LUCID’s Land Use Change Analysis as an Approach for Investigating Biodiversity Loss and Land Degradation Project
Impacts of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Soil Degradation and
Biodiversity on the Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
LUCID Working Paper Series Number: 26
By
A.E. Majule
Institute of Resource Assessment University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35097 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
February 2003
Address Correspondence to:LUCID Project
International Livestock Research InstituteP.O. Box 30709Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: [email protected]. +254-20-630743
Fax. +254-20-631481/ 631499
Impacts of Land Use/Land Cover Changes on Soil Degradation and Biodiversity on the Slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
The Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project Working Paper Number: 26
By
A.E. Majule
Institute of Resource Assessment University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35097 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
February 2003
Address Correspondence to:
LUCID ProjectInternational Livestock Research Institute
P.O. Box 30709Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: [email protected]. +254-20-630743
Fax. +254-20-631481/ 631499
Copyright © 2003 by the: University of Dar es Salaam, International Livestock Research Institute, and United Nations Environment Programme/Division of Global Environment Facility Coordination. All rights reserved. Reproduction of LUCID Working Papers for non-commercial purposes is encouraged. Working papers may be quoted or reproduced free of charge provided the source is acknowledged and cited. Cite working paper as follows: Author. Year. Title. Land Use Change Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) Project Working Paper #. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock Research Institute. Working papers are available on www.lucideastafrica.org or by emailing [email protected].
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND ............................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Justification for the study............................................................................................... 1
1.3 Description of the study area ......................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 Biophysical characteristics .................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Socio-economic characteristics ................................................................................. 2
1.4 Purpose and Objectives.................................................................................................. 2
2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................... 4
2.1 Land use/cover types analysis........................................................................................ 4
2.2 Soil sampling ................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Analysis of primary data ................................................................................................ 4
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...................................................................................... 5
3.1 Land use/cover types...................................................................................................... 5
3.2 The influence of land use/cover changes on soil fertility............................................... 8
3.2.1 Machame transect .................................................................................................... 10
3.2.2 Mbokomu transect............................................................................................... 12
3.3 A linkage between soil erosion and land use types...................................................... 13
3.3.1 Machame transect .................................................................................................... 13
3.3.2. Mbokomu transect............................................................................................... 15
3.4 Linkage between soil erosion and species richness ................................................. 16
4.0 CONCLUSIONS.......................................................................................................... 17
5.0. REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 18
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Sampling Points along the agro-climatic zones gradient.................................................. 3 2.a. Dominant land use types (Upper Machame) .................................................................... 6 2.b. Dominant land use types (Middle Machame)................................................................... 6 2.c. Dominant land use (Lower Machame) ............................................................................. 6 2.d. Dominant land use (Upper Mbokomu)............................................................................. 7 2.e. Dominant land use (Middle Mbokomu) ........................................................................... 7 2.f. Dominant land use types (Lower Mbokomu) .................................................................. 7 3.a. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Machame).............................................. 8 3.b. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Mbokomu) ............................................ 8 4. Soil Availability phosphorus (mgP/kg) across Machame/Mbokomu transects............... 9 5.a. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Upper Machame)...................................... 11 5.b. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Middle Machame) .................................... 11 5.c. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Lower Machame) ..................................... 11 5.d. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Upper Mbokomu)..................................... 12 5.e. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Middle Mbokomu) ................................... 13 5.f. Soil Fertility in Different Land use/covers (Lower Mbokomu) .................................... 13 6.a. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Machame2 ............................................ 14 6.b. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Middle Machame ............................................ 14 6.c. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Lower Machame.............................................. 14 6.d. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Mbokomu ............................................. 15 6.e. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Upper Mbokomu ............................................. 15 6.f. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, Lower Mbokomu ............................................ 16 7. The Effect of Soil Erosion on Species Richness ........................................................... 16
LIST OF APPENDICES 1. Description of land use types ............................................................................................ 19 2. Soil physical properties description................................................................................... 21 3. Soil Chemical properties ................................................................................................... 23
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ABSTRACT
A description of different major land use/cover in two transects, Machame and Mbokomu on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania was made through field investigation. This was based on guidelines provided by Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics (LUCID) project. Soils along the two transects were also extensively characterized both in terms of their chemical and physical properties in relation to degradation. Soil fertility response to different management strategies for sustaining productivity and livelihood of people was also undertaken. The information accrued from this study particularly on soil degradation forms a basis for understanding degradation process and its impact on food crop productivity and on environment. Further, relationships between different land use/cover types and soil degradation particularly soil erosion and soil nutrient composition as well as a relationship between soil degradation and species richness along the two transects was examined. The magnitude of land degradation varied between two transects, being higher along the Mbokomu transect than Machame transect. Soil degradation varied with land use/cover types whereby a conversion of forest to farmland or exotic woodlots caused a depletion of major nutrients such as organic matter, total nitrogen, available phosphorus and increased soil erosion. Soil degradation, particularly erosion, is negatively correlated to species richness along the two transects. Low potential areas seem to be severely degraded as compared to high potential areas due to extensive land use. However a number of adaptation strategies have been adopted such as the application of organic residues, terrace technology, crop diversification and irrigation. Future study requirements include examining soil nutrient flows along transects since it appears that there is a transfer of soil nutrients from low to high potential areas, accelerating the soil degradation process. 1.0 GENERAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction The development of mankind over the past decades has gone through a number of historical stages. The process of development entails exploitation of natural resource with the purpose of converting it into usable form. For examples, human activities such as land tillage, forest clearing, irrigation practices are both aimed to increase food production in order to feed the population of people which is ever increasing. In many cases, development activities conducted in unplanned way have resulted into serious land degradation. Land degradation means a reduction or loss, in arid and dry sub humid areas of biological or economic productivity or complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes. These processes include those arising from human activities and habitation patterns such as soil erosion caused by wind and or water, deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils as well as loss of natural vegetation. A number of studies have been conducted to assess the various kind of land degradation in Tanzania (see for examples Dejene et al., 1997; Majule et al., 1997; Boesen et al., 1999). Kilimanjaro being one of the high potential areas in Tanzania in terms of natural resources and agricultural production, studies on land degradation, climate change and their implications on the livelihood of the people are inevitable in order to have a sustainable management of resources. 1.2 Justification for the study The Kilimanjaro region is endowed with a number of natural resources such as fresh water, fertile volcanic soils, wildlife and a number of natural vegetation species in the forest. Over decades, there have been a number of pressures on natural resources due to increased human demand associated with development and increased population. The consequences of this increased demand is degradation of natural resources if used in unplanned manner. Understanding the effects of land use/cover changes on the degradation of natural resources particularly soils and biodiversity is rather important in the planning of sustainable management of natural resources.
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1.3 Description of the study area 1.3.1 Biophysical characteristics Mount Kilimanjaro is located in the northeast of Tanzania and is a huge volcanic cone with two major peaks, Kibo (5895 m) and Mawenzi (5150 m). The major relief features of Mount Kilimanjaro are three: mountain, highlands and lowlands (JICA, 1977a). The highland zone is also divided into upper zone and middle depending on elevation. There is a variation in the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro because of aspect and elevation. The southern slopes are the steepest and poorly managed soils have been severely eroded over time by heavy rainfall. The northern slopes are generally gentle with gradient of 5-10 degrees. There are number of rivers on the southern side which supply clean water for domestic and irrigation use (Figure 1). The main ones on the south and southeast facing slopes are Kikafu, Weruweru, Karanga, Rau, Mue, Himo, and Sigana. In the lowland zone, there are fewer rivers and streams and most of them are intermitted due to underground seepage, high evaporation and human diversions. Most of rivers draining Kilimanjaro run into Pangani River. The climate is diverse and it varies with elevation and aspects. Broadly, rainfall increases with altitude. In the southern lowland areas at approximately 800 m a.s.l., the average rainfall is approximately 800 mm and it increases to 2,500 mm at 1,500 m.a.s.l. Above 1,500 m a.s.l., rainfall decreases with elevation. Broadly, more rainfall falls on the southern and southeastern slopes of the mountain than the northern or western slopes. Most areas of Kilimanjaro receive their maximum rainfall in April or May and their minimum from July to September. Moisture deficit is common in lowlands and it occurs during September to March. However in the highlands, only slight deficit occurs from January to March (Maro, 1974). Temperatures are moderate at the middle varying between 22 and 26ºC between the altitudes of 600 and 1050 m (JICA, 1977b). The maximum temperature tends to be reduced by cloud cover. Soils are very varied, most of them having derived from volcanic rocks. In the northern, western, and southern sides of the mountain soils are generally deep and fertile as compared to shallow, stony soils on the eastern side particularly the central and northern Rombo District. 1.3.2 Socio-economic characteristics In the slopes of Kilimanjaro, the socio-economic contribution may be analysed in terms of agriculture, forest and tourism. There is also a number of non-agricultural, forestry or tourism income generating activities like Sunday markets where different items are traded. There has been a spectacular development of agriculture on Kilimanjaro during the last 150 years due to a combination of good soils and favourable climatic conditions (Misana, 1991). Small-scale holders mainly dominate agriculture under a typical Chagga system known as kihamba. A mixture of coffee and banana together with other crops like maize, beans, and Irish potatoes form the major components of the mixed cropping system in the highland zone. The land is intensively used due very high population density, which exceeds 500 people per km2 in some places (JICA, 1977a). The lowland zone is sparsely populated due to low and unreliable rainfall, poor soil fertility and poor physical environment such as high temperatures. However due to high population pressure on the highland, people are forced to move down to the lowland. Major crops in the lowland include maize, beans, sisal, cotton, sugar cane (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991) and irrigated rice (JICA, 1977c). 1.4 Purpose and Objectives The general objective of the study was study the soil degradation in the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro associated with land use/cover changes. Specifically, the following were investigated:
• To identify and characterize different land use/cover types in Machame and Mbokomu transects in the high, mid and low zones;
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• To characterize in detail the soils in terms of their physical and chemical properties; • To assess the various land degradation indicators, particularly soil erosion and nutrient
contents in soils; • To establish linkages between changes in land use/cover types with soil degradation; • To examine the linkage between soil degradation and biodiversity.
2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1 Land use/cover types analysis A number of methodologies were used in the collection of information. Three major transects were selected for the purpose of this study. These were Machame, Mbokomu and Rombo transects. Transects were divided into three major agro-ecological zones viz. upper, middle and lower zones. Figure 1 indicates the two major transects Machame and Mbokomu and villages involved in the study. Demarcations of each zone used for data recording and sampling are summarized below:
• Mountain zone > 1800 m a.s.l. • Upper zone 1800 – 1500 m a.s.l. • Middle zone 1500 – 1000 m a.s.l. • Lower zone < 1000 m a.s.l.
