Implementing technology education in Finnish generaleducation schools: studying the cross-curricular theme‘Human being and technology’

Esa-Matti Jarvinen • Aki Rasinen

Accepted: 11 March 2014� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract In 2009 the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture assigned the National

Board of Education with the task of carrying out a nationwide evaluation of all seven cross-

curricular themes. The evaluation is one of the largest education evaluation projects the

National Board of Finland has ever organised. The present authors were invited to evaluate

the theme ‘‘Human Being and Technology’’. Data were collected during fall 2010 with

ninth-grade pupils (the last grade in Basic School) around Finland answering the ques-

tionnaires. The questionnaire was completed by 1,181 (both Finnish and Swedish speak-

ing) grade-nine pupils. The main focuses of the study are: (1) pupils’ knowledge about

technology, (2) pupils’ attitudes towards technology, and (3) pupils’ activity know-how of

technology. It seems that the development of technological ideas has not been imple-

mented at all in HBT cross-curricular teaching, even though this particular section of the

cross-curricular theme could have introduced something new and concrete that would steer

pupils towards innovativeness and creativity. Paying more attention to this aim would

better link visual art and craft education to this cross-curricular theme, particularly since it

is only in visual arts and craft studies that learning of innovation processes is given as one

of the learning objectives. It is particularly the contents of craft education that refer to the

learning of a technological innovation process. The attitudes of youth towards technology

and the development of technology were in line with the objectives of the national

framework curriculum, yet the wide-ranging utilization and application of technology,

let alone the further development of technology, has not been made possible, neither in this

particular cross-curricular theme nor in school routines. A positive observation, however,

was that the majority of young people understood the connection between technology and

manual skills.

E.-M. Jarvinen (&)University of Oulu, Oulu, Finlande-mail: Esa-Matti.Jarvinen@oulu.fi

A. RasinenUniversity of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finlande-mail: aki.rasinen@jyu.fi

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Int J Technol Des EducDOI 10.1007/s10798-014-9270-3

Keywords Technology education � Curriculum � Evaluation

Introduction

From the early 1970’s, Finland moved towards a policy of same type, basic education for all.

This policy signaled a move from two parallel educational pathways—the more academic and

the more practical—to a school system that embraced a ‘‘comprehensive school’’ approach to

education (Fig. 1). The purpose of this new policy was to give all children from grade 1 (age 7)

to grade 9 (age 16) equal educational opportunities, and to adopt an educational stance of

holistic learning. Holistic learning has been encouraged, for instance, by introducing cross-

curricular themes that should be considered while studying various subject areas and during

other school activities. The national framework curriculum (NFC) in Finland is revised in

10–15 year cycles. Schools and municipalities are expected to follow the guidelines of the

NFC when writing their own more specific curriculum. This mandate applies to all Finnish

schools, of which most are run by municipalities, and a few by private agencies and gov-

ernment. For the first time in the history of Finnish general education curriculum planning, the

2004 National Framework Curriculum (hereinafter NFC) introduced ‘‘Human Being and

Technology’’ as one of the seven cross-curricular themes. This is important to technology

education as this cross-curricular theme maintains a place for the study of technology in the

Finnish curriculum. However, implementation issues exist. First, no special time allowance

has ever been allocated for cross-curricular themes. Second, very little, if any, professional

development has been organized for teachers or principals with regard to pedagogical ways to

implement the cross-curricular themes. Third, even though local curricula are written fol-

lowing the national guidelines, in many cases, it is up to the municipality, school, or indi-

vidual teacher to study and interpret the new NFC.

Although the concept of technology was already mentioned in the 1985 NFC in con-

nection with craft (technical and textile), it was not defined, nor was it operationalized in

any manner. Furthermore, and most importantly, teachers were not obliged to teach it.

