Impact of ILO on Labor Laws in India

8/19/2019 Impact of ILO on Labor Laws in India

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Impact of ILO on Labor Laws in India

by apurv_karmakar

The ILO (International Labor Organization) was set up in the year 1919, with an aim to improve

the on!itions o" labors aroun! the worl!#In!ia was the "oun!ing member o" ILO, whih has now

e$pan!e! its membership to 1%& nations# ILO through its onventions an! reommen!ationshelps nations to !raw their own set o" labor laws "or the better treatment o" the working lass,

an! the preservation o" their rights# The prinipal means o" ation in the ILO is the setting up the

International Labor 'tan!ar!s in the "orm o" onventions an! eommen!ations# onventions

are international treaties an! are instruments, whih reate legally bin!ing obligations on theountries that rati"y them# eommen!ations are non*bin!ing an! set out gui!elines orienting

national poliies an! ations#

Labor Law regulates matters, suh as, labor employment, remunerations, an! on!itions o" work,

tra!e unions, an! labor management relations# They also inlu!e soial laws regulating suh

aspets as ompensation "or ai!ent ause! to a worker at work, "i$ation o" minimum wages,maternity bene"its, sharing o" the ompany+s pro"it by the workers, an! so on# ost o" these legal

instruments regulate rights an! responsibilities o" the working people#

The approah o" In!ia with regar! to International Labor 'tan!ar!s has always been positive#

The ILO instruments have provi!e! gui!elines an! use"ul "ramework "or the evolution o"legislative an! a!ministrative measures "or the protetion an! a!vanement o" the interest o"

labor# To that e$tent the in"luene o" ILO onventions as a stan!ar! "or re"erene "or labor

legislation an! praties in In!ia, rather than as a legally bin!ing norm, has been signi"iant#ati"iation o" a onvention imposes legally bin!ing obligations on the ountry onerne! an!,

there"ore, In!ia has been are"ul in rati"ying onventions# It has always been the pratie in

In!ia that we rati"y a onvention when we are "ully satis"ie! that our laws an! praties are inon"ormity with the relevant ILO onvention# It is now onsi!ere! that a better ourse o" ationis to proee! with progressive implementation o" the stan!ar!s, leave the "ormal rati"iation "or

onsi!eration at a later stage when it beomes pratiable# -e have so "ar rat

i"ie! .9 onventions o" the ILO, whih is muh better than the position obtaining in many otherountries# /ven where "or speial reasons, In!ia may not be in a position to rati"y a onvention,

In!ia has generally vote! in "avor o" the onventions reserving its position as "ar as its "uture

rati"iation is onerne!#

ore onventions o" the ILO0 The eight ore onventions o" the ILO (also alle!

"un!amental2human rights onventions) are0

3ore! Labor onvention (4o# 59)

6bolition o" 3ore! Labor onvention (4o#17&)

/8ual emuneration onvention (4o#177)

http://jurisonline.in/?p=767http://jurisonline.in/?author=106http://jurisonline.in/?author=106http://jurisonline.in/?author=106http://jurisonline.in/?p=767


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isrimination (/mployment Oupation) onvention (4o#111)

(The above "our have been rati"ie! by In!ia)#

3ree!om o" 6ssoiation an! :rotetion o" ight to Organize! onvention (4o#;


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The implementation o" I:/ programmes in In!ia has ertainly reate! a very positive impat

towar!s un!erstan!ing the problem o" hil! labor an! in highlighting the nee! to elimination

hil! labor as e$pe!itiously as possible# 6 maAor ontribution o" the I:/ programme in In!ia isthat it has generate! a ritial onsiousness among all the . soial partners "or taking orretive

measures to eliminate hil! labor#

The e""et o" ILO on Labor legislation in In!ia

-ith the growth an! e$pansion o" "atories an! in!ustries in the subontinent beginning in themi!*nineteenth entury, new avenues "or employment were reate!, resulting in a gra!ual

migration o" the labor "ore "rom rural areas to mills an! "atories loate! primarily in urban

areas# 6t that time, in the absene o" any state ontrol or organization o" the workers, theemployers were less onerne! about the nee!s o" their employeesE the work hours were too

long, wages muh below the subsistene level, an! the workers+ employment on!itions were

unsatis"atory# The situation le! to the enatment o" a number o" legislations beginning "rom the

year 1;;1# These inlu!e, inter alia, the 3atories 6t (1;;1), -orkmen+s ompensation 6t

(195.), Tra!e ?nions 6t (195D), Tra!e isputes 6t (1959), :ayment o" -ages 6t (19.D),aternity =ene"it 6t (19.9), an! the /mployment o" hil!ren 6t

The 3atories 6t 1;;1 is the basis o" all labor an! in!ustrial laws o" the ountry# It ontaine!

provisions even "or hours o" work o" women an! workers inlu!ing that o" minimum age "oremployment o" hil!ren# 6"ter the International Labor Organization (ILO) was "orme! in 1919,

this 6t was amen!e! an! therea"ter repeale!, resulting in the promulgation o" the 3atories 6t

19.%# It makes provision "or sa"ety, health an! hygiene o" the workers an! speial provision "orwomen an! Auvenile workers# It also prohibits hil! labor# It limits work o" a hil! in "atories,

inlu!ing the seasonal ones#

?n!er the ines 6t 195. whih applies to workers employe! in mines, the hours o" work "or persons employe! on sur"ae are limite! to ten per !ay an! "i"ty "our per week# The perio!s o"work inlu!ing rest interval shall not sprea! over more than 15 hours in any !ay# 3or workers

employe! un!ergroun!, the !aily limit is nine hours per !ay# The 6t !oes not ontain provisions

as to overtime work# 4o worker is to work in a mine "or more than si$ !ays a week# The 6t !oesnot provi!e "or wages "or the weekly rest !ay#