Data were recorded in the upper, middle and lower zones. For each of the agro-ecological zones, four major sub transects were made at a specified elevation (between the upper and lower limit of the zone) to record and describe the various land use/cover types by following a guide provided by LUCID (Maitima and Olson 2001). Specifically, soils under the different land use types were described in terms of their physical properties such as soil colour, soil moisture, soil erodibility and textural class by finger feel method. Field observations of different plants on a particular soil was also undertaken in order to explain relationships between soil fertility and crop growths as per the LUCID guide. 2.2 Soil sampling After field description of soils, samples were strategically collected in the field from different land use types for laboratory analysis. The W sampling procedure Majule (1999) was used to select the points for soil sampling—this involved the use of a coordinate system where the points sampled were at the intersection of two lines of approximately 50 paces in a W shape. A shovel was used to get a disturbed shallow sample by cutting a V shaped slice to the depth of 0-20cm and then from 20 to 40 cm (Tan, 1996). The sampling units at each depth were then thoroughly mixed to form a composite sample. The soil was then air-dried and ground to pass through a 2 mm sieve for routine soil analysis. Soils were analysed for pH, OC%, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium. Soil pH was determined in 1:2.5 soils: distilled water (DW) and also in 1M KCl, respectively, using a pH meter (MacLean, 1982). Phosphorus (P) was extracted according to the Bray 1 method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945), and the extracted P was determined calorimetrically after colour development using the ascorbic acid method of (Murphy and Rilley, 1962). Total Nitrogen was determined by macro-kjeldahl digestion followed by distillation (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Organic carbon was determined by the Wakley - Black method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable cations were displaced using ammonium acetate leachate and exchangeable K+ was determined by the flame spectrophotometry (Thomas, 1982). Laboratory results together with field observations were both used to explain the land degradation associated with changes in land use practices. 2.3 Analysis of primary data The proportions of different land use/cover types along the transects in each zone were all listed and their proportions calculated in terms of their occurrences. Their proportions were plotted on graphs and a detailed description of the representative land use/cover types were presented in a
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tabular form. Soil degradation, particularly soil erosion, on each land use/cover type was assessed by classifying the erosion into the erodibility classes 0=E0, 1=E1 and 2=E2 meaning no visible evidence of erosion, slight moderate sheet wash, and moderate-severe sheet wash respectively. Major nutrients (C, N, P, K) in soils and soil pH were compared with the national standards (NSS, 1993) in order to get different fertility ratings per transect and per land use/cover type. 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3.1 Land use/cover types Broadly the land of Kilimanjaro is covered with the following land use types:
• Natural Forest • Open and dense woodlands • Cultivated land (mixed cropping, herbaceous crops, cultivation with tree crops).
Within the above land cover types, a number of land uses were identified along the transects. In order to assess the changes in soil fertility along the two transects (Machame, Mbokomu) a summary of the dominant land use types is made. Table 1a in Appendix 1, presents a descriptive summary of major land use/cover types found along the Machame transect. Figures 2a through 2c present the proportions of different land use/cover types observed along the Machame transect. The dominant land use type in upper and middle Machame is coffee/banana and this accounts for nearly 40 and 50% in the two agro-climatic zones respectively. This type of land use has high economic potential due to its significant contribution to food security and income generation through the sale of coffee. Historically (Table 1a in Appendix 1) this type of land use followed after the clearing of natural forest, which previously dominated. Another report indicates that the first crop to be planted was banana followed by coffee (Misana, 1991). In upper Machame there are still some remnants of natural forest (Figure 2a). Most natural forest is disappearing due to pressure on natural vegetation though the expansion of farming activities (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991). Nearly 50% of the land in upper Machame (Figure 2a) has been converted to grazing land (GRAZ), pasture land (PAS.LD) and woodlots, mainly Eucalyptus specie (WO.LTS). In the middle Machame (Figure 2b), there are short fallows (one year) in response to declining soil fertility. In the lower Machame, there are number of land use types (Figure 2c). Broadly, these are small plots used to cultivate various crops under crop rotation system. Crop diversification in lowlands is one of the strategies to ensure crop yields. Major crops are rice and maize. A descriptive summary of different land use/cover types for Mbokomu transect is summarized in Table 2b in Appendix 1. Along the Mbokomu and Machame transects, the same types of land uses were identified in the three different agro-climatic zones but they differ in their proportions (Table 1b). The dominant land use type in Upper Mbokomu is the coffee/banana (nearly 50%) followed by woodlots (20%) (Figure 2d). The other minor land use types are grazing land, maize field and pastureland. Planted Napier grasses for livestock dominate the pastureland and this is sometime associated with Eucalyptus woodlots. The inclusion of artificial pasture, apart from being a source of livestock feed, is to prevent soil erosion observed to be high in the woodlots. The largest proportion of land in the middle Mbokomu is under the coffee/banana system (Figure 2e). The proportion of the land under the coffee/banana system in the mid Mbokomu is larger (70%) than in Upper Mbokomu (50%). This is probably due to large number of settlements in the middle zone characterized by having coffee/banana plots and other minor crops in their home gardens (Chagga home gardens). Similarly, in the lower Machame, there are a number of land use types (Figure 2f). Broadly, these are small plots used to cultivate various crops under crop rotation or sequential farming practices. Crop diversification in the lowlands is one of the strategies of ensuring production due to poor soil conditions and low rainfall. Major crops include a mixture of coffee and maize, banana and cassava, or banana and maize.
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Figure 2a. Dominant Landuse types (Upper Machame)
0
20
40
60
80
100
GRAZ PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN FORSLanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
Figure 2b. Dominant Landuse types (Middle Machame)
0
20
40
60
80
100
GRAZ WO.LTS COFF/BNN FALLOWLanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
Figure 2c. Dominant landuse types (Lower Machame)
0
20
40
60
80
100
GRAZ PAS.LD PADDY MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
GRAZ=grazing land; PAS.LD= pasture land; WO.LTS= woodlots, mainly Eucalyptus species; COFF/BNN=coffee/banana system; FORS=forest; PADDY=irrigated rice
Both physical and chemical fertility data (Tables 2b & 3b) revealed that the soil along the Mbokomu transect is highly degraded compared to soils located along the Machame transect. This is illustrated by the presence of limited land use types and the cultivation of cassava, which tends to grow on poor soils and to resist drought (Figure 2e). The land uses in the lower Mbokomu are similar to those observed at the lower Machame. There is no dominant land use type probably due to the fact that the land is suited for a number of uses due to a flat inherent landform.
Figure 2f. Dominant landuse types (Lower Mbokomu)
0
20
40
60
80
100
GRAZ CO/MZ PAD/MZ BAN/CAS BAN/MZLanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
Figure 2e. Dominant Landuse types (Middle Mbokomu)
0
20
40
60
80
100
CASSAVA WO.LTS COFF/BNNLanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
Figure 2d. Dominant Landuse types (Upper Mbokomu)
0
20
40
60
80
100
GRAZ PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN MAIZELanduse types
Prop
ortio
n oc
cupi
ed (%
)
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3.2 The influence of land use/cover changes on soil fertility fert ial nutrients in the right
of e
soil fertility ratings developed for Tanzanian soils, soil pH slightly increased from 4.7 in the ry
d
dues to the upland areas.
Soil ility is the measure of the ability of the soil to supply essentamounts, and at the correct proportion at the right time (Rowell, 1993). However the fertilitythe soil is also determined by the quality of soil physical properties. Deterioration of soil structurdue to reasons such as soil erosion, poor land management practices, as well as a failure of soils to supply nutrients in the correct amount and at the right time, are indicators of land degradation. Tables 2a and 2b in Appendix 1 provides a detailed description of soils including their physical degradation from representative land use/cover types. Figures 3a and 3b below indicate selected soil nutrient status along the Machame and Mbokomu transects respectively.
10
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Figure 3a. Soil pH and Nutrient Variation Across Zones (Machame)
0
2
4
6
8
Upper Middle LowerAgro Ecological Zones
Soil
pH, N
utrie
nt C
onte
nts
pHOC%�����������������N%
������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Figure 3b. Soil Nutrient Variations Across Zones (Mbokomu)
0
2
4
6
8
10
Upper Middle LowerAgro Ecological Zones
Soil
pH, N
utrie
nt C
onte
nts
pHOC%�����������������N%
Inupper zone to 5.0 (Figure 3a) across the Machame transect. The soil pH range is classified as vestrongly acid. Under extremely acid conditions, most of soil nutrients such as N, P, Ca, M Mg and K became unavailable and other toxic elements like Al, Mn and Cu become more available to toxic levels A slight increase in soil pH is probably due to deposition of basic cations associatewith erosion and irrigation. Soil organic carbon declined across the zone from a medium range inthe highlands to a very low range in the lower zone. A decline in organic carbon is due to vegetation clearing and burning, and the transfer of organic materials, particularly crop resi
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Type Range Classification Soil pH < 4.5 extremely acid
4.5-5.0 very strongly acid
1.26-2.50 medium
0.21-0.50 medium
> 20 high
nes respectively. This can r, which is a major s urce of itrogen (Rowell, 1993,
euss and Johnson, 1986). Available nitrogen is released to the soil through the process of
acid in the on (Ca, Mg and
) accumulation in the lower zone due to erosion and irrigation. The variation in soil pH is ong
ne. A
5.1-5.6 strongly acid OC% < 0.6 very low 0.60-1.25 low 2.51-3.50 high N% < 0.10 very low 0.10-0.20 low 0.51-1.00 high mgP/kg (Bray-1) < 7 low 7.1- 20 medium ________________________________________________________Source: National Soil Service (NSS, 1993), Tanzania. Total nitrogen content ranged from high to low in the upper and low zobe linked with a decline in soil organic matte o nRorganic nitrogen mineralization (Sakala, 1998; Majule, 1999). Available phosphorus (Figure 4) declined across the Machame transect. However the available phosphorus is well above the high level (> 20 mgP/kg).
160
Soil pH along the Mbokomu transect increased from very strongly acid to stronglyupper and lower zones respectively. A slight increase is probably due to basic cati
Figure 4. Soil Available phosphorus (mgP/kg) across Machame and Mbokomu Transects
0
40
80
120
Upper Middle Lower
Agro Ecological Zones
Avai
labl
e P
(mg/
kg),
Bray
-1
Machame
Mbokomu
Klargely influenced by the land use/cover types within zones across transects. Organic carbon althe Mbokomu transect is generally lower than in Machame transect (Figures 3a and 3b). It decreased from medium range (1.68%) in the upper zone to low range (0.99) in the lower zodecrease in soil organic matter negatively related with soil erosion across the zone (Figure 7). Soil total N% is much lower in Mbokomu than in Machame transect. Soil available phosphorus
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declined across transect in the upper and middle zones respectively. An increase in the amount of available phosphorus in the lower zone (Figure 4) is probably due to high level of phosphorus application particularly in crop fields. 3.2.1 Machame transect Over the past few decades there has been a number of land use changes in the region associated
ith changes in agricultural practices (O’Kting’ati and Kessy, 1991). The effects of individual radation along the Machame transect are presented in Figures 5a
op cultivation. Soil pH in other land use types is very strongly acid (pH 4.5-5.0). e amount of soil organic carbon is within the medium range. Soil nitrogen is very low in
igh in in all land
se types. Broadly, soil degradation is most marked in woodlots followed by grazing land.
owell, 993). There is a marked regeneration in soil organic carbon in soils with the exception of the
ue to the following reasons: • Application of animal manures and crop residues,
cting burning,
Soi rt om cultivation to controlled grazing (zero gr ds near the Chagga home gardens.
ntial areas. There are o remnants of natural forest, which could have served as a means of regenerating soil fertility
wland use/cover types on soil degthrough 5c). One of the indicators of land degradation is declining soil fertility (Rowell, 1993; Majule et al., 1997). An assessment of few key chemical soil fertility indicators (soil pH, OC% and total N%) revealed a variation in soil chemical characteristics associated with different land use categories. In the upper Machame (Figure 5a) soil pH is extremely acidic (<4.5) in pastureland and this restricts annual crThpastureland and woodlots but increases to a medium range in forest and grazing land. In middle Machame (Figure 5b), the soil is extremely acid in woodlots. However it is a bit hother land use types. Organic carbon followed a similar pattern while soil total N is lowu In lower Machame (Figure 5c), extreme soil acidity was observed in rice paddy cultivation. Low soil pH is probably due to nitrogen transformation associated with flooding of rice fields (R1grazing land. Organic carbon content, soil pH and total N% in the land under the coffee/banana system is relatively stable d
• Prevention of leaching processes through mulch application, • Proper agronomic practices such restri• Soil erosion control strategies.
l fe ility can also be regenerated when land is converted frazing), which is restricted to fiel
Declining soil fertility in the lower Machame is probably due to intensive land utilization associated with overgrazing and transfer of organic matter to the upper potenthrough the cycling of organic matter.