According to the current NFC, cross-curricular themes must be included in studies of

various subject areas. This means, then, that the teaching of technology has also become

obligatory. However, technology education still remains undefined to any depth, added to

which no special time allocation has been made for any cross-curricular theme. Schools are

simply expected to find ways of implementing the themes in their daily routines. As a

result of the Human Being and Technology cross-curricular theme remaining at a general

level, there has been ignorance and even misinterpretations of the contents and objectives

of technology education.

In 2009 the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture assigned the National Board of

Education with the task of carrying out a nationwide evaluation of all seven cross-cur-

ricular themes. The evaluation is one of the largest education evaluation projects the

National Board of Finland has ever organised. The present authors were invited to evaluate

the theme ‘‘Human Being and Technology’’. Data were collected during fall 2010 with

ninth-grade pupils (the last grade in Basic School) around Finland answering the ques-

tionnaires. The National Board of Education produced the questionnaires with relevant

instructions and during 2011 managed the data processing. In this study we describe the

implementation of the evaluation and its results, followed by discussion and some sug-

gestions for future curriculum development in Finland.

E.-M. Jarvinen, A. Rasinen

123

Structure and focus of the study

The aim of the study was to find out how the cross-curricular theme ‘‘Human Being and

Technology’’ has been implemented and realized in Finnish schools.

The main focuses of the study are:

(1) knowledge about technology,

(2) attitudes towards technology, and

(3) activity know-how of technology

In addition to the above focuses, the study also explored pupils’ views on the teaching

of the cross-curricular theme, an aspect which is kept in mind while introducing the

questionnaire and the results. The questionnaire was completed by 1,181 (both Finnish and

Swedish speaking) grade-nine pupils, with instructions given in either Finnish or Swedish

(Finland’s two official languages).

Objectives of the cross-curricular theme ‘Human Being and Technology’

The topic area to be studied under the heading ‘‘Human Being and Technology’’ (hereinafter

HBT) is the meaning of technology in our everyday lives and the dependency of human

beings on modern technology. This theme offers basic technology know-how, describes the

Fig. 1 Structure of the Finnish education system (http://www.oph.fi/english/education/overview_of_the_education_system)

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development of technology and its effects, and guides pupils to make reasonable choices and

to consider ethical, moral and equality questions related to technology. Teaching of this

theme should also improve their ability to understand how different devices, equipment and

machines work and their practical ability to use them (Opetushallitus 2004, pp. 42–43).

The specific aims are as follows:

A pupil will learn

• to understand technology, the development of technology and its impacts on different

fields of life, different sectors of society, and on the environment

• to use technology in a responsible and critical manner

• to use information technology equipment, programs and networks for different purposes

• to express one’s opinion concerning technological choices, and to consider the effects

of today’s technology decisions on the future

The core contents

• technology in everyday life, in society and in local trade and industry

• the development of technology and factors affecting the development in different

cultures and different fields of life during different eras

• the development, modeling, and assessing of technological ideas and the life-span of a

product

• the use of information and communication technology and information networks

• the ethical, moral, well-being and equality concerns related to technology, future

society and technology (Opetushallitus 2004, pp. 42–43).

Description of the questionnaire

The aim was to find out in which classes and in which contexts the pupils had studied

subject matter dealing with the HBT cross-curricular theme. An additional aim was to find

out if the pupils had studied technology in their daily school routines, outside school and at

home. In order to examine pupils’ learning related to the HBT cross-curricular theme

among 9th graders, we devised a questionnaire which we divided into three sections:

questions on pupils’ knowledge about technology, their attitudes towards technology and

their activity know-how of technology (how pupils considered they would be able to use,

apply, implement and develop technology). The questionnaire study was preceded by a

pre-test, the results of which determined the final questionnaire.

To orientate the pupils to the task in hand, a short definition was presented at the

beginning of the questionnaire.

The Human Being and Technology cross-curricular theme deals with the relationship

between human beings and technology in our everyday life. It studies, among other

things, the principles connected to technology, using technology and the applications

of technology in an individual’s life. All the technology around us is designed and

made by human beings. One important content area of learning is to give pupils

opportunities to develop technological ideas.

