposia will be convened by selected local geoscientists working closely with representatives of groups affiliated with IUGS;
• to accord poster sessions a high profile; and • organize plenary sessions so as to avoid overlap with other symposia and business
meetings.
Public lectures and student events will be organized to broaden the messages of the Congress to the general public.
Engineering Geology: The IGC organizers are endeavoring to maximize delegate participation in 2012 by the alignment of affiliated gatherings with the congress. Initial contact has been made to achieve this objective for the Engineering Geology strand of earth
sciences. We also anticipate a plenary session with a strong focus on Engineering Geology.
Field trips: The 34th ICG is planning approximately 30 pre- and post-Congress field trips, which offer diverse opportunities to see the fascinating geology of the region.
Collectively, these field visits will take in all Australian states and the Northern Territory. Field trips are also being planned to New Zealand, Malaysia and New Caledonia/Vanuatu, while trips to Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Indonesia are under consideration.
Sponsorship and Exhibition: The support of Queensland Events Corporation (QEC) for the
promotion of the 34th IGC is gratefully acknowledged. This is the first time a scientific Congress has been supported by QEC. The professional and learned societies under the AGC are investing in the Congress. Sponsorship is currently also being sought from industry.
A large GeoExpo (trade show) is expected to occupy two exhibition halls. It is planned to offer the opportunity for petroleum and minerals industry exhibitors to take booths for
different halves of the Congress. This will be complemented by design of the scientific program to have major minerals and petroleum symposia in periods aligned with the exhibits. International exhibitors will also include geological surveys, professional/learned societies,
scientific publishers, consultants and technical services/products providers. Further Information: The www.34igc.org website is the key information outlet for
AUSTRALIA 2012.
20th - 21st February 2010, Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in
Organized by Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering [JJMCOE], Jaysingpur,
Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA
In Technical collaboration with CAFET-INNOVA Technical Society
CONTRIBUTED PAPERS:
The papers submitted by academicians, research scholars, professors, etc are considered as contributed papers. The papers need to be orginal research work
containing well stimulated results, tabulated readings, graphs, etc.
STUDENT PAPERS:
The papers sudmitted by graduate and under graduate students pursuing their program
in affiliated colleges are consdered as student papers. The papers need not be an original concept or invention but the student's idea and imaginations in terms of
emerging technology with the student's involvement in the paper is sufficient.
IMPORTANT DATES:
Last Date for submission of papers: 14th November 2009
Intimation Date for selected papers: 30th November 2009 Last Date for submission of camera ready papers: 26th December 2009
Last Date for Registration of selected papers: 16th January 2010 Date of the Event: 20th - 21st February 2010
EVALUATION FEE:
Contributed Papers: Rs. 500/- per paper
Student Papers: Rs. 300/- per paper
REGISTRATION FEE (After Selection):
Contributed Authors: Rs. 3, 000/-
Student Authors: Rs. 2, 000/- Other Participants: Rs. 1, 000/-
CONTACT US:
Prof. Anil K. Gupta Organizing Chairman - ICETE 2010
Dr. J. J. Magdum College of Engineering Jaysingpur, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra - 416 101, INDIA
Mobile: 9372720011, 9422728195 Tel: 02322-221825
Fax: 02322-221831 Website: www.icetedrjjmcoe.in