The government o" In!ia set up an en8uiry ommittee in 195D to asertain the loophole "or

irregularity o" payment o" wages to in!ustrial workers# The oyal ommission on Labor

appointe! in 1959 onsi!ere! the reports an! suggestions o" the a"oresai! en8uiry ommittee an!reommen!e! "or enatment "or prevention o" mala!ies relating to payment o" wages resulting in

the promulgation o" the :ayment o" -ages 6t in 19.D# It aime!, "irstly, at !isbursement o"

atual !istributable wages to workers within the presribe! perio! an!, seon!ly, to ensure thatthe employees get their "ull wages without any !e!ution# The 6t was passe! to regulate the

payment o" wages to ertain lasses o" persons employe! in in!ustry# The obAet o" the 6t

obviously was to provi!e a heap an! spee!y reme!y "or employees to whom the 6t applie!inter alia, to reover wages !ue to them, an! "or that purpose, a speial tribunal was subse8uently

reate!, but !ue to some inherent !e"ets in the statute the reovery o" !eree able wages rema

ine! !i""iult#


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The -eekly >oli!ays 6t o" 19%5 presribes one pai! holi!ay a week "or persons employe! in

any shop, restaurant or theatre (e$epting those employe! in a on"i!ential apaity or in a

position o" management)# The government is empowere! to grant a!!itional hal"*!ay holi!aywith pay in a week

The In!ustrial isputes 6t, 19%< ame into being on the 1st !ay o" 6pril 19%


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This prFis provi!es an e$ten!e! summary o" the Notes on Training Needs Assessment

metho!ology e$trate! "rom0

iise G# hristian an! irk eyntAens#199;# Report on Training Needs of Research staff at the National Fisheries Institutes in Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. Results of missions to Libya,

Morocco and Tunisia in October/Noember !""#.

Keywords: marine "isheries2 researh sta""2 training nee!s

Why needs assessment

It is beoming wi!ely reognise! that the outputs o" in"ormal an! "ormal training ativities will

be enhane! by assessing the nee!s an! the level o" skills an! knowle!ge o" potential partiipants be"ore implementing the training# =y knowing the overall obAetives o" an

organisation or an institute an! the pro"iles, Aobs an! !aily tasks o" eah sta"", it beomes

possible to tailor training ativities to the nee!s o" an organisation or institute as well as to the personal nee!s o" the sta"" members# 3urthermore, it beomes easier "or the organisation ore$ternal "un!ing agenies to i!enti"y who shoul!, an! who shoul! not partiipate in spei"i

ourses or workshops# The imme!iate gains are motivate! partiipants an! a higher satis"ation

o" their imme!iate nee!s# The long*term gains are longer*lasting e""ets o" training, when nee!shave been a!!resse! at the right time in the right way#

Expected outputs from needs assessment missions

• a !esription o" the obAetives an! ativities un!ertaken by the marine resoure

!ivision(s) at eah institute#

• a brie" !esription o" the environment in whih the institute is presently operating#

• the Aob !esriptions an! present tasks all pro"essional sta"" involve! in marine resoure

assessment an! relate! ativities#

• a pro"ile an! analysis o" the per"ormane o" eah member o" sta"" involve! in marine

resoure assessment an! relate! ativities#

• reommen!ations "or in"ormal an! "ormal training to be un!ertaken by researh sta""#

• reommen!ations on imme!iate "ollow*up ativities to be organise! by O://, e#g#

onsultant support, workshops an! training ourses in the region#

ethodo!ogy

6 series o" metho!s are available an! ommonly use! in a Training 4ee!s 6ssessment (T46) "or the gathering an! subse8uent analysis o" in"ormation relate! to the Aob "untions an! tasks

per"orme! by sta"" potentially in nee! o" training# To avoi! a skewe! piture o" the atual nee!s

the same kin! o" in"ormation will o"ten be sample! by slightly !i""erent means, e#g#0


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• analysing answers to personal 8uestionnaires#

• interviewing key persons#

• on!uting "ouse! workshops with sta"" in harge o" resoure assessment at eah

institute#

• reviewing reent key publiations#

• observations o" working praties an! working on!itions in eah institute#

ethods

Questionnaires Huestionnaires shoul! be "orwar!e! by /*mail to the institutes at least two*three weeks be"ore

the visits by onsultants# The 8uestionnaires shoul! onsist o" three separate 8uestionnaires to be

omplete! by potential training an!i!ates ( respon!ents)0H1# 6 pro"ile o" potential training an!i!ates (personal history "orm)#

H5# 6 !esription o" Aob "untions an! tasks per"orme! by potential training an!i!ates#

H.# 6n assessment o" the training nee!s, skills an! knowle!ge, as i!enti"ie! by potential trainingan!i!ates#

The Training 4ee!s 6ssessment shoul! only over sta"" involve! with marine resoure

assessment an! relate! ativities at the national "isheries researh institutes, an! there"ore shoul!

be han!e! to selete! sta"" only# The 8uestionnaires are !esigne! to provi!e basi personalin"ormation as well as being the main soure o" in"ormation "or the assessment o" sta""

knowle!ge an! nee! "or training in topis relate! to "ishery resoures assessment#

Huestionnaire1 is !esigne! to ollet basi personal in"ormation# In Huestionnaire 5 respon!ents

are presente! with a list o" the maAor Aob "untions normally assigne! to sta"" involve! in theassessment o" natural resoures at 4ational 3isheries Institutes# In the list, respon!ents are aske!