The questions and statements related to the HBT cross-curricular theme were derived from

the above definition. We utilized this particular research methodology because our interest

lay in the pupils’ views on the issue at hand. If observational or other qualitative methods

had been used while pupils were engaged in developing ideas, or solving and evaluating

technological problems, the study might have overemphasized the researcher’s viewpoint.

E.-M. Jarvinen, A. Rasinen

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Knowledge about technology

The knowledge section of the questionnaire contained 15 questions designed to measure

some of the issues central to understanding the human built environment. Some of the

questions, which comprised ‘right’/‘wrong’ statements, multiple-choice questions (some

with pictures) and one open-ended question, dealt with subject matter in the natural sci-

ences (e.g., electricity) while others related to various topical themes (e.g., recycling,

sustainable development).

In the first question the pupils had to choose from various alternatives those which they

regarded as technology. There were twelve options, eight of which were connected to

technology. A short definition worked as an introductory remark: ‘‘Technology can be

understood as the human built environment’’.

Ten of the questions consisted of statements, such as: ‘‘Technology has nothing to do

with sustainable development’’, ‘‘LED lighting consumes less power than a bulb (incan-

descent bulb)’’, ‘‘A paper bag is a more ecological choice than a plastic bag’’ and ‘‘Copper

is used as an insulator because it does not conduct electricity’’.

The knowledge section included three assignments using pictures. The first, which was

connected to the understanding of the concept of an electric circuit, was as follows: ‘‘Study

pictures A–G below. In which pictures does the bulb NOT light up? Tick the correct

choices.’’

The second pictorial assignment in the knowledge section involved identifying different

types of bridges. The respondent’s task was to identify the various types from three

pictures (as illustrated, the beam bridge, arch bridge and suspension bridge). Two addi-

tional options were offered (frame bridge and lattice bridge) where the correct response

was ‘‘none of the pictures’’.

The third pictorial assignment depicted an arch in which the respondent was supposed to

identify the keystone.

The pictorial question about the arch was a kind of introduction to the next question,

which was the last in the knowledge section and the only open-ended task. Respondents

were asked to explain what makes the arch a sturdy construction.

Fig. 2 The bulb picture assignment. In option d ‘kumi’ = eraser, g ‘suolavetta’ = salt water

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Attitudes towards technology

Attitudes towards technology-related issues were studied by means of 20 statements which

pupils assessed using a 5-step Likert scale (1 totally disagree… 5 totally agree).

This section looked at attitudes towards technology and opportunities for developing

technology, but it also included questions related to gender equality and sustainable

development. In designing the statements we took account of the objectives stated in the

NFC, according to which ‘‘this theme offers basic know-how about technology, the

development of technology and its effects, guides pupils to make reasonable choices and to

consider ethical, moral and equality questions related to technology’’. Attitudes were

regarded as positive if the students’ answers were in line with the NFC objectives. The

following are examples of the statements: ‘‘Technology improves the quality of life’’,

‘‘Technology can assist in improving sustainable development’’, ‘‘I can affect the direction

of the development of technology through my choices’’, ‘‘I try to avoid everything that is

connected to technology’’, ‘‘Men are better developers of technology than women’’. The

structure of attitudes was studied by factorial analysis.

Activity know-how of technology

There were 15 questions dealing with activity know-how of technology, of which 14 were

statements with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer dealing with both modern technology (including, for

example, social media, ICT, consumer electronics) and more traditional themes to do with

manual skills. One of the statements referred to the use of various tools: ‘‘I have learnt to use

various tools’’. Eight separate tools (a drill, soldering iron, hammer, saw, battery-driven drill,

Fig. 3 Bridges assignment

Fig. 4 Arch and keystone

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pincers, screwdriver and sewing machine) were presented, and in each case respondents said

whether they had (‘yes’) or had not (‘no’) learnt to use the tool. Examples of the other

statements are: ‘‘I have developed technological ideas’’, ‘‘I know how to upload videos onto

YouTube’’, I know how to load and start a dishwashing machine’’, ‘‘I know how to repair a

flat tyre on a bicycle’’ and ‘‘I know how to adjust the clock on a DVD player’’.