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Figure 5a. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Upper Machame)
0
2
4
6
8
10
PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN FORS GRAZLanduse types
pH, (
OC
& N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
Figure 5b. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Mid Machame)
0
2
4
6
8
10
GRAZ WO.LTS COFF/BNN FALLOWLanduse types
pH, (
OC
% N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
Figure 5c. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Lower Machame)
0
2
4
6
8
10
PAS.LD GRAZ PADDY MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types
pH, (
OC
& N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
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3.2.2 Mbokomu transect Field observations indicated that land degradation is more serious on the Mbokomu transect than on the Machame transect. Historically, after clearing the natural forest in most parts of upper Mbokomu, the land was cultivated with different crops. Depletion of soil nutrients and acidification forced farmers to abandon their fields and convert them into woodlots dominated with Eucalyptus sp or Grevillia sp planted to demarcate field plot boundaries and provide shade to coffee plants. Soils in upper Mbokomu (Figure 5d) under woodlots are extremely acid (pH < 4.5). Soils under other land use types are strongly acid (pH 5.1-5.6). Soil organic carbon is low (<0.6%) in the soil under Eucalyptus woodlots and in the medium range in other land use types (Figure 5d). Total nitrogen is lowest under Eucalyptus woodlots but low elsewhere as well. In the middle zone (Figure 5e), there is an improvement in soil pH in most land use types (strongly acid). An improvement in soil pH is probably due intensive management of soils through increased organic matter application. Organic matter is low in the soil under cassava, indicating degradation of nutrients, and is in the medium range in soils under woodlots and mixed farming (coffees and bananas). In the lower zone (Figure 5f), soil pH is very strongly acidic in the land under coffee and maize. Other land use types have soil pH slightly higher but still within the strongly acidic range. The acidity in the coffee/maize farming systems is probably due to the application of artificial fertilizers and copper fungicides in treating Coffee Berry disease. Field observations pointed towards low organic matter content in the lowlands; this is validated by laboratory tests which revealed very low soil organic carbon in all land use types (Figure 5f). Total soil nitrogen is low in all land use type categories.
Figure 5d. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse types (Upper Mbokomu)
0
2
4
6
8
10
PAS.LD WO.LTS COFF/BNN GRAZ MAIZE
Landuse types
pH, (
OC
& N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
LUCID Working Paper 26 12
Figure 5e. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/cover types (Mid Mbokomu)
0
2
4
6
8
10
CAS. WO.LTS COFF/BNNLanduse types
pH, (
OC
& N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
Figure 5f. Soil Fertility in Different Landuse/ types (Lower Mbokomu)
0
2
4
6
8
10
COF/MAZ GRAZ PAD/MAZ BAN/CAS BAN/MAZLanduse types
pH, (
OC
& N
-%)
Soil pHOC%Total N%
3.3 A linkage between soil erosion and land use types 3.3.1 Machame transect Soil erosion in Machame transect was common in all three major agro-ecological zones, as depicted in Figures 6a, b and c. The magnitude of soil erosion, due mainly to water, varies with land use type. In order to assess the magnitude of soil erosion in different zones and land uses, a criterion was set based on field observation. In this case number 0 (E0) = no visible evidence of soil erosion, 1 (E1) = slight erosion, 2 (E2) = moderate soil erosion and 3 (E3) = severe soil erosion. Based on field observations, soil erosion in Machame transect varied with land use type. In the upper Machame (Figure 6a) soil erosion was moderate in woodlots and banana fields. It was not visible in pasture land or in the coffee/banana system land use. In mid Machame (Figure 6b), there is no visible soil erosion in most land use types with the exception of land under maize and fallow when it was slight (E1). In the lower Machame a similar pattern was observed (Figure 6c). High levels of soil erosion in the upper zone were probably due to steep slopes and the destruction of the soil structure by woodlots, particularly by Eucalyptus specie. Field observation indicated that there is evidence of gullies developing in the woodlots. Poor cycling of organic matter was also observed and can be linked with soil structure deterioration. Poor soil structure in the land
LUCID Working Paper 26 13
under pure maize or banana farming also contributed to soil erosion. On the other hand, land covered with grasses or under the coffee and banana system had no marked soil erosion. Observed soil erosion in the lower zone, particularly in the land under pure maize, is probably due to land preparation practices such as use of tractors which tend to loosen soils and thus create chances for both water and wind erosion to occur. Soil erosion in fallow land is probably due to severe degradation following intensive cultivation of the land and overgrazing.
Figure 6a. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, upper Machame
0
1
2
3
PAS.LD COFF/BNN MAIZE WO.LTS BANANALanduse types
Soil
Eros
ivity
Figure 6b. Soil Erosin Classes under different LUT, mid Machame
0
1
2
3
PAS.LD COFF/BNN WO.LTS BANANA MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types
Soil
Eros
ivity
Figure 6c. Soil Erosin Classes in Different LUT, lower Machame
0
1
2
3
PADDY CASSAVA MAIZE FALLOWLanduse types
Soil
eros
ivity
LUCID Working Paper 26 14
3.3.2. Mbokomu transect The magnitude of soil erosion varied across zones and land use types. Soil erosion in the upper zone (Figure 6d, e and f) was similar to that of Machame (section 3.3.1). In the mid Mbokomu (Figure 6d), there is no evidence of erosion in the soil under pasture or the coffee/banana system. Erosion increased in pure mono-cropping (maize, banana) as well as in woodlots. In the mid and lower Mbokomu (Figures 6e and f), soil erosion followed a similar pattern as in Machame. Across all land uses assessed in the field, generally soil erosion increased along the transect from E0 to E2 values due to the removal of vegetation cover and overgrazing, particularly in the lower zones. Soil erosion was much higher in the Mbokomu transect compared to the Machame transect. In summary, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn:
• Soil erosion incidences are common in both transects and in the three major zones; • Soil erosion is a function of steep slopes and land use; • Much soil erosion in the lower zone is due to poor agronomic practices, overgrazing in
marginal lands, and burning; • Land under Eucalyptus woodlots and under pure monocropping, particularly maize and
bananas, is vulnerable to erosion due to poor soil physical conditions. Soil erosion can be significantly reduced by proper incorporation of organic residues, sustainable agronomic practices such conservation tillage, and controlled grazing.
Figure 6d. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, upper Mbokomu
0
1
2
3
PAS.LD COFF/BNN MAIZE WO.LTS BANANALanduse types
Soil
Eros
ivity
Figure 6e. Soil Erosion Classes in Different LUT, mid Mbolkomu
0
1
2
3
COFF/BNN WO.LTS CASSAVA
Landuse types
Soil
Eros
ivity
LUCID Working Paper 26 15
Figure 6f. Soil Erosion Classes in different LUT, lower Mbokomu
0
1
2
3
COF/MZ GRAZ PAD/MAZ BAN/MZ BAN/CASLanduse types
Soil
Eros
ivity
3.4 Linkage between soil erosion and plant species richness A linkage between plant species richness and soil erodibility is presented in Figure 7. Values of species richness used to construct the linkage are those reported by Lyaruu (2003) and were obtained on the same plots used to collect the soils data for this report. Generally, there are more species in Mbokomu than in Machame transect, particularly in the upper zone. Results indicate a negative correlation (Figure 7) between species richness and soil erosion in both transects. Soil erosion being a form of land degradation, it affects both soil fertility and water availability for plants. An increase in soil erosion tends to remove the fertile topsoil that is vital for the growth of different plants species. Broadly, the following can be concluded
• There are more plant species on land with low soil erosion probably due to suitable soils and water availability
• Increased soil erosion from an E0 to an E2 rating tends to be associated with a decrease in species richness.
The decline in spices richness (a decrease of 14) along the Mbokomu transect is much steeper than on the Machame. This is probably due to soil stability and water availability on the Machame transect.
Figure 7. The Effects of Soil Erodibility on Species Richness
R2 = 0.998
R2 = 0.9944
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
E0 E1 E2Soil Erodibility (E)
Spec
ies
Ric
hnes
s
Machame
Mbokomu
LUCID Working Paper 26 16
4.0 CONCLUSIONS The methodology used during data collection provided enough data for one to examine various component indicators of land degradation at the field level. Other researchers undertaking similar studies can adopt this methodology. The following major conclusions can be drawn:
• Soil degradation (measured by levels of erosion and chemical characteristics) is worse in
the lower zones than in the upper and middle zones. The upper zones are also likely to degrade due to intensive land use.
• Phosphorus is not a major limiting nutrient (none of the plant were recorded having a purple colour)
• The magnitude of land degradation varies with the land use/cover type. It is more marked in soils under woodlots, monoculture cropping, and fields located far from the homestead. There is therefore a need to slowly replace Eucalyptus woodlots with high potential trees such as Grevillea robusta or indigenous species.
• Land degradation has large impact on the richness of plant species diversity due to the inability of the soil to support the survival of many plants. Species richness tends to decrease in the lower zones and with increasing soil erosion. This therefore calls for an intensification of soil erosion control strategies.
• Proper land management practices such as the application of organic residues on soils can significantly contribute to soil and water conservation. Hence a need for promoting these practices.
A study of nutrient flows between altitudinal zones on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro needs to be established. During the field work, a number of vehicles were observed carrying crop residues and fodder grass from the lower zones to the upper zones. This has important implications for sustainable management of the soil resource.
LUCID Working Paper 26 17
5.0. REFERENCES Boesen, N.J., Kikula, I.S. and Maganga, F.P. (1999). Sustainable Agriculture in Semi Arid
Tanzania. University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. ISBN 99-60-311-8. Bray, R.H. and Kurtz, L.T. (1945). Determination of total, organic and available forms of
phosphorus in soils. Soil Science 59: 39 - 45. Bremner, J.M. and Mulvaney, C.S. (1982). Total nitrogen. In: Method of Soil Analysis Part 2.
Agronomy Monograph No. 9. (Edited by Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, P.R.) American Society of Agrnomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin. Pp. 149 - 157.
Dejene, A., Shishira, E.K., Yanda, P.Z. and Johnsen, F.P. (1997). Land Degradation in Tanzania. Perception from the village. United States of America, ISSN:0253-7494.
JICA. (1977a). The Kilimanjaro Region Integrated Development Plan Summary Report. Vol. 1. Overseas Technical Cooperation. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan.
JICA. (1977b). The Kilimanjaro Region Integrated Development Plan Summary Report. Vol. 11. Overseas Technical Cooperation. Japan International Cooperation Agency, Japan.