to i!enti"y the Aob "untions that best orrespon! to the Aob "untions in their present position#

?n!er eah maAor Aob "untion, tasks are liste!, that are normally per"orme! by "isheries o""iers#espon!ents are then aske! to rate how o"ten they per"orm eah taskE how important they rate

the task ompare! to other tasksE an! whether they have !i""iulties in per"orming the task, by

using rating sales# In Huestionnaire . respon!ents are aske! to rate their ompeteny, i#e# skills

an! knowle!ge, in a number o" !isiplines an! ativities !iretly or in!iretly relate! to the Aob"untions an! tasks, that have been i!enti"ie! in Huestionnaire 5# Three 8uestions are to be

answere!0 at what level !o you possess the skill or knowle!geJE how important is the skill orknowle!ge "or your present AobJE an! how !o you pereive your nee! "or training in this!isipline2subAetJ 6gain, eah respon!ent is aske! to use a rating sale "or their answers#

Interviews

Interviews are normally use! as an a!!itional way o" obtaining in"ormation an! shoul! always be

supplemente! by other means o" gathering in"ormation# The main a!vantages o" an intervieware0


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• the in"ormation reeive! is more !etaile!, a!!ing 8ualitative in"ormation to 8uantitative

answers in 8uestionnaires#

• misun!erstan!ings may be avoi!e!, as the respon!ent is able to ask lari"ying 8uestions#

The interview metho! reommen!e! "or use !uring missions is alle! the struture! or"ormalise! interview as oppose! to an open interview# The struture! interview shoul! always"ollow a list o" 8uestions !ei!e! upon be"orehan! an! hanges an!2or a!!itions to the 8uestions

shoul! not be ma!e unless absolutely neessary# >owever, the interviewer is o" ourse welome

to answer lari"ying 8uestions "rom the respon!ent, whenever neessary# /ah interview shoul!take between one an! two hours, taking into aount that the respon!ent sometimes nee!e! time

to "in! the right answers#

Interviews are primarily with !iretors an!2or high ranking o""iers in harge o" !epartments,

!ivisions, setions or spei"i working praties an! with the responsibility o" supervising anumber o" sta""#

Workshops

The nee! "or training amongst resoure assessment sta"" in general an also be assesse! !uring a

workshop# 6lone an! in small groups, sta"" an be aske! to i!enti"y what skills an! knowle!gethey "oun! were nee!e! to !o proper resoure assessment an! to help eah other in i!enti"ying

areas o" improvement in their work plans an! working praties# The reason "or using workshops

an! not interviews "or permanent sta"" are0

• interviews are time onsuming an! are not "easible "or a larger number o" sta"" within a

onstraine! time "rame#

• workshops are goo! "or gathering in"ormation an! reating awareness amongst sta"" atthe same time#

The riteria "or seleting sta"" "or partiipation in Training 4ee!s 6ssessment workshops are0

• sta"" atively involve! in ativities relate! to marine resoure assessment#

• sta"" that have omplete! 8uestionnaires 1*.#

• sta"" who hol! a permanent position or at least be assigne! to a post minimum three years

ahea!#

• a ma$imum 1D people shoul! partiipate in eah workshop# I" more sta"" wish to

partiipate in the workshop, they shoul! be split into smaller workshops (minimum "our

people) pre"erably with homogenous groups o" sta"", e#g# knowle!geable senior sta""

separate! "rom Aunior sta"" et#


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6 reommen!e! metho! "or use !uring workshops is the K:yrami! metho!K, whereby

partiipants are "irstly one by one, seon!ly two by two an! thir!ly "our by "our aske! to !isuss

an! i!enti"ying ertain issues# 3inally, in groups o" "our or eight, partiipants are aske! to "in! aonsensus to the 8uestions given an! hoose a spokesperson to present the results o" the group#

Review of publications :ubliations shoul! be reviewe! to assess the 8uantity an! 8uality o" sienti"i researh

publishe! by researhers at spei"i institutes#

Observations

uring eah mission, the onsultant(s) shoul! observe an! note !own the general "ailities

supporting the !aily work o" people working in resoure assessment# :artiular "ous shoul! beon omputer an! library "ailities an! i" available, on researh "ailities an! working on!itions

on boar! researh vessels#

METHODOLOGY

the structured questionnaire employed in the study were adapted andmodified from previous studies byO Driscoll and Taylor (1992); !naia (199"); #ray$‟et al(199%) and&lbadri (2''1)#eneral T literatures were alsoreferred for !uidelines to develop items that were not covered in the studies mentioned earlier draf t of thequestionnaire was also reviewed by a consultant * trainer e+perienced in the T field ,omments fromthem wereused as !uidelines to improve the instrument -t wasthen addressed to the .uman /esource Director * 0ana!er or eyperson involved i

n main! T decisions with a cover letter attached e+plainin! the purposes of the study-n order toease reply$ self addressed and stamped envelopes were also sent to!ether with the questionnaires

s poor response rateis a common fear in conductin! research$ therefore$ a small toen was !iven to the samples as complimentary !ifts aswell as holdin! a lucy draw contest/espondents could also receive a free summary of the study findin!s bycontactin! the researchersThe population of the study was drawn from the directory of

0alaysia 1'''that listed the top 1''' companiesThey were chosen because they were the top performin! companies based on their businessperformance such asturnover$ profits$ total assets$ shareholders funds$ profit mar!in$ retur ‟n on capital$ return on shareholders funds$‟absolute increase in sales$ absolute increase in profits$ and percenta!e increase in profitsThis information wasimportant to the study because literature showed that trainin! tended to be ne!lected in small companies (3esthead and