In the single open-ended assignment pupils were asked to think up as many new uses for

a clothes peg as possible. The aim of this part was to give respondents a chance to apply

their creativity and inventiveness. One of the objectives of this particular cross-curricular

theme is the ‘‘development of technological ideas’’ and, accordingly, pupils should be

given opportunities for technological creativity and for identifying and solving problems.

Results

Knowledge of technology

In this context, the notion of ‘having good knowledge’ was regarded as knowing discrete

information, and a. deeper understanding or ability to define complex concepts and phe-

nomena was not demanded.

The knowledge section question by question:

What is technology?

For most of the pupils (62 %), only traffic lights, a mobile phone, the internet and an airplane

were technology, a result which emerged despite the introduction to this question, which defined

technology as ‘‘the environment built by human beings to satisfy their needs and wants’’.

Only 16 % of the respondents also considered rubber boots, a chair, outdoor clothing

and a tent as technology. The understanding that pupils have of what technology is, is in

line with the general narrow understanding of technology as something related only to

information and communication technology. The result corresponded to studies conducted

in the USA (e.g., Dugger 2010, p. 36). Similarly, the analysis of the curricula of 50

municipalities (which are responsible for about 400 schools) carried out by Rasinen et al.

(2008, p. 31) reveals the same narrow interpretation of technology.

Matters clearly to do with the natural environment (not man-made) were understood as not

belonging to technology. At a general level, therefore, there seems to be a distinction between the

human built and natural environment, something reflected in Finnish primary stage natural

science learning materials, which divide the environment into the natural and built environment.

Developing technology, sustainable development and manual skills

91 % of the pupils were of the opinion that technology and sustainable development are

interconnected, and their responses to questions dealing with ecology, sustainable devel-

opment and energy showed that young people are well aware of these matters. Similarly,

Dakers and Dow (2009, pp. 386–387) found that girls considered ethics to be an important

part of technology education.

The young respondents also felt that ‘‘an ordinary citizen’’ can affect the direction of tech-

nology’s development, i.e., it is not only decided in the R&D departments of big companies.

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Youth feels that it can have an influence on the development of technology and this view was

shared by almost 90 % of the respondents. This attitude is well in line with the cross-curricular

theme: first comes the human being and then the technology developed by the human being.

It is also worth noting that technology is not regarded as some big polluting ‘‘bogey-

man’’ which destroys the environment. According to Virtanen (2011, pp. 395–396) girls

were statistically significantly more motivated to ‘‘learn how to protect nature’’ and ‘‘find

solutions for keeping the environment tidy’’.

Of the respondents 90 % regarded manual skills and technology as interrelated. An

analysis of the NFC (Rasinen et al. 2008, p. 31) shows that there are few references to

technology education in the contents and objectives of science but considerably many in

craft (particularly in technical work). In this respect it seems that the understanding of the

pupils is in line with the curriculum objectives. In many countries (e.g., Australia, England,

New Zealand and the United States) the craft curriculum has been developed in the

direction of technology education (Rasinen 2000).

Open and closed circuit

The concept of open and closed circuit proved to be quite difficult to understand. 57 % of

the pupils thought that the torch does not light up when the electric circuit is closed. This

result demonstrates the contradiction between the definition of the electric circuit and daily

life experiences.

Parikka (2010, pp. 48–53) writes:

A good example of a contradiction between the facts and everyday experiences is the

interpretation of the concept of an open and closed electric circuit in terms of the

everyday life experiences of the pupils. If an electric circuit is open (in electrical

terminology), there is no electric current flowing. In everyday life if a door is open

[and in Finnish a radio, TV and tap are also ‘open’, or turned on], it means human

beings, sound, picture and water, for instance, have unrestricted flow. Closed in sci-

entific terms means that the electric circuit has been switched on and there is electricity

flow… In everyday life closed, in turn, means that flow has been restricted.

