Imagine that you serve on the jury of an only-child sole custody case following a relatively messy divorce. The facts of the case are complicated by ambiguous economic, social, and emotional considerations, and you decide to base your decision entirely on the following few observations. To which parent would you award sole custody of the child? Parent A, who has an average income, average health, average working hours, a reasonable rapport with the child, and a relatively stable social life, or Parent B, who has an above-average income, minor health problems, lots of work- related travel, a very close
Transcript
Imagine that you serve on the jury of an only-child sole custody case following a relatively messy divorce. The facts of the case are complicated by ambiguous economic, social, and emotional considerations, and you decide to base your decision entirely on the following few observations. To which parent would you award sole custody of the child? Parent A, who has an average income, average health, average working hours, a reasonable rapport with the child, and a relatively stable social life, or Parent B, who has an above-average income, minor health problems, lots of work-related travel, a very close relationship with the child, and an extremely active social life.
“The wisdom to know when we know a thingand when we do not is born of experience.”
- David Myers
Thinking
Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing,
understanding, remembering, and communicating.
Cognitive Psychologists
Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive
psychologists study these in great detail.
1. Concepts2. Problem solving3. Decision making4. Judgment
formation
Concepts
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but
their common features define the concept of a chair.
Category HierarchiesWe organize concepts into category hierarchies.
Courtesy of
Christine B
rune
Development of ConceptsWe form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental
images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a
bird, but a penguin is not.
Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)
Daniel J. C
ox/ Getty Im
ages
J. Messerschm
idt/T
he Picture C
ube
Problem Solving
Problem solving strategies include:
1. Trial and Error2. Algorithms3. Heuristics4. Insight
Let’s play a dice game!!!Let’s play a dice game!!!
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y GIf we were to unscramble these letters to
form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200
possibilities.
Heuristics
Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that
allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.
Heuristics are less time consuming, but more
error-prone than algorithms.
B2M
Productions/Digital V
ersion/Getty Im
ages
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.
Insight
Insight involves a sudden novel
realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals
have insight.
Grande using boxes toobtain food
Insight
Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight
strikes (the “Aha” experience), it
activates the right temporal cortex (Jung-
Beeman & others, 2004). The time
between not knowing the solution and
realizing it is about 0.3 seconds.
From
Mark Jung-B
eekman, N
orthwestern
University and John K
ounios, Drexel U
niversity
Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Wason’s students
had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).
Imagine that you serve on the jury of an only-child sole custody case following a relatively messy divorce. The facts of the case are complicated by ambiguous economic, social, and emotional considerations, and you decide to base your decision entirely on the following few observations. To which parent would you award sole custody of the child? Parent A, who has an average income, average health, average working hours, a reasonable rapport with the child, and a relatively stable social life, or Parent B, who has an above-average income, minor health problems, lots of work-related travel, a very close relationship with the child, and an extremely active social life.
16
FixationFixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes
problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning.
Using and Misusing Heuristics
Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have
been identified by cognitive psychologists.
Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and the Tversky fam
ily
Courtesy of G
reymeyer A
ward, U
niversity of L
ouisville and Daniel K
ahneman
Representativeness HeuristicJudging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or
match, a particular prototype.
Linda is 31, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy in college. As a student, she was deeply concerned with discrimination and other social issues, and she participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which statement is more likely?(a) Linda is a bank teller.
(b) Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement.
Availability HeuristicWhy does our availability heuristic lead us astray?
Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability.
How is retrieval facilitated?
1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.
Handout 9-5 offers more examples…Handout 9-5 offers more examples…
OverconfidenceIntuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs,
and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence.
Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
judgments.
In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about
their decisions on a stock.
Complete Handout 9-6!Complete Handout 9-6!
Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having overconfidence is
having an exaggerated fear
about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded.
The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel
due to fear.
AP
/ Wide W
orld Photos
The Effects of Framing
Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is
framed.
Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary
evidence.
If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous
actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).
Perils & Powers of Intuition
Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and
adaptive.
“Check your fears against the facts and resistthose who serve their own purposes bycultivating a culture of fear.”
- David Myers
HomeworkRead p.382-391
“Today’s psychological science enhances ourappreciation for intuition. But it also remindsus to check our intuitions against reality.”