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4torey$ 199% in Tun!,hun$ 2''1) and one of the reasons why trainin! was not done systematically was due to financialconstraints 4ince the top 1''' companies were considered successful$ it was assumed that they wouldtend to be mor ecommitted towards trainin! and development activities compared to less successful companies 4electionof populationto be studied was$ therefore$ crucial in this research as focusin! on the 5wron! population would not‟provide useful normuch information re!ardin! T practices The second reason was due to the diversity of the characteristics of thecompanies$ coverin! various industries$ sectors$ states$ ori!ins of parent company and len!th ofoperation This wouldprovide a comprehensive picture re!ardin! T practices in different companies 6inally$ they were chosen based onthe belief widely stated in the trainin! literature that trainin! and developin! employees is one of thefactors that couldenhance or!ani7ations profitability (,osh$‟et al

$1998 andTun!,hun$ 2''1)

s the companies selected in the studywere the most profitable in 0alaysia$ theoretically$ their T practices should be systematic and formal3hether ornot this is the case can only be answered by the results

ut of the total population of 1''' companies$ 2% (2%8) companies were randomly selected based on:recie

and 0or!an s (19%'; in 4earan$ 1992) samplin! table‟ ll questionnaires were mailed and respondents were !iventhree wees to complete and return thequestionnaires Due to the slow response$ the deadline to return thequestionnaire was e+tended in order to allow the respondents to participate in the study8< questionnaires were returnedwhich is equivalent to ='= per cent This amount is consideredacceptable accordin! to 4earan (1992) andDiamantopoulos and 4chle!elmilch (199%) The analysis of data was carried out usin! 4>44 (4tatistical>aca!e for4ocial 4cience )for3indow


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Organizational =ehavior0 6 'tu!y on anagers, /mployees, an! Teams=elal 6# ai"i

'aint ary+s ollege o" ali"ornia

'elaiman 6# 4oori

arrington ollege ali"orniaIn reent !ea!es, there has been a tremen!ous shi"t in the struture an! operation o" organizations#

6!vanements in tehnology an! skill !iversity have "ostere! a mo!ern workplae o" skill an!work"low

inter!epen!enies# >ene, "or suess in to!ay+s business worl!, it is imperative "or organizations toun!erstan! the "ores that impat team outomes# This stu!y on 177 managers "rom the same organ*

ization shows that "emale managers have higher ommuniation skills when ompare! to male

managers, but are also more in"luene! by group think# 6 total o" 577 employees "rom this organization werealso

stu!ie! an! the results show that "emale employees ontribute to team outomes more than maleemployees# Impliations "or researhers, managers, an! human resoure pro"essionals are onsi!ere!#

I4TO?TIO4 TO T/6'In our mo!ern worl!, teams are essential to everything in!ivi!uals !o in !aily li"e# 3or many, their

"irste$posure to the notion o" teams began early on !uring partiipation in various youth sports# -hile

playinga position on a team, whether on the soer pith or baseball !iamon!, young athletes are e$pose! to

the

timeless a!age0 BThere is no MI+ in team#C Taking a 8uik look at the "our letters that omprise thiswor!

an! one an onlu!e that, in!ee! the letter MI+ !oes not make an appearane# 6pproah this saying

"rom a"igurative perspetive, an! an entire worl! o" interp

retation is ma!e possible# 3or instane, oahes willo"ten teah their players that everyone on the team ha

s a spei"i Aob to per"orm, an! that every Aob is


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e8ual in its importane to overall team suess# Through this lens, team work is seen as a tale o" people

with !i""erent skills oming together with a ommon purpose# /$ten!ing this onept to the onte$to" the

mo!ern business worl!, we an note that there has been rapi! organizational movement "rom a

olletion

o" in!ivi!ual Aobs to work groups an! teams in response to emergent multilevel systems#The last two !ea!es have e$periene! rapi! a!vanements in tehnology an! an Bun"ol!ing o"

global"ores that have pushe! organizations worl!wi!e to restruture work aroun! teams to enable more

rapi!,"le$ible, an! a!aptive responses to the une$pete!C (ozlowski @ Ilgen, 577D, p#


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an! strategies that an help an organization trans"orm into a robust, high*per"orming, an! !ynamientity#

It must be mentione! that organizations nee! strong managers who are apable o" ontrolling theorganization+s behavior# anagers who un!erstan! hu

man resoure management an! strategi manage*

ment are able to in"luene spei"i behaviors that help shape the ulture o" an organization#

In"lueningspei"i behaviors in an organization an be a !i""iult task to un!ertake "or a number o" reasons# The

most obvious reason is that humans are unpre!itable an! have uni8ue attitu!es an! perspetives#-hen

they enter the work"ore, they also bring their e$petations an! e$perienes to the work"ore whihmany

not orrelate with the organization+s mission# This reates an instant !ilemma that an be ontagiousto

others# ontrolling suh organizational ills is a battle with no en!, whih aurately e$plainswhy

the

stu!y o" organizational behavior is so important# =eing able to !iagnose those issues an! respon!ingwith

well*"ormulate! solutions is what many organizational behavior researhers an! managers strive "or#

Thethree primary outomes o" organizational behavior are Aob per"ormane, organizational ommitment,

an!8uality o" work li"e (H-L)#

6lthough organizational behavior is an applie! !isipline, stu!ents are not Btraine! in organizational behavior# ather, they are e!uate! in organizational behavior an! are a o*pro!uer in learningC