Pirttimaa (2008) also observed similar effects of everyday life in his study where none of

the pupils were able to explain the closed circuit properly.

From the pictorial presentation (Fig. 2) some two-thirds of the respondents had

understood the principle of the electric circuit and conductor (cf. Vaara 2008). A pictorial

presentation was more easily understood than a verbal one (‘‘When the torch does not light

up the electric circuit is closed’’) (Parikka 2010, Pirttimaa 2008).

Over 70 % of the respondents had correctly understood points A, B and C in Fig. 2 (A 73 %,

B 80 %, C 68 %). That rubber is an effective insulator which does not conduct electrical current

had been understood by 84 %. It is slightly surprising that only 64 % of the respondents knew

that in item F the bulb does not light up. Although the salinity of the water and the voltage of the

power supply was not defined, 64 % of the pupils understood the connection between salt water

and electric current. The results indicate that using only pictures A, B and C would have been a

better measure (alfa 0.69) than using all (A–G) of the pictures (alfa 0.62).

It seems that young people have quite a good command of the theory of electricity. On the

other hand, only 73 % of the pupils knew the standard voltage used in Finnish homes and

29 % of the pupils claimed copper to be an insulator. This information should be familiar

from physics lessons, for instance. It was also interesting to note that 28 % of the respondents

connected the principle of the vibration alarm in a mobile phone to infra-red radiation.

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Bridges

In the bridges assignment (Fig. 3) the arched bridge was easiest to identify (87 %), the

beam bridge was identified by 80 % and the suspension bridge by only 53 % of all

respondents. One of the reasons explaining non-recognition of the suspension bridge may

well be the Finnish name for this type of bridge. Similarly, pupils may well find it difficult

to realize that the actual part of the bridge meant for cars or pedestrians is hanging from

cables strung across the pylons. 68 % of the pupils knew that none of the pictures showed a

lattice bridge while 60 % realized the pictures did not include a frame bridge.

Arch

The keystone in the arch (Fig. 4) was identified by 96 % of respondents. This can be

regarded as an excellent result. The keystone was quite prominently displayed, which may

have helped in figuring out the correct answer. Recognizing the keystone, however, did not

necessarily mean that the respondents had understood the meaning of the keystone as an

important part of the structure.

The answers to the open-ended question indicate that both Finnish and Swedish

speaking pupils had understood the idea of the sturdy construction of the arch. Even though

the pupils used their own terminology—for example, they refer to the wedge shape of the

stones—when explaining the construction, it was evident that they had understood the

essence of the question. McCormick (1997), Twyford and Jarvinen (2000) and Dakers and

Dow (2009) have found similar results with participants demonstrating understanding of

the phenomena yet without using the correct professional or academic terminology.

Examples of pupils’ answers:

‘‘The pieces have no room to move down’’

‘‘The stones have been ground at an angle and fit together nicely’’

‘‘The stones interlock tightly because of their shape’’

‘‘The energy which forces the stones down travels downwards via the upper stone’’

‘‘The wedge-shape of the pieces—they cannot slip out’’

‘‘The stones cannot drop down from between each other’’

‘‘The wedge construction and shape of the pieces, the pieces cannot move’’

‘‘Because of the angles on the edges of the stones the stones are locked and the weight is

well balanced’’

This assignment gives some added value to the bridge and keystone questions by giving

us a glimpse into pupils’ understanding of the basics of sturdy construction.

In the knowledge section boys managed statistically significantly much better and

Finnish speaking pupils performed statistically significantly better than Swedish speaking

pupils. There were no differences between municipalities and provinces, although pupils in

the former Oulu province performed best.

Attitudes towards technology

Generally speaking, the pupils had a reasonably positive attitude towards technology