JICA. (1977c). Water Master Plan, Kilimanjaro Region, Vol. V. Technical Report: Irrigation. Ministry of Water, Energy and Minerals, Dar es Salaam.
Lyaruu, H.V. (2002). Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project: Plant Diversity Component, Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. LUCID Working Paper 25. International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya.
Maitima, J.M. and Olson, J.M. (2001). Guide to Field Methods for Comparative Site Analysis for the Land Use Change, Impacts and Dynamics Project. LUCID Working Paper 15. International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya.
Majule, A.E. (1999). The Effects of Organic Residues and Elemental Sulphur Additions to Soils of Southern Tanzania. PhD Thesis. Reading University. UK. 238pp.
Majule, A.E., Toper, C.P. and Nortcliff, S. (1997). The environmental effect of dusting cashew (Anarcadium occidentale L) trees with sulphur in southern Tanzania. Tropical Agriculture Journal (Trinidad) 74: 25 - 33.
Maro, P.S. (1974). Population and land resources in the northern Tanzania:the dynamics of change 1920-1970.Ph.D thesis, University of Minessota.
Misana, S.B. (1991). The Importance of Mount Kilimanjaro and the needs for its integrated management and conservation. In. The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro. Edited by William D. Newmark. IUCN.
Murphy, J. and Rilley, J.P. (1962). A modified single solution method for determination of phosphate in natural water. Analytica Chemica Acta 27: 31 - 36.
O’Kting’ati, A. and Kessy, J.F. (1991). The Farming Systems on Mount Kilimanjaro. In. The Conservation of Mount Kilimanjaro. Edited by William D. Newmark. IUCN.
Nelson, D.W. and Sommers, L.W. (1982). Organic carbon In: Method of Soil Analysis Part 2. Agronomy Monograph No. 9. (Edited by Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, P.R.) American Society of Agrnomy Inc., Madison, Wisconsin. Pp. 561 - 573.
Reuss, J.O. and Johnson, D.W. (1986). Acid deposition and the acidification of soils and waters. Ecological Studies 59: 25 - 31.
Rowell, D.L. (1994). Soil Sciences: Methods and Applications. Longman, London. England. pp. 153 - 173.
Sakala, M.G. (1998). The Effect of Incorporating Plant Residues on Soil Acidity in The Management of Tropical Soils. PhD Thesis, Reading University, UK. 220pp.
Tan, K.H. (1996). Soil Sampling, Preparation and Analysis. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 408pp.
LUCID Working Paper 26 18
App
endi
x 1.
T
able
1a.
Des
crip
tion
of M
ajor
Lan
d us
e/co
ver
Typ
es o
bser
ved
alon
g th
e M
acha
me
Tra
nsec
t, K
ilim
anja
ro
Agr
o E
colo
gica
l zo
ne (A
EZ)
U
nit
Sub-
Tra
nsec
ts D
escr
iptio
n L
and
use
type
s
Mou
ntai
n zo
ne
Upp
er M
acha
me
1 S
03°1
0.42
8, E
037
º.14.
311,
Ele
vatio
n 1,
811
m a
.s.l,
loca
ted
on m
id h
ill w
ith s
lope
of
14º,
2 m
inut
es
wal
king
dis
tanc
e fr
om h
ome,
the
fie
ld w
as i
nher
ited
from
par
ents
in
1997
as
a fo
rest
, th
e re
plac
ed b
y w
oodl
ots
(Euc
alyp
tus)
then
cle
ared
to g
row
gra
ss (
12 m
onth
s). S
oil f
ertil
ity lo
w (
And
osol
), le
achi
ng o
f nu
trien
ts d
ue to
con
tinuo
us c
ultiv
atio
n, s
oil e
rosi
on a
nd fi
re a
re m
ajor
pro
blem
s. C
ultiv
atio
n is
mai
nly
by
hand
hoe
. Con
serv
atio
n st
rate
gies
incl
ude
terr
acin
g (fa
nya
juu)
sinc
e 19
97.
PAST
UR
E LA
ND
(N
API
ER G
RA
SS)
2
S 03
º10.
427,
E 0
37º
14.2
88. E
leva
tion
1841
m a
.s.l,
mid
hill
slo
pe 1
0-14
º, 3
min
wal
k fr
om h
ome.
The
ar
ea in
herit
ed fr
om p
aren
ts s
ince
197
9, a
s a
fore
st th
en c
lear
ed a
nd p
lant
ed w
ith E
ucal
yptu
s on
bou
ndar
ies
with
cof
fee,
ban
anas
and
Iris
h po
tato
es. F
or la
st 1
2 m
onth
s Eu
caly
ptus
tree
s do
min
ated
the
plot
. Mol
lic
And
osol
, po
or s
oil
ferti
lity
due
to b
urni
ng,
soil
eros
ion,
con
tinuo
us c
ultiv
atio
n an
d fir
e. S
oil
eros
ion
obse
rved
and
ther
e ar
e no
pro
per s
oil c
onse
rvat
ion
stra
tegi
es a
dopt
ed.
EUC
ALY
PTU
S W
OO
D L
OTS
.
3 S
03º 11
.190
´, E
037º
14.
291´
; 167
1 a.
s.l, m
id h
ill w
ith sl
ope
of 4
º, 1
min
ute
wal
k fr
om h
ome,
the
land
was
in
herit
ed f
rom
par
ents
sin
ce 1
996
with
mai
ze,
coff
ee,
bana
na,
bean
s, sw
eet
pota
toes
, av
ocad
o an
d ,
coco
yam
. The
se c
rops
wer
e in
fie
ld la
st s
easo
n (p
ast 1
2 m
onth
s). T
he s
oil i
s A
ndos
ol w
ith m
ediu
m s
oil
ferti
lity;
soi
l fer
tility
is im
prov
ed b
y us
ing
farm
yard
man
ure
from
pig
and
cat
tle. L
and
is d
eepl
y cu
ltiva
ted
by u
sing
han
d ho
e.
MA
IZE/
C
OFF
EE/
BA
NA
NA
4
S 03
º11.
580´
, E 0
37º 1
3’ 9
65´,
1570
m. a
.s.l,
2 m
inut
es w
alki
ng d
ista
nce
from
hom
e w
ith s
lope
4º,
It is
a
publ
ic la
nd u
sed
for g
razi
ng, g
rass
es w
as o
n fie
ld d
urin
g pa
st 1
2 m
onth
s, po
or s
oil f
ertil
ity, n
o ch
ange
on
soil
ferti
lity
beca
use
no a
dditi
onal
or
cons
erva
tion
done
to im
prov
e so
il. A
bsen
ce o
f so
il er
osio
n du
e to
gr
ass c
over
. In
som
e pl
aces
stee
p te
rrac
e w
ere
obse
rved
. The
y w
ere
esta
blis
hed
in 1
960.
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
.
5
S 03
º12.
473´
, N 0
37º
13. 4
47´,
1489
.6 m
a.s.
l. Lo
cate
d on
val
ley
botto
m w
ith a
slo
pe o
f le
ss th
an 4
º, 3
min
utes
wal
king
dis
tanc
e fr
om h
ome.
The
land
was
inhe
rited
from
par
ents
as
fore
st. P
lant
ed w
ith G
rive
llia
spec
ie. L
ast s
easo
n co
vere
d w
ith n
atur
al f
ores
t for
12
mon
ths.
Soil
(Gle
yic
And
osol
s) w
ith m
ediu
m s
oil
ferti
lity.
Abs
ence
of s
oil e
rosi
on, A
gro-
fore
stry
pra
ctic
e co
mm
on.
CA
TCH
MEN
T FO
RES
T
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
19
Mid
Mac
ham
e 1
S 03
º 14
.538
´, E
037º
13
367´
, 148
5 m
a.s.
l, lo
cate
d on
mid
hill
with
4ºs
lope
, inh
erite
d fr
om p
aren
ts a
s fo
rest
then
con
verte
d in
to g
razi
ng, c
over
ed w
ith g
rass
for t
he p
ast 1
2 m
oth.
Low
nat
ural
ferti
lity,
abs
ence
of
soil
eros
ion.
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
.
2
S 03
º 12
.916
´, E
037º
13.
244´
, Alti
tude
138
6 m
a.s.
l, lo
cate
d on
mid
hill
with
4º
slop
e, 2
min
utes
wal
k fr
om h
ome,
lan
d in
herit
ed f
rom
par
ents
sin
ce 1
940
as f
ores
t th
en c
lear
ed a
nd p
lant
ed w
ith c
offe
e an
d ba
nana
. Las
t sea
son
coff
ee a
nd b
anan
a w
ere
on th
e fie
ld fo
r 12
mon
ths.
Poor
soi
l fer
tility
but
is im
prov
ing
due
to d
ue t
o a
cons
tant
app
licat
ion
of m
anur
e an
d fa
rm r
esid
ues
thro
ugho
ut.
Han
d ho
e us
ed f
or
culti
vatio
n, a
bsen
ce o
f ero
sion
.
CO
FFEE
AN
D
BA
NA
NA
)
3
S 03
º18.
466`
, with
an
altit
ude
of 1
040
m a
.s.l a
nd it
’s a
val
ley
botto
m, t
he s
lope
rang
e fr
om 0
to 4
º but
in
mos
t par
ts it
is le
ss th
an 1
. The
land
is lo
cate
d at
10
min
utes
wal
king
dis
tanc
e fr
om h
ome.
The
land
was
in
the
past
giv
en b
y go
vern
men
t, cl
eare
d an
d th
en p
lant
ed w
ith s
isal
and
mai
ze a
s in
terc
rop.
The
lan
d is
co
vere
d w
ith c
rops
for
a p
erio
d of
6 m
onth
s an
d th
em w
ith c
rop
resi
dues
for
the
res
t of
the
sea
son
(6
mon
ths)
. D
ue t
o po
or s
oil
ferti
lity,
the
lan
d is
fal
low
ed f
or a
t le
ast
one
year
and
sup
plem
ente
d w
ith
ferti
lizer
s. La
nd p
loug
hed
by tr
acto
rs.
FALL
OW
LA
ND
4 S
03º1
9.35
8, `
E 03
7º14
.019
`, m
ainl
y fla
t sur
face
, slo
pe <
1°,
The
land
was
allo
cate
d to
the
peop
le b
y th
e G
over
nmen
t, cl
eare
d an
d pl
ante
d w
ith tr
ees
cove
ring
the
land
for t
he w
hole
sea
son
for a
num
ber o
f yea
rs.
The
kind
of t
ree
grow
ing
(Euc
alyp
tus)
tend
s to
deg
rade
soi
l fer
tility
. In
the
patc
hes
the
land
is c
over
ed b
y gr
ass
and
som
e tim
e an
nual
cro
ps a
re p
lant
ed b
ut w
ith th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
ferti
lizer
s. In
som
e pl
aces
ther
e is
an
incr
easi
ng te
nden
cy o
f app
lyin
g FY
M in
ord
er to
impr
ove
ferti
lity.
The
re is
no
eros
ion
due
to g
rass
and
tre
e co
ver b
ut th
ere
are
prop
er so
il an
d w
ater
con
serv
atio
n st
rate
gies
ado
pted
.
EUC
ALY
PTU
S W
OO
DLO
TS
Low
er M
acha
me
1 S
03°2
4, E
037
°14.
Lan
d is
mai
nly
flat s
urfa
ce (
no h
ill)
and
is 5
min
utes
wal
king
fro
m h
ome
with
<4°
sl
ope.