(4elson@ Huik, 5711, p# 5&)# The stu!y o" organizational be

havior re8uires a ru!imentary un!erstan!ing o" psyhology, anthropology, soiology, philosophy, an! a$iology# 3rom a psyhologial perspetive,

human behaviors an! mental proesses !itate how organizations per"ormE "rom an anthropologial perspetive, the ulture, language, an! belie"s o" eah in!ivi!ual !itate how organizations per"ormE

"rom

a soiologial perspetive, the !evelopment o" human an! soial behavior !itate how organizations

"untionE "rom a philosophial perspetive, the morals an! ethis o" an in!ivi!ual !itate howorganizations "untionE an! "rom an a$iologial perspetive, an in!ivi!ual+s values !itate how

organizations "untion# Other !isiplines (e#g#, eonomis, engineering, or soial psyhology) may beapplie! to organizational behavior, as well# 3or e$ample, in 1


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interat with their environment# 6 lose! system !oes not !epen! on its environment an! an"untion

without the onsumption o" e$ternal resoures# 6n open system must interat with the environment tosurvive by onsuming an! e$porting resoures to the environment# In an open an! lose!

organization

system, the

peopleare the human resoures o" the organization who have spei"i skills, the

purposeo"

the organization is the mission, vision, an! goal "or e$isting, the plan

o" the organization is the strategy,ompetitive a!vantages, an! obAetives o" the organization, an! the

prioritieso" the organization are what

!rive the organization to thrive or e$el, whih in most ases is revenue# 'hwartz, Gones, @

arty(5717) e$plain, B4o matter how muh value we pro!ue to!aywhether it+s measure! in !ollars or

salesGournal o" ana

g

ement :oli

yan! :ratie vol# 15(1) 5711 ;9

or goo!s or wi!getsit+s never enoughC (p# .)# The "our :+s to un!erstan!ing organizations as

systems

(ai"i, 5717) is !epite! in 3igure 103IP?/ 1

OP64IQ6TIO4' 6/ 'R'T/'6n open organization system "untions both internally an! e$ternally# The e$ternal system has an

impat on the internal system an! vie versa# 3or e$ample, the ations o" ustomers (e$ternally)

a""et the

organization an! the behavior o" people (internally) at work# BTo!ay, when we !esribe organizationsas

systems, we mean open systems# 6n organization takes inputs (resoures) "rom the environment an!trans"orms or proesses these resoures into outputs that are !istribute! in the environmentC (obbins

@oulter, 577&, p# .&)# 6n e$ample o" an open system organization is a ollege or university that

trans"orms stu!ents into highly*skille! workers that beome a part o" their environment# 6 lose!

organization system (whih is beoming less ommon) !oes not interat with its environment an! as

aresult is !isonnete! to the real*worl!# 'ome e$amples o" lose! system organizations are the

regionalarmies o" the :eople+s epubli o" hina ('hambaug

h, 1991), spiritual ults (e#g#, -ao), amp S*ay at

Puantanamo =ay, an! prison systems (3ong, Nogel, @ =uentello, 199&)# -ith globalization,

tehnologial a!vanements, an! unlimite! ompetition, organizations are more likely to beomeopen


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systems an! !epen! more on their environments# 6s a result, organizations are investing in teams#T/6'

'imply !e"ine!, a team is ompose! o" two or more in!ivi!uals who possess any number o" ommongoals# /$hibiting skill an! work"low inter!epen!enies, members ombine their !i""ering roles in the

ompletion o" a given task# It must be note!, however, that a salient omponent to team struture is a

plat"orm "or soial interation, whih ontinues to beome more virtual# 3or the purposes o" this

artilethe author+s will o""er a more thorough treatment o" teams#

esearh "ousing on teams began more than "i"ty years ago in the area o" soial psyhology# Themore reent shi"t in the organization o" work, however, also brought about a shi"t to the stu!y o"

teams asan organizational onstrut (orelan!, >ogg, @ >ains, 199%)# 6 mo!ern work system that is

!ynamian! omple$ reates ommensurate !eman!s on teams to oor!inate an! ombine skill sets an!

resouresto resolve tasks e""iiently an! e""etively (ozlowski @ Ilgen, 577D)# 3rom an organizational

perspe*

tive, a work system ompose! o" teams reates a pool o" olletive knowle!ge, skills, an! resouresthat

:eople

:lan:riorities

:urpose97 Gournal o" anag

ement :oli

y

an! :ratie vol# 15(1) 5711

support members in resolving a task# There"ore, team task beomes the "oal point aroun! whih

workstruture an! team oor!ination are !etermine!#

In to!ay+s multilevel organization systems, the apaity "or a team to resolve team tasks is in"luene!

by many "ores an! is gauge! by team outomes# The authors !e"ine team outomes as a

!ihotomousmeasure onsisting o" team per"ormane an! team e""etiveness# 6or!ing to 3orrester an!

Tashhian(577D), per"ormane is an e""iieny ompeteny that re"ers to the amount o" work the team !elivers

an!its a!herene to temporal goals# /""etiveness, on the other han!, !esribes the 8uality o" output

pro!ue!

by the team an! whether the team has met its goals an! obAetives# ozlowski an! Ilgen (577D) state,

BI"members olletively lak neessary knowle!ge, skills, abilities, or resoures to resolve the team

task, theteam annot be e""etiveC (p# ;7)# In that sense, team outomes are !etermine! by member !iversityE

a

range o" skills, abilities, an! e$perienes are neessary "or positive team pro!ution# The olletion

o"wi!e latitu!e bakgroun!s begs the 8uestion0 -hat signi"iant pre!itors e""et team outomesJ The


15/24

answer to this 8uestion, an! many similar to it, is entral to the ongoing researh o" manyinvestigators

seeking insight into team proesses an! e""etiveness#3orrester an! Tashhian (577D) reporte! that soial ohesion an! task ohesion were both positively

assoiate! with team outomes# Through these "ores

o" interpersonal attration an! task ommitment,

members !evelop a sense o" team unity an! a share! ommitment to team goals# In a!!ition to!esiring

analytial an! problem solving skills in potential employees, >ernan!ez (5775) state! thatBemployers

also nee! employees who know how to work e""etively with othersC (p# ansen, 577D)#Biversity in a team allows "or aess to a !iverse array o" e$ternal networks that ontribute !iretly

tothe team+s soial an! knowle!ge*base! apital, as well as team per"ormaneC (Goshi, 577D, p# &;.)# 6

!iversity o" skills an! apabilities is vital to organizational suess, but teams must have an

un!erstan!ingo" how Bto work e""etively with this !iversity an! to leverage the strengths o" eah otherC (4ath,

577;, p#

59)# Open ommuniation, ombine! with appreiation an! respet "or the skills an! e$perienes o"olleagues, are important mehanisms through whih team ohesion is enhane!# 6 level o" trust in

eahother+s abilities an! a ommitment to team suess will reate a stage "or ollaboration an! reativity#

Team aomplishments, suh as the sa"e return o" 6pollo 1. astronauts an! the suess o" theanhattan

:roAet, are the result o" team ohesion an! olletive reativity ('armiento @ 'tahl, 577;)# >igh

ohesiveness in teams, however, an reate on"ormity among members an! lea! to the negativeimpliations o" group think# The hallenger spae shuttle trage!y an! the =ay o" :igs invasion o"

ubaare "amous e$amples o" when striving "or onsensus oversha!ows in"orme! !eision*making

(ol8uitt,

Lepine, @ -esson, 5711)#

6s employers respon! to the growing !eman!s plae! on organizations to ompete on a global level,an implementation o" e""etive team proesses is vital to suess"ul business outomes# In "at, many

researhers have reporte! that ollege stu!ents have a poor un!erstan!ing o" teamwork skills an!emphasize the importane in implementation o" suh training aross the urriulum (-illiams @

6n!erson, 577;)# To beome more than the sum o" its parts, a team must Boperate in an environmento"

respet an! appreiation "or the !iversity o" style, skills, e$perienes an! ontributionsC (4ath, 577;, p#

59)# To reate this ulture o" sharing an! ollaboration, organizations shoul! engage in ativities thatenhane an! leverage the bene"its o" both ohesion an! ommuniation among members#

'T?R /T>OOLOPR6 total o" 177 managers working "or the same organization loate! in the 'an 3raniso, =ay 6rea

"ille! out a short survey relating to teams# 6lso, a total o" 577 employees working "or the same


16/24

organization "ille! out a survey relating to teams# This strategy allows "or a more omprehensivestu!y

that illuminates the perspetives o" both managers an! employees# 6s a part o" the survey, eah part*iipant also answere! 8uestions relating to !emographi# Table 1 (anagers) an! Table 5

(/mployees)

represent the !emographi nature o" the population#Gournal o" ana

g

ement :oli

yan! :ratie vol# 15(1) 5711 91

T6=L/ 1

646P/+' /OP6:>I

Pen!er anagement

espon!ents6ge Proup

.7 an! above

"ive years o" teammanagemente$periene

=ahelor+segree

ale &7 %D %; %.3emale &7 &7 %5 .9

Total 177 9D 97 ;5

T6=L/ 5

/:LOR//'+ /OP6:>IPen!er

/mployeeespon!ents

6ge Proup

.7 an! above

[email protected]/-3.D>work e$periene=ahelor+s

egreeale 177


17/24

e$periene# 6 total o" %. (representing ;D) malean! .9 (representing ypothesis .03emale employees will ontribute to team outomes more than male employees#esults

The "irst hypothesis pre!ite! that B

3emale managers will have higher sores on ommuniating with

employeesCan!, as presente! in Table %, this stu!y supporte! this supposition sine "emale managers

sores were signi"iantly higher than the males with a p*value o" 7#771#


18/24

T6=L/ %3emale managers will have higher sores on ommuniating with employees#

esriptive 'tatistis an! T*test o" two means#Pen!er

ean

'tan!ar! eviation

'ample 'izeale .5#;7 7 &7

3emale %1#7% D#.7 &7t


19/24

that are more suess"ul !uring times o" organizational hange# I" "emale managers un!erstan! theimportane o" ommuniation better than their male

ounterparts as this stu!y has !emonstrate!, thenorganizations shoul! "eel om"ortable hiring an! promoting "emales to management positions# ai"i

an!