The
lan
d w
as i
nher
ited
from
par
ents
sin
ce 1
970
as a
bus
h, t
hen
clea
red
and
plan
ted
with
cro
ps
(mai
ze, b
eans
, gro
undn
uts)
. Las
t se
ason
pla
nted
with
mai
ze f
or 5
mon
ths,
and
7 m
onth
s re
mai
ned
with
cr
op r
esid
ues.
Ver
y po
or s
oil
ferti
lity
due
to r
emov
al o
f to
p so
il by
rai
n (c
ausi
ng e
rosi
on),
expo
sure
of
rock
s on
the
surf
ace
affe
cts s
oil f
ertil
ity. L
and
plou
ghed
by
ox-p
loug
h an
d th
ere
is li
ttle
soil
eros
ion.
FALL
OW
LA
ND
.
2 S
03°2
5.85
9, E
037
°17.
884.
Fla
t lan
d an
d th
e ar
ea is
rent
ed fo
r mon
ey s
ince
200
0, p
lant
ed w
ith c
rops
and
th
en l
ast
seas
on w
as u
nder
pad
dy.
The
crop
has
bee
n on
the
lan
d fo
r 10
mon
ths
and
2 m
onth
s w
ith
resi
dues
. Soi
l fer
tility
is lo
w a
nd a
farm
er is
app
lyin
g ar
tific
ial f
ertil
izer
s and
cro
p re
sidu
es to
impr
ove
both
ch
emic
al a
nd p
hysi
cal p
rope
rties
. Use
of h
and
hoe
and
tract
ors,
visi
ble
eros
ion/
crus
ting
com
mon
.
PAD
DY
C
ULT
IVA
TIO
N
3
S 03
°23.
162′
E 0
37°
14.8
35, A
ltitu
de 8
95 m
a.s.
l., o
n th
e sh
ould
er w
ith 5
-9°
slop
e. B
ush
and
aban
done
d la
nd d
ue to
sev
ere
degr
adat
ion,
cov
ered
by
shru
bs fo
r 12
mon
ths.
Ver
y po
or s
oil f
ertil
ity a
nd s
oil e
rosi
on
rem
oves
the
tops
oil d
own
the
slop
e, a
ffect
ing
the
soil
ferti
lity
and
expo
sing
the
rock
s.
SHR
UB
S
4 S
03°2
5 83
5, E
037
°17.
808,
Ele
vatio
n is
770
m a
.s.l,
Flat
land
sur
face
with
a s
lope
of <
4°.
The
land
was
in
herit
ed f
rom
par
ents
sin
ce 1
950
and
was
pla
nted
with
ann
ual
crop
s. C
urre
ntly
, th
e la
nd i
s un
der
culti
vatio
n of
mai
ze. T
he s
oils
are
gen
eral
ly p
oor
due
to l
ong-
term
cul
tivat
ion.
Che
mic
al f
ertil
izer
s ar
e us
ed a
nd th
e la
nd is
cul
tivat
ed b
y us
ing
a ha
nd h
oe. T
rash
line
cul
tivat
ion
stra
tegy
is u
sed.
MA
IZE
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
20
Tab
le 1
b. D
escr
iptio
n of
the
Maj
or L
and
use/
cove
r T
ypes
obs
erve
d al
ong
the
Mbo
kom
u T
rans
ect,
Kili
man
jaro
U
pper
Mbo
kom
u 1
S 03
°16′
and
E 0
37°2
5.29
6, 1
705
m a
.s.l a
nd lo
cate
d on
mid
hill
, slo
pe 4
° and
the
land
was
in
herit
ed fr
om p
aren
ts. T
he a
rea
was
nat
ural
fore
st b
ut re
plac
ed
by w
oodl
ot (E
ucal
yptu
s).
Tree
s wer
e pl
ante
d as
bou
ndar
y be
twee
n fa
rmer
s plo
ts b
ut n
ow th
ey h
ave
dom
inat
ed th
e ar
ea.
Ther
e is
a se
rious
pro
blem
of e
rosi
on d
ue to
soil
stru
ctur
e de
terio
ratio
n an
d fir
e.
WO
OD
LOTS
(E
UC
ALY
PTU
S)
2 S
03°1
6′, E
037°
.25.
235,
183
1 m
a.s.
l and
loca
ted
on m
id h
ill a
slop
e of
<30
°. Th
e la
nd w
as
give
n by
the
gove
rnm
ent a
nd w
as c
lear
ed a
nd p
lant
ed c
offe
e fir
st th
en c
offe
e cl
eare
d fo
r mai
ze.
For t
he p
ast 1
2 m
onth
the
land
was
und
er m
aize
cul
tivat
ion.
Cro
p yi
eld
was
repo
rted
to b
e lo
w
prob
ably
due
poo
r soi
l fer
tility
as o
bser
ved
in th
e fie
ld.
MA
IZE
3 S
03°1
6.93
8, E
037
°24.
869,
156
3 m
a.s.
l loc
ated
on
mid
hill
with
slop
e 30
deg
rees
. The
land
w
as in
herit
ed fr
om p
aren
ts p
lant
ed c
offe
e an
d ba
nana
and
last
seas
on (t
he p
ast 1
2 m
onth
s) th
e cr
ops c
over
ed th
e la
nd).
Soil
ferti
lity
is v
ery
poor
due
to e
rosi
on b
ecau
se th
ere
are
not c
ultu
ral
stra
tegi
es a
pplie
d in
con
trolli
ng it
.
CO
FFEE
B
AN
AN
A
4 S
03°1
6.92
7, E
037
°24.
856,
155
9 m
a.
s.l, l
ocat
ed a
t mid
mill
, slo
pe <
2°, t
he a
rea
inhe
rited
fr
om p
aren
ts, m
ajor
cro
p pl
ante
d is
mai
ze, b
ut g
rass
was
on
the
field
last
sea
sons
, for
a p
erio
d of
6 m
oth,
soi
l fe
rtilit
y ve
ry p
oor
(no
appl
icat
ion
of a
nim
al m
anur
e), l
and
is c
ultiv
atio
n by
us
ing
a ha
nd h
oe, t
here
is n
o ev
iden
ce o
f soi
l ero
sion
sinc
e th
ere
are
terr
aces
.
FALL
OW
Mid
dle
Mbo
kom
u
1 S
03°1
6.76
6, E
037
° 24
.103
, 145
0.5
m a
.s.l m
id h
ill o
n st
eep
slop
e <2
0°, l
and
was
inhe
rited
fr
om p
aren
t sin
ce 1
977,
cro
ps a
re in
the
field
on
perm
anen
t bas
is. T
here
has
bee
n a
trem
endo
us
chan
ge in
var
ietie
s of
ban
ana
plan
ted
(3 to
cur
rent
15
type
s) m
ixed
with
cof
fee.
Soi
l fer
tility
is
med
ium
due
to th
e us
e of
fer
tiliz
ers
and
FYM
and
litte
r fr
om tr
ee. T
he la
nd is
cul
tivat
ed b
y us
ing
a ha
nd h
oe a
nd e
rosi
on is
not
a s
erio
us p
robl
em d
ue to
con
trol s
trate
gies
ado
pted
by
a fa
rmer
(ter
race
s).
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
2
S 03
° 16.
776,
E 0
37° 2
4.13
3, 1
464
m a
.s.l,
loca
ted
on m
id h
ill w
ith a
slop
e <4
5°, l
and
inhe
rited
fr
om p
aren
ts s
ince
197
7.
Cro
ps w
ere
in t
he f
ield
but
wer
e ab
ando
ned
and
repl
aced
with
w
oodl
ots
to p
reve
nt w
ind
caus
ed e
rosi
on. M
ixed
cro
ppin
g is
par
tially
don
e bu
t in
1990
-200
0 se
ason
s no
annu
al c
rops
hav
e be
en p
lant
ed. T
he la
nd is
cul
tivat
ed b
y us
ing
a ha
nd h
oe.
WO
OD
LO
TS
/NA
TUR
AL
TREE
S
3
S 03
° 18
.239
, E 0
37°
22.7
93, 1
024
m a
.s.l,
loca
ted
on m
id h
ill w
ith s
lope
<4
° (n
early
flat
on
the
cres
t). L
and
was
inhe
rited
from
par
ents
whe
re th
e m
ajor
cro
p pl
ante
d w
as c
assa
va a
nd la
st
seas
on c
assa
va. T
he c
rop
cove
red
the
land
thro
ught
the
perio
d. T
he s
oil i
s ve
ry p
oor d
ue to
the
fact
that
ther
e is
no
addi
tion
of a
nim
al m
anur
e or
ferti
lizer
on
the
field
. The
re is
an
evid
ence
of
soil
eros
ion.
The
fiel
d is
cul
tivat
ed b
y us
ing
a ha
nd h
oe.
CA
SSA
VA
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
21
Low
er M
boko
mu
1 S
03°
19.1
03, E
037
° 22
.297
, 964
m a
.s.l.
The
loca
tion
of th
e fie
ld is
on
the
foot
hill
of th
e hi
ll w
ith a
slo
pe o
f 3°
. Th
e la
nd w
as i
nher
ited
from
par
ents
sin
ce 1
999
whe
re t
he m
ajor
cro
p pl
ante
d w
ere
bana
na a
nd m
aize
in th
e fie
ld d
urin
g th
e pa
st 1
2 m
onth
s. So
il fe
rtilit
y in
the
field
is
mod
erat
e an
d is
mai
ntai
ned
thro
ugh
the
appl
icat
ion
of a
nim
al m
anur
e in
ban
ana
and
chem
ical
ferti
lizer
in m
aize
plo
ts. T
here
is n
o fa
llow
and
land
is p
repa
red
by u
sing
a h
and
hoe.
So
il er
osio
n is
not
a se
rious
pro
blem
.
BA
NA
NA
/ M
AIZ
E
2
S 03
° 19.
122,
E 0
37° 2
2.30
9, 9
65 m
a.s.
l. Th
e la
nd is
loca
ted
at th
e fo
ot o
f the
hill
with
a sl
ope
of <
4°.
The
land
was
inhe
rited
from
par
ents
whe
reby
the
maj
or c
rop
plan
ted
was
cof
fee
but
mai
ze w
as a
lso
grow
n in
bet
wee
n sp
aces
. Cof
fee
is a
per
enni
al c
rop
and
was
in th
e fie
ld fo
r the
pa
st 1
2 m
onth
s. Th
e so
il fe
rtilit
y is
ver
y po
or b
ut s
ome
impr
ovem
ent h
as b
een
mad
e th
roug
h th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
ani
mal
man
ure
and
chem
ical
fer
tiliz
er w
hen
they
gro
w m
aize
. The
re is
no
fallo
win
g pr
actic
e on
thi
s fie
ld d
ue t
o co
ntin
uous
cul
tivat
ion
whe
reby
han
d ho
e is
use
d to
pr
epar
e th
e fie
ld.
CO
FFEE
/ M
AIZ
E.
3 S
03°
21.0
86, E
037
° 22
.403
, 964
m a
.s.l.
The
loca
tion
of th
e fie
ld is
on
the
flat s
urfa
ce a
nd
land
was
inhe
rited
from
par
ents
and
it w
as p
lant
ed w
ith th
e tw
o cr
ops.