4oori (5717) e$plain, B6lthough, both men an! women an inrease their emotional intelligene

levels,this stu!y has shown that women have higher levels o" emotional intelligene whih may make them

the better manager o" the 51st enturyC (p# 19)# any believe that women have innate lea!ership skills

thatan make them more approahable, un!erstan!ing, an! e""etive# 3or e$ample, some believe that

womenare more organize!, empatheti, reative, an! aountable# 6s a result o" having innate lea!ership

skills,"emales un!erstan! the importane o" onneting when ommuniating# a$well (5717) e$plains,

Bonneting is the ability to i!enti"y with people an! relate to them in a way that inreases your

in"lueneon themC (p# .)# There are also !i""erent levels o" onneting to others !epen!ing on !i""erent "ators

(e#g#, "ormal vs# in"ormal settings)# a$well (5717) learly !e"ines what it means to onnet with

othersat eah o" the three levels# -hen onneting one on one, it is important to BTalk more about the other

person an! less about yoursel"C (p# 57)# -hen onneting in a group, BLook "or ways to ompliment people in the group "or their i!eas an! ations (5717, p# 51)# 3inally, when onneting with an

au!iene,Blet your listeners know that you are e$ite! to be with themC (a$well, 5717, p# 51)# /ah level o"

onneting re8uires !i""erent levels o" energy# a$well states, Bonneting always re8uires energy#The

larger the group, the more energy that+s re8uire! to onnetC (5717, p# 9.)#'imilarly, it is important "or a great ommuniator to be able to use "aial e$pressions to onvey

spei"i messages# a$well (5717) Austi"ies this important tati by e$plaining how BPreat ators antell

an entire story without uttering a wor!, simply by using "aial e$pressions (p# &D)# /""etive

ommuniators are able to share e$perienes that others an relate to# 3or e$ample, a lea!er trying to

onnet to his or her "ollowers an e$plain how he or she has been in their shoes an! moreimportantly,

an relate to their e$perienes# This simple onneting "ator o" relating to the e$perienes o" othersan

help a lea!er promote higher stan!ar!s, enhane morale, an! a!vane per"ormane levels within anorganization# a$well (5717) states, BThere+s no substitute "or personal e$periene when we want to

onnet with people+s heartsC (p# D.)# onneting to people+s hearts is the most power"ul me!ium "or onneting# Lea!ers who have an ethial image an! who are truste! are able to in"luene more

people#a$well (5717) e$plains, BTrust plays the same role in all relationships, an! it always impats

ommuniation# To be an e""etive onnetor over the long haul, you have to establish re!ibility byliving what you ommuniateC an! "urther states, BI" you !on+t, you un!ermine trust, people

!isonnet


20/24

"rom you, an! they stop listening (p# 5.1)# 6s a matter o" "at, B/""etive ommuniators areom"ortable

in their own skin# They+re on"i!ent beause they know what they an an! an+t !o, an! theygravitate to

their ommuniation sweet spot when they speak to peopleC (a$well, 5717, p# D.)# onneting

when

ommuniating helps with team ohesivenessE espeially when working on proAets that re8uire highlevels o" pro!utivity, e""iieny, an! reativity#

6lso, organizations have been known to use ross*"untional teams (people "rom !i""erent !epartments o" an organization working as one team) as a

moreomprehensive me!ium "or buil!ing morale, uniting an! empowering employees, an! promoting the

onept o" synergy# 6s suh, women in the work"ore shoul! beome team lea!ers beause o" theirability

to reognize the importane o" ommuniation, ohesiveness, an! reativity#The ability to engage personal emotions an! the emotions o" others are important skills "or managers

to possess in the 51st

entury workplae# 6s organizational lea!ers, managers an set the per"ormane pae an! olletive attitu!e within their teams thr

ough ohesion# >aving better skills o" emotional

intelligene than their male ounterparts, "emale managers Ban !evelop strong emotional bon!s to

othermembers o" their team an! to the team itsel"C (ol8uitt, Lepine, @ -esson

,5711, p# %5&)# 6s suh,

women managers are able to !evelop higher levelso" ohesiveness within their teams, whih in turn,

ten!s to reate an atmosphere o" high motivation an! per"ormane# 6lthough "emale managers were

9% Gournal o" anag

ement :oliy

an! :ratie vol# 15(1) 5711

"oun! to be at an a!vantage in reating team ohesion, the results also in!iate that they are more

prone to

groupthink than male managers# Proup think phenomena o"ten evolve in highly ohesive teams when

Bmembers may try to maintain harmony by striving towar! onsensus on issues without evero""ering,

seeking, or seriously onsi!ering alternative viewpoints an! perspetivesC (ol8uitt, Lepine, @-esson,

5711, p# %5&)# =eing more un!erstan!ing an! empatheti than males, "emale managers may !rivetowar!

on"ormity more o"ten in or!er to avoi! on"rontation an! misun!erstan!ings, an! to give their teammembers reative "ree!om# Palbraith+s (5717) e$planation o" women+s natural human skills a!!s

"urtherinsight into why "emale managers may gravitate towar! group think more than male managers0

B-omen


21/24

ten! to pre"er to buil! onnetions with other people an! see themselves as relative e8ualsC an!"urther

states, BThus, a relationship !e"ine! by power over others is not as natural a state "or women as it is"or

men# -omen lea!ers o"ten see themselves in the enter o" a web o" relationships, rather than atop a

pyrami!C (p# %D)# The ability to !evelop ohesion within their team allows "emale managers to

promotehigher levels o" per"ormane# This "in!ing, however, also in!iates that the lea!ership abilities o"