The
land
is v
ery
poor
on
soil
ferti
lity
due
to c
ontin
uous
cul
tivat
ion
with
out m
uch
use
of o
rgan
ic m
anur
e. S
oil e
rosi
on is
no
t a
serio
us p
robl
em i
n th
e la
nd. W
ater
was
rep
orte
d to
be
a se
rious
pro
blem
par
ticul
arly
du
ring
dry
perio
ds. L
and
is ti
lled
by u
sing
a h
and
hoe.
Pre
senc
e de
velo
ping
gul
lies.
BA
NA
NA
/ C
ASS
AV
A
4
S 03
° 25
.109
, E 0
37°
22.7
35, 7
75 m
a.s.
l. Th
e lo
catio
n of
the
field
is o
n th
e fla
t sur
face
and
la
nd w
as in
herit
ed fr
om p
aren
ts a
nd it
was
as
a fo
rest
in 1
960.
It w
as c
lear
ed a
nd p
lant
ed w
ith
mai
ze f
or a
lon
g tim
e. T
he l
and
was
then
aba
ndon
ed f
or a
gric
ultu
ral
activ
ities
and
use
d fo
r gr
azin
g. T
he la
nd is
cov
ered
by
natu
ral g
rass
. Agr
icul
ture
is n
ot p
ossi
ble
due
the
fact
that
soi
ls ar
e ve
ry h
eavy
and
som
etim
e th
ere
is fl
oodi
ng w
hich
tend
s to
affe
ct th
e cu
ltiva
tion
of c
rops
.
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
5
S 03
° 25
.778
, E 0
37°
22.5
13, 7
88 m
a.s.
l. Th
e lo
catio
n of
the
field
is o
n th
e fla
t sur
face
and
la
nd w
as in
herit
ed fr
om p
aren
ts a
s fo
rest
in 1
980.
It w
as c
lear
ed a
nd p
lant
ed w
ith m
aize
for a
lo
ng ti
me
and
then
a f
arm
er d
ecid
ed to
gro
w r
ice
in a
situ
atio
n w
here
ther
e is
exc
ess
rain
fall
due
to w
eath
er c
hang
es.
The
soil
is s
omeh
ow f
ertil
e an
d th
ere
is n
o ap
plic
atio
n of
arti
ficia
l fe
rtiliz
ers
desp
ite o
f inc
orpo
ratin
g cr
op re
sidu
es. L
and
culti
vatio
n is
mai
nly
by u
sing
han
d ho
e or
trac
tors
.
PAD
DY
/MA
IZE
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
22
App
endi
x 2.
T
able
2a.
Des
crip
tion
of S
oil P
rope
rtie
s of t
he M
ajor
Lan
d us
e ty
pes i
n K
ilim
anja
ro, M
acha
me
Tra
nsec
t
Agr
o ec
olog
ical
zon
e (A
EZ)
U
nit
Soil
fert
ility
Des
crip
tion
Lan
d us
e ty
pes
Upp
er M
acha
me
1 So
il te
xtur
e is
silt
, dar
k br
own.
The
gro
wth
pla
nt is
vig
orou
s w
ith d
ark
gree
n le
aves
, ave
rage
hei
ght o
f 1.
2 fe
et, t
he c
olou
r of
pla
nt le
aves
is p
urpl
e on
old
er le
aves
, pla
nt c
over
ed a
bout
10%
of
tota
l lan
d. T
he
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty is
loos
e. T
here
is v
isib
le e
vide
nce
of e
rosi
on o
r ver
y sl
ight
she
et w
ash
due
to th
e fa
ct
that
soil
loss
is v
ery
low
with
hig
h ac
cum
ulat
ion
of o
rgan
ic m
atte
r.
PAST
UR
E LA
ND
/(NA
PIER
G
RA
SS
2 Th
e so
il te
xtur
e is
silt
y w
ith d
ark
brow
n. T
he g
row
th a
nd c
olou
r of t
he p
lant
is v
igor
ous
with
dar
k gr
een
leav
es,
the
aver
age
plan
t he
ight
is
80 f
eet.
The
soil
is v
ery
poro
us i
ndic
atin
g th
e pr
esen
ce o
f as
h,
volc
anic
mat
eria
ls. T
he a
ggre
gate
stab
ility
is st
able
cem
ente
d by
pla
nt ro
ots.
EUC
ALY
PTU
S W
OO
D L
OTS
.
3
The
soil
text
ure
is lo
amy
with
dar
k br
own.
The
pla
nt g
row
th is
stu
nted
. The
mai
ze c
rop
is p
ale
yello
w.
The
plan
t he
ight
ran
ge b
etw
een
3-5
met
res.
The
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty i
s lo
ose
whi
le t
he s
oil
loss
is
mod
erat
e w
ith n
o vi
sibl
e ev
iden
ce o
f ero
sion
or v
ery
slig
ht sh
eet w
ash
and
the
crop
yie
ld is
mod
erat
e.
.MA
IZE,
/ C
OFF
EE/
BA
NA
NA
4 So
il te
xtur
e is
silt
and
dar
k ye
llow
ish
gree
n, c
over
ed
by g
rass
es o
n to
p. T
he c
olou
r of
pla
nt le
aves
is
gree
n. G
rass
hei
ght r
ange
s fr
om 1
0 to
20
cm ta
ll. T
he so
il ag
greg
ate
stab
ility
is st
able
cem
ente
d by
gra
ss
root
s. N
o vi
sibl
e ev
iden
ce o
f ero
sion
.
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
.
5
Soil
text
ure
is s
ilt s
and,
yel
low
ish
brow
n. T
he p
lant
gro
wth
is n
orm
al. T
he s
oil h
as s
hallo
w d
epth
due
to
pres
ence
of
un-w
eath
ered
ash
, ac
cum
ulat
ion
of s
tone
/bas
alt
from
uph
ill a
rea
due
to e
rosi
on.
The
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty i
s w
eak
and
loos
e. T
he s
oil
loss
is
mod
erat
e as
wel
l as
sed
imen
tatio
n an
d ac
cum
ulat
ion.
The
re is
slig
ht m
oder
ate
shee
t was
h on
ban
ks p
artic
ular
on
the
bank
s of
val
ley
botto
m.
Ther
e is
hig
h yi
eld
of N
apie
s gr
asse
s pl
ante
d on
rive
r ban
ks. T
here
are
dep
osits
of s
oil o
n ge
ntle
slo
pes,
expo
sed
root
s an
d pa
rent
mat
eria
l sed
imen
tatio
n in
stre
ams
and
rese
rvoi
rs h
ills
and
pede
stal
s ar
e al
so
obse
rved
par
ticul
arly
on
the
bank
s of t
he v
alle
y
CA
TCH
MEN
T FO
RES
T
Mid
dle
Mac
ham
e 1
Soil
text
ure
is s
ilt w
ith s
tone
s (g
rave
ls),
yello
wis
h br
own.
Pla
nt g
row
th i
s st
unte
d, p
ale
gree
n le
aves
. Lo
ose
soil
aggr
egat
es b
ut lo
w s
oil l
oss
beca
use
of g
rass
es c
over
. The
re is
littl
e so
il se
dim
enta
tion
dow
n th
e sl
ope
lead
ing
to a
ccum
ulat
ion
of si
lt. T
he c
rop
yiel
d is
poo
r due
to p
oor s
oils
. Hill
s are
obs
erve
d
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
.
2
Soil
text
ure
is s
ilt lo
am w
ith d
ark
brow
n. T
he p
lant
gro
wth
is v
igor
ous
beca
use
of a
dditi
on o
f man
ure
in
the
soil.
Pla
nt le
aves
are
dar
k gr
een.
Sta
ble
soil
aggr
egat
es d
ue to
add
ition
org
anic
mat
ter/r
esid
ues.
Soil
eros
ion
not v
isib
le.
The
crop
yie
ld is
hig
h be
caus
e of
app
licat
ion
of m
anur
e an
d pl
ant r
esid
ue
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
3
The
soil
text
ure
sand
loam
, dar
k re
ddis
h br
own.
The
gro
wth
of g
rass
is p
oor.
Loos
e so
il ag
greg
ates
with
lo
w o
rgan
ic m
atte
r con
tent
. Soi
l los
s is
mod
erat
e w
here
by th
e to
psoi
l is
rem
oved
from
the
uppe
r par
ts to
do
wn
slop
e (v
alle
y) so
ther
e is
a sh
eet w
ash
in th
e fie
ld. D
evel
opin
g gu
llies
are
iden
tifie
d. T
he c
rop
yiel
d ne
arby
is lo
w a
nd im
prov
emen
t req
uire
s ap
plic
atio
n of
ferti
liser
s. Th
e te
rmin
ate
mou
nds
are
foun
d an
d ca
ttle
graz
e th
e ar
ea su
ch th
at th
ere
are
no p
lant
resi
dues
.
FALL
OW
/ G
RA
ZIN
G L
AN
D
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
23
4
The
soil
text
ure
is c
lay
loam
y, d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n. N
orm
al p
lant
gro
wth
, dar
k gr
een
leav
es. L
oose
soi
l ag
greg
ates
, soi
l ero
sion
E1
clas
s, so
il is
ver
y dr
y.
WO
OD
LOTS
Low
er M
acha
me
1 Th
e te
xtur
e of
the
sol i
s sa
nd c
lay
with
dar
k br
own.
The
pla
nt g
row
th is
stu
nted
and
the
colo
ur o
f pla
nt
leav
es i
s ye
llow
ish
gree
n th
roug
hout
aff
ecte
d le
aves
. Its
hei
ght
is 3
-5 f
eet.
The
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty i
s lo
ose
beca
use
of lo
w o
rgan
ic m
atte
r in
the
soil
the
soil
loss
is m
oder
ate
with
slig
ht s
heet
was
h le
adin
g to
re
mov
al o
f the
top
soil
to d
own
slop
e an
d ac
cum
ulat
ion
of s
oil p
artic
les
at th
e fo
ot s
lope
. The
cro
p yi
eld
is lo
w w
ith lo
w fi
eld
prod
uctiv
ity. P
rese
nce
of d
roug
ht sp
ecie
s ind
icat
ors (
scat
tere
d A
caci
a, b
aoba
b).
SH
RU
BS
2 So
il te
xtur
e sa
nd lo
amy,
bro
wn.
Stu
nted
pla
nts
(2-3
feet
), ye
llow
ish
leav
es.
The
soil
of th
e fie
ld is
loos
e w
ith lo
w o
rgan
ic m
atte
r. Th
e so
il lo
ss i
s m
oder
ate
whe
re th
e to
psoi
l is
rem
oved
to a
noth
er a
rea
with
ex
pose
d ro
cks
outc
rops
. The
roc
ks a
nd s
mal
l sto
nes
on th
e su
rfac
e ar
e es
timat
ed to
cov
er 2
0% o
f th
e to
tal f
ield
. The
re is
slig
ht m
oder
ate
shee
t was
h in
the
field
dur
ing
rain
sea
son
lead
ing
to th
e ex
posu
re o
f ro
cks o
n th
e su
rfac
e of
the
field
. The
rills
and
you
ng g
ullie
s are
iden
tifie
d in
this
fiel
d.
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
3
The
soil
text
ure
sand
loam
, bro
wn.
The
pla
nt g
row
th is
stu
nted
with
yel
low
ish
leav
es. A
ll pl
ants
on
this
fie
ld a
re d
ry d
ue to
sho
rtage
of
wat
er f
or ir
rigat
ion
and
lack
of
rain
for
the
seas
on. T
he s
oil a
ggre
gate
st
abili
ty i
s lo
ose
with
low
org
anic
mat
ter,
whi
ch i
s us
eful
for
its
sta
bilit
y. T
he s
oil
loss
is
mod
erat
e w
here
by a
ccum
ulat
ion
and
sedi
men
tatio
n of
soi
l par
ticle
s is
dow
n sl
ope
durin
g ra
in s
easo
n. T
here
is n
o co
vera
ge o
f pl
ant r
esid
ues.
Ther
e is
an
evid
ence
of
slig
ht m
oder
ate
shee
t was
h, w
hich
rem
oves
tops
oil
from
upp
er to
dow
n sl
opes
. The
cro
p yi
eld
and
field
pro
duct
ivity
is lo
w b
ut f
or b
ette
r yi
eld
chem
ical
fe
rtilis
ers i
s use
d du
ring
plan
ting.
FALL
OW
LA
ND
.
4
The
soil
text
ure
of th
is fi
eld
is c
lay
loam
, cra
ckin
g an
d da
rk b
row
n. T
he p
lant
gro
wth
is n
orm
al w
ith th
e he
ight
of a
bout
2 ft
. The
sta
bilit
y of
agg
rega
te is
sta
ble
cem
ente
d w
ith p
lant
root
and
cla
ys. L
ow o
rgan
ic
mat
ter i
n so
ils is
due
to th
e fa
ct th
at a
ll pl
ant r
esid
ues a
re u
sed
to fe
ed c
attle
or b
urnt
in th
e fie
ld. T
here
is
no e
vide
nce
of so
il er
osio
n or
slig
ht s
heet
was
h. T
he c
rop
yiel
ds ra
nges
from
mod
erat
e to
hig
h du
e to
the
appl
icat
ion
of c
hem
ical
ferti
liser
s in
field
s.
PA
DD
Y
5
Cla
y lo
am, d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n; p
lant
gro
wth
is n
orm
al, d
ark
gree
n le
aves
indi
catin
g hi
gh fe
rtilit
y. P
lant
he
ight
ran
ge f
rom
1-2
ft.
Stab
le s
oil a
ggre
gate
cem
ente
d w
ith o
rgan
ic m
atte
r. So
il er
osio
n no
t vis
ible
. Fi
eld
crop
yie
ld ra
nges
from
mod
erat
e to
hig
h de
pend
ing
on th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
che
mic
al fe
rtilis
er.
MA
IZE
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
24
Tab
le 2
b. D
escr
iptio
n of
Soi
l Pro
pert
ies o
f the
Maj
or L
and
use
type
s in
Kili
man
jaro
, Mbo
kom
u T
rans
ect
A
gro
ecol
ogic
al z
one
(AE
Z)
So
il Fe
rtili
ty D
escr
iptio
n L
and
use
type
s
Upp
er M
boko
mu
1 So
il te
xtur
e si
lty, d
ark
brow
n. V
igor
ous
plan
t gro
wth
, gre
en (5
0-90
feet
). Th
is fi
eld
is c
over
ed w
ith fe
w
gras
ses
and
soil
aggr
egat
e st
abili
ty is
sta
ble
due
to th
e fa
ct th
at th
e pl
ant r
oots
cem
entin
g th
e so
il. T
he
soil
loss
is
mod
erat
e an
d th
ere
is s
oil
depo
sitio
n do
wn
slop
e. T
here
is
a vi
sibl
e ev
iden
ce o
f sl
ight
m
oder
ate
shee
t was
h an
d ril
ls o
n th
e fo
otpa
th (
E2).
Whi
ch e
xpos
es th
e pl
ant r
oots
. The
cro
p yi
elds
is
high
for w
oodl
ots a
nd p
oor f
or p
astu
re.
WO
OD
LO
TS
(EU
CA
LYPT
US)
2
Soil
text
ure
silt,
dar
k br
own.
The
gro
wth
of t
he p
lant
is v
igor
ous,
gree
n (5
-10
feet
). So
il or
gani
c m
atte
r ap
pear
s to
be lo
w d
ue to
the
fact
that
app
licat
ion
of re
sidu
es in
clud
ing
man
ure
is v
ery
min
imal
. Arti
ficia
l fe
rtiliz
ers
are
supp
lem
ente
d in
cro
pped
land
but
yie
ld is
stil
l bel
ow s
tand
ard.
Soi
l ero
sion
slig
htly
she
et
was
h (E
1).
MA
IZE
3
The
soil
text
ure
in th
is f
ield
is s
ilt lo
am, d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n. P
lant
gro
wth
nor
mal
, dar
k gr
een,
10
feet
hi
gh. H
eavy
app
licat
ion
of p
lant
res
idue
and
ani
mal
man
ure.
Few
pla
nts
have
yel
low
ish
leav
es d
own
slop
e. S
tabl
e so
il ag
greg
ate,
no
visi
ble
soil
eros
ion
(E0)
due
to li
ttle
dist
urba
nce
and
high
org
anic
mat
ter.
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
4
Soil
text
ure
silt
loam
, dar
k re
ddis
h br
own.
Stu
nted
pla
nt g
row
th. S
tabl
e so
il ag
greg
ates
, no
appl
icat
ion
of
anim
al m
anur
e in
the
field
bec
ause
of c
over
age
of g
rass
es a
roun
d th
e fie
ld th
ere
is n
o vi
sibl
e ev
iden
ce o
f er
osio
n or
ver
y sl
ight
shee
t was
h.
PAST
UR
E LA
ND
5
BA
NA
NA
M
iddl
e M
boko
mu
1 So
il te
xtur
e lo
amy
clay
, dar
k re
ddis
h br
own.
The
gro
wth
of
coff
ee is
nor
mal
with
dar
k gr
een
(cof
fee)
, pa
le y
ello
w (b
anan
a). S
tabl
e so
il ag
greg
ates
, ero
sion
E0
in 8
0% o
f the
fiel
d w
ith e
xcep
tion
in p
edes
tals
. D
epos
ition
of s
oil o
n ge
ntle
slop
e is
obs
erve
d. C
rop
yiel
d an
d fie
ld p
rodu
ctiv
ity ra
nges
from
mod
erat
e to
po
or.
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
2
Soil
text
ure
is lo
amy
clay
, dar
k re
ddis
h br
own
indi
catin
g an
inte
nsiv
e w
eath
erin
g. G
rass
gro
wth
is v
ery
poor
pro
babl
y du
e to
sha
ding
and
poo
r na
tura
l soi
l fe
rtilit
y.
Evid
ence
of
soil
eros
ion
(E1)
, mod
erat
e st
able
soi
l ag
greg
ates
due
to
orga
nic
mat
ter
from
pla
nts
(incl
udin
g ro
ots)
pre
vent
s fu
rther
ero
sion
. H
owev
er th
ere
are
area
s, w
hich
hav
e be
en s
ever
ely
erod
ed d
ue to
the
fact
that
the
root
s of
fore
st s
peci
es
on sl
opes
tend
s to
loos
en th
e so
il st
ruct
ure
and
this
faci
litat
es th
e re
mov
al o
f top
soil.
The
pro
duct
ivity
of
the
soil
is v
ery
low
and
this
is o
ne o
f the
reas
ons f
or n
ot g
row
ing
crop
s in
such
land
.
WO
OD
LOTS
/ N
API
ER G
RA
SS
3
Soil
text
ure
is lo
amy,
dar
k re
ddis
h br
own
indi
catin
g an
inte
nsiv
e w
eath
erin
g. P
lant
gro
wth
is n
ot v
ery
norm
al (
stun
ted)
pro
babl
y du
e to
the
infe
rtilit
y of
the
soi
l an
d dr
ough
t due
to t
he f
act
that
the
soi
l is
prop
erly
mai
ntai
ned
resu
lting
int
o sl
ight
she
et w
ash
(E1)
. Th
e so
il ag
greg
ate
is s
tabl
e du
e to
hea
vy
appl
icat
ion
orga
nic
mat
ter
from
pla
nts
and
anim
al m
anur
e. T
he s
tabi
lity
of s
oil
tend
s to
pre
vent
soi
l er
osio
n an
d th
us c
onse
rve
the
soil.
Thi
s fie
ld is
an
exam
ple
of a
wel
l-con
serv
ed a
gric
ultu
ral l
and
sinc
e fr
om th
e ph
ysic
al o
bser
vatio
n of
the
soil,
pla
nt g
row
th w
as b
ette
r and
hig
h yi
eld
wer
e re
porte
d.
CA
SSA
VA
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
25
Low
er M
boko
mu
1 Th
e so
il is
loam
y cl
ay a
nd d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n. P
lant
est
ablis
hmen
t and
gro
wth
is n
ot n
orm
al (s
tunt
ed)
indi
catin
g po
or so
il fe
rtilit
y st
atus
. Soi
l agg
rega
tes a
re st
able
rest
rictin
g m
uch
soil
eros
ion
(E0)
due
to
larg
e ap
plic
atio
n of
FY
M in
plo
ts. I
nfer
tility
is p
roba
bly
due
to la
ck o
f maj
or c
hem
ical
ele
men
ts
parti
cula
rly N
PK.
CO
FFEE
/ M
AIZ
E
2
Loam
y so
il; d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n an
d dr
y. S
oil f
ertil
ity in
the
field
is v
ery
low
but
mai
ntai
ned
thro
ugh
the
appl
icat
ion
of a
nim
al m
anur
e in
ban
ana
field
s an
d ch
emic
al fe
rtiliz
er in
mai
ze p
lots
. The
re is
no
fallo
w
and
land
is p
repa
red
by u
sing
a h
and
hoe.
Slig
ht sh
eet w
ash
kind
of s
oil e
rosi
on (E
1).
BA
NA
NA
/ M
AIZ
E
3
Dec
linin
g so
il fe
rtilit
y, d
ark
redd
ish
brow
n; l
oam
y si
lt w
ith s
light
sta
ble
aggr
egat
es. E
vide
nce
of s
oil
eros
ion
(E1)
but
poo
r wat
er h
oldi
ng c
apac
ity. N
o fa
llow
. App
licat
ion
of m
anur
e is
ver
y m
inim
al.
BA
NA
NA
/ C
ASS
AV
A
4
Dar
k re
ddis
h br
own
clay
ey lo
am s
oil.
Hig
h cl
ay c
onte
nt is
due
to a
ccum
ulat
ion
of f
ine
earth
follo
win
g er
osio
n fr
om u
p-hi
ll ar
eas.
The
land
is c
over
ed b
y na
tura
l gra
ss a
nd so
il po
or in
soi
l fer
tility
. Soi
l is
very
st
able
due
to h
igh
OM
con
tent
with
min
imal
soil
eros
ion
(EO
).
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
5
Dar
k re
ddis
h br
own
clay
loa
m s
oil.
Hig
h cl
ay c
onte
nt i
s du
e to
acc
umul
atio
n of
fin
e ea
rth f
ollo
win
g er
osio
n fr
om u
p-hi
ll ar
eas.
Low
and
dec
linin
g so
il fe
rtilit
y. S
oil i
s ve
ry s
tabl
e du
e to
hig
h cl
ay c
onte
nt
with
min
imal
soil
eros
ion
(EO
).
MA
IZE/
RIC
E
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
26
App
endi
x 3.
T
able
3a.