"emalemanagers have a higher ten!eny o" being hin!ere! by group think# To leverage the bene"its o"

ohesionwithout the negative impliations o" group think, "emale managers shoul! un!ertake training in

i!enti"ying an! preventing the !etrimental onse8uenes o" ohesion#The stu!y "in!ings also on"irme! the hypothesis that "emale employees will ontribute to team

outomes more than male employees# The authors o" this stu!y !e"ine team outomes as anassessment

omprise! o" two measures0 team per"ormane an! team e""etiveness# 6!opting the !e"initions

o""ere! by 3orrester an! Tashhian (577D), the authors !esribe team per"ormane as an e""iieny

ompeteny

that re"ers to the amount o" work the team !elivers an! its a!herene to temporal goals# /""etiveness, on

the other han!, !esribes the 8uality o" output pro!ue! by the team an! whether the team has met itsgoals an! obAetives# -omen may ontribute more to

team task ompletion than men beause they havethe a!vantage o" being better ommuniators# ommuniation skills are imperative "or suess in

to!ay+s business worl! where task ompletion is ahieve! in organizational systems o" multiple

inter!epen!enthorizontal an! vertial levels# 6s ol8uitt, Lepine, an! -esson (5711) e$plain, Buh o" to!ay+s

work isaomplishe! inter!epen!ently an! involves ommuniation among members, an! there"ore, the

e""etiveness o" ommuniation plays an important role in !etermining whether there is proess gain

or

proess lossC (p# %55)# 3urthermore, ommuniation may bene"it "emale employees by allowing themto

better share i!eas with members, make reommen!ations, an! seek assistane when enountering anissue

they annot personally resolve#>aving a higher sore in team outome ontribution also suggests that "emale employees are more

aptto "ollowing task !ea!lines an! pro!uing higher 8uality work# This "in!ing allu!es to the belie" that

women are innately more organize!, reative, an! empatheti than men# 3urthermore, these 8ualitiesmay

also ontribute to higher levels o" ohesion, whih in turn, pro!ue higher levels o" team an! taskommitment# The results o" this stu!y support the possibility that "emale employees have greater

potential

"or lea!ership positions within organizations# It is well known, however, that women are in "at


22/24

un!errepresente! in positions o" authority an! o"ten earn less inome than men "or !oing the same Aob

(ol8uitt, Lepine, @ -esson, 5711)# The un"ortunate reality is that se$ !isrimination isommonplae in

organizations# 3or instane, i" a businessman is re8uire! to hoose between a man an! a woman

possessing the same 8uali"iation levels, he woul! opt "or the man, !ue to some misoneptions

wi!esprea! among businessmen, suh as the i!ea that women involve a ost when they take amaternity

leave, that they reate ontroversial relationships with their olleagues or they !o not meet theneessary

skills to begoo! e$eutives (Lopez*3ernan!ez

et al#, 5779)# 3in!ings reporte! by >ekman

et al#(5717)

in!iate that men are more likely to reeive "avorable ustomer satis"ation Au!gments than women

ounterparts, suggesting that se$ !isrimination is pervasive in the general publi, as well# :erhaps

on"ronting gen!er ine8uality in the workplae, an! soiety at large, will enable "emale employees to

bereognize! "or their 8ualities an! ontributions to

team outomes# =y "ostering proe!ural Austie inorganizations, authorities will empower women to aelerate their Aourneys up the organizational

la!!eran! to reeive merit raises base! on Aob per"ormane (ol8uitt, Lepine, @ -esson, 5711E >ekman

et al#,5717)#Gournal o" ana

gement :oli

yan! :ratie vol# 15(1) 5711 9&

LIIT6TIO4'There are some limitations to this stu!y an! one is the limite! amount o" responses "rom eah group#

This survey an be ombine! with other more omprehensive instruments to enhane an! on"irmthe

results# 6lso, "uture stu!ies an !upliate the researh with a greater number o" partiipants that areompare! to other organizations# :erhaps !i""erent population groups (higher an! lower management

levels) an! people working in various in!ustries an be

stu!ie! separately to learn more about teamwork#

It may also be bene"iial to stu!y the ontribution to team outomes ma!e by male an! "emalemanagers#

3urthermore, e$ploring the ourrene o" group think among male an! "emale employees an o""er"urther insight into gen!er !i""erenes in organizations# 3inally, "uture researhers shoul! onsi!er

translating the survey instrument into other languages to see i" the same results are true in

organizations

throughout the worl!#O4L?'IO4


23/24

Theoretially, it is important to un!erstan! how an! why teamwork a""ets people+s suess in theworkplae# :ratially, it is important "or managers to know whether teamwork a""ets per"ormane

beause it pro$ies ohesiveness an! synergy# The stu!y presente! in this artile learly suggests thatteamwork a""ets people+s areers an! workplae interations an! there"ore is worthy o" ontinue!

sholarly investigation#

/3//4/'

ol8uitt, G# 6#, Lepine, G# 6#, @ -esson, # G# (5711)# Organizational =ehavior #

4ew Rork0 Praw*>ill2Irwin#

3ong, #'#, Nogel, #/#, @ =unetello, '# (199&)# =loo!*in, bloo!*out0 The rationale behin! !e"eting"rom prison gangs#

Gournal o" Pang esearh, 5(%), pp# %&*&1#

3orrester, -# #, @ Tashhian, 6# (577D)# o!eling the relationship between ohesion an! per"ormane

in stu!ent work groups#

International Gournal o" anagement, 5.(.), pp# %&;*%D%#

Palbraith, G# # (19;7)# 6pplying theory to the ma

nagement o" organizations# In -# # /van (/!#),3rontiers in organization an! management,

1&1*1Dansen, # '# (577D)# =ene"its an! problems with stu!ent teams0 'uggestions "or improving team

proAets#Gournal o" /!uation "or =usiness,

;5(1), pp# 11*19#>ekman, ##, 68uino, #, Owens, =#:#, ithell, T##, @ :auline, L## (5717)# 6n e$amination o"

whether an! how raial an! gen!er biases in"luene ustomer satis"ation#6a!emy o" anagement

,&.(5), pp# 5.;*5D%#

>ernan!ez, '# (5775)# Team learning in a marketing priniples ourse0 ooperative strutures that

"ailitate ative learning an! higher level thinking#

Gournal o" arketing /!uation,5%(1), pp#


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