Sel
ecte
d C
hem
ical
Soi
l Pro
pert
ies f
or L
and
Deg
rada
tion,
in K
ilim
anja
ro, M
acha
me
Tra
nsec
t
Agr
o ec
olog
ical
zo
ne (A
EZ)
U
nit
Soil
Che
mic
al F
ertil
ity E
valu
atio
n L
and
use
type
s
Upp
er M
acha
me
1
T
op S
oil
S
ub S
oil
pH
4. 3
(E
xtre
mel
y ac
id)
4
. 7
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
130
(H
igh)
8
0
(
Hig
h)
C %
2.
60
(Hig
h)
1. 9
5
(Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K
1. 8
0 (V
ery
high
)
0.
60
(M
ediu
m)
Tota
l N %
0. 3
0 (M
ediu
m)
0.
10
(L
ow)
PAST
UR
E LA
ND
/(NA
PIER
G
RA
SS
2
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
4. 5
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
4. 4
(Ext
rem
ely
acid
) A
vaila
ble
P
171
(H
igh)
12
7
(H
igh)
C
%
2. 7
0 (H
igh)
2.
75
(H
igh)
A
vaila
ble
K
3. 2
0 (V
ery
high
)
3.
00
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0
. 60
(Hig
h)
0. 5
5
(Hig
h)
EUC
ALY
PTU
S W
OO
D L
OTS
.
3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
4
. 4
(Ex
trem
ely
acid
)
4. 6
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
112
(
Hig
h)
107
(
Hig
h)
C %
2.
50
(M
ediu
m)
2
. 10
(Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K 2
.65
(V
ery
high
)
2
. 50
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 2
0
(Low
)
0. 0
5 (V
ery
low
)
MA
IZE/
C
OFF
EE/
BA
NA
NA
4
Top
Soi
l
Su
b So
il pH
5. 0
(Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
4. 6
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
82
(Hig
h)
102
(
Hig
h)
C %
2
. 20
(M
ediu
m)
1
. 95
(Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K
2. 8
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 1
5 (V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0
. 28
(M
ediu
m)
0.
19
(Low
)
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
.
5
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
4.
8
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
4. 4
(E
xtre
mel
y a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
10
5
(Hig
h)
1
2
(M
ediu
m)
C %
1. 5
0 (M
ediu
m)
1. 9
5 (M
ediu
m)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3. 3
3 (V
ery
high
)
3. 2
0 (V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 8
6 (H
igh)
0. 2
9 (M
ediu
m)
CA
TCH
MEN
T FO
RES
T
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
27
Mid
dle
M a
cham
e 1
Top
Soi
l
S
ub S
oil
pH
4
. 8
(Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
4.
8
(Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
169
(H
igh)
29
(H
igh)
C
%
2. 7
5 (H
igh)
1. 7
5 (M
ediu
m)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 40
(Ver
y hi
gh)
3.
10
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 5
1 (
Hig
h)
0
. 21
(Med
ium
CO
FFEE
A
ND
B
AN
AN
A
2
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
4. 9
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
5. 4
(
Stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
19
(Med
ium
)
19
(M
ediu
m)
C %
1
. 15
(Lo
w)
1.
80
(M
ediu
m)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 30
(V
ery
high
)
2.
25
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0
. 24
(M
ediu
m)
0. 1
9 (
Low
)
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5. 6
(Mod
erat
ely
acid
)
4.
7
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
45
(Hig
h)
2
(
Low
) C
%
1. 1
5
(Low
)
1. 1
5
(Lo
w)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 40
(V
ery
high
)
2
. 10
(
Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 1
9
(Low
)
0.
10
(
Low
)
FA
LLO
W
4
Top
Soi
l
S
ub S
oil
pH
3.
8
(Ex
trem
ely
acid
)
4. 5
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
5
(
Low
)
92
(
Hig
h )
C %
1
. 25
(Lo
w)
1
. 40
(M
ediu
m)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 10
(V
ery
high
)
2
. 50
(V
ery
hig
h)
Tota
l N %
0. 2
4 (
Med
ium
)
0. 2
5 (
Med
ium
)
WO
OD
LOTS
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
28
Low
er M
acha
me
1
T
op S
oil
Sub
Soil
pH
5.
3
(S
trong
ly a
cid)
5
. 4
(S
trong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
12
(Med
ium
)
29
(
Hig
h)
C %
0
. 15
(V
ery
low
)
4
. 75
(V
ery
high
) A
vaila
ble
K
3. 5
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 1
0 (
Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 0
6
(V
ery
low
)
0
. 68
(H
igh)
FA
LLO
W
2
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
3. 5
(Ext
rem
ely
acid
)
5. 7
(M
oder
atel
y ac
id)
Ava
ilabl
e P
1
4
(M
ediu
m)
135
(H
igh)
C
%
0. 7
0
(Low
)
1. 3
5
(Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K
3. 6
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 5
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 1
3
(Low
)
0
. 26
(M
ediu
m)
PA
DD
Y
CU
LTIV
ATI
ON
/G
RA
ZIN
G
3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5. 7
(M
oder
atel
y ac
id)
5. 9
(
Mod
erat
ely
acid
) A
vaila
ble
P
1
78
(Hig
h)
102
(Hig
h)
C %
1. 7
5
(M
ediu
m)
0.
90
(H
igh)
A
vaila
ble
K
3
. 60
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 3
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0
. 33
(Med
ium
)
0. 1
6
(Low
)
MA
IZE
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
29
Tabl
e 3b
. Sel
ecte
d C
hem
ical
Soi
l Pro
perti
es fo
r Lan
d D
egra
datio
n, in
Kili
man
jaro
, Mbo
kom
u Tr
anse
ct
Agr
o ec
olog
ical
zo
ne (A
EZ)
Uni
t So
il Fe
rtilit
y C
hem
ical
Pro
perti
es
Land
use
type
s
Upp
er M
boko
mu
1
T
op so
il
S
ub so
il pH
3
. 7
(Ex
trem
ely
acid
)
4.
9
(Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P 1
5
(M
ediu
m)
8
(Med
ium
) C
%
1. 5
5 (
Med
ium
)
1. 3
0 (M
ediu
m)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3.
40
(V
ery
high
)
2
. 15
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0
. 28
(M
ediu
m)
0.
20
(Low
)
WO
OD
LO
TS
(EU
CA
LYPT
US)
2
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
3. 2
(Ext
rem
ely
acid
)
3
. 7
(Ex
trem
ely
acid
) A
vaila
ble
P
166
(Hig
h)
17
(M
ediu
m)
C %
1
. 80
(M
ediu
m)
1. 1
0 (
Low
) A
vaila
ble
K
3. 1
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
1
. 80
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0
. 31
(M
ediu
m)
0. 2
9
(Med
ium
)
MA
IZE
3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
4. 4
(Ext
rem
ely
acid
)
5
. 8
(M
oder
atel
y ac
id)
Ava
ilabl
e P
5
4
(H
igh)
52
(Hig
h)
C %
1
. 90
(M
ediu
m)
1. 9
0
(Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K
3. 6
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2
. 10
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0
. 35
(M
ediu
m)
0. 3
4
(Med
ium
)
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
4
T
op S
oil
S
ub S
oil
pH
5. 2
(Stro
ngly
aci
d)
5. 3
(
Stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
8
(Med
ium
)
3
(
Low
) C
%
0
. 65
(L
ow)
0
. 55
(Ver
y lo
w)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3. 8
5
(Ver
y hi
gh)
1. 5
5 (V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 1
1
(Low
)
0. O
8 (V
ery
low
)
FALL
OW
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
30
Mid
dle
Mbo
kom
u 1
Top
Soi
l
Su
b So
il pH
4. 8
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
4.
7
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
1
82
(H
igh)
114
(Hig
h)
C %
1
. 25
(L
ow)
0
. 75
(L
ow)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 35
(V
ery
high
)
2. 1
5
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 2
3
(
Med
ium
)
0. 1
3
(Low
)
CO
FFEE
/ B
AN
AN
A
2
T
op S
oil
S
ub S
oil
pH
4
. 7
(
Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
4
. 7
(Ver
y st
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
6
(L
ow)
6
(
Low
) O
C %
0. 8
5
(L
ow)
1. 5
0
(
Med
ium
) A
vaila
ble
K
3
. 10
(V
ery
high
)
1. 9
0
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 1
5
(Low
)
0
. 27
(
Med
ium
)
WO
OD
LOTS
/ EU
CA
LYPT
US
(MIX
ED W
ITH
TR
AD
ITIO
NA
L TR
EES)
= 3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5.
2
(St
rong
ly a
cid)
5.
2
(
Stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
48
(H
igh)
2
8
(Hig
h)
C %
0. 5
0
(
Ver
y lo
w)
0. 4
0
(V
ery
low
) A
vaila
ble
K
3
. 75
(V
ery
high
)
1.
65
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 0
8
(Ver
y lo
w)
0
. 09
(Ver
y lo
w)
CA
SSA
VA
Low
er M
boko
mu
1
T
op S
oil
S
ub S
oil
pH
4.
8
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
5. 2
(Stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
10
(M
ediu
m)
1
26
(H
igh)
C
%
0. 8
5
(Low
)
1. 2
0
(Low
) A
vaila
ble
K
3. 2
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 1
0
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 2
2
(Med
ium
)
0. 1
4
(Low
)
CO
FFEE
/ M
AIZ
E
2
Top
Soi
l
Su
b So
il pH
6. 1
(Sl
ight
ly a
cid)
5.
0
(V
ery
stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
1
73
(
Hig
h)
85
(Hig
h)
C %
0. 6
5
(Lo
w)
0.
45
(L
ow)
Ava
ilabl
e K
3
. 55
(
Ver
y hi
gh)
1. 9
6
(Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 1
2
(Lo
w)
0.
08
(V
ery
low
)
BA
NA
NA
/ M
AIZ
E
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
31
3
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5. 4
(Stro
ngly
aci
d)
5
. 2
(Stro
ngly
aci
d)
Ava
ilabl
e P
1
10
(H
igh)
10
5
(
Hig
h)
C %
1. 3
0
(Med
ium
)
1
. 10
(Low
) A
vaila
ble
K
2.
95
(V
ery
high
)
1. 6
4
(V
ery
high
) To
tal N
%
0. 2
4
(Med
ium
)
0.
18
(Low
)
BA
NA
NA
/ C
ASS
AV
A
4
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5. 9
(M
oder
atel
y ac
id)
5
. 2
(St
rong
ly a
cid)
A
vaila
ble
P
109
(Hig
h)
8
4
(H
igh)
C
%
1.
30
(M
ediu
m)
1
. 05
(Lo
w)
Ava
ilabl
e K
2
. 94
(
Ver
y hi
gh)
2. 1
5 (
Ver
y hi
gh)
Tota
l N %
0. 2
4
(M
ediu
m)
0
. 19
(Lo
w)
GR
AZI
NG
LA
ND
5
Top
Soi
l
Sub
Soi
l pH
5. 7
(M
oder
atel
y ac
id)
5.
6
(Mod
erat
ely
acid
) A
vaila
ble
P
120
(Hig
h)
5
5
(H
igh)
C
%
0.
60
(L
ow)
0. 6
0 (
Low
) A
vaila
ble
K
2.
15
(V
ery
high
)
1. 3
0 (
Hig
h)
Tota
l N %
0.
11
(L
ow)
0. 1
1 (
Low
)
MA
IZE/
RIC
E
LUC
ID W
orki
ng P
aper
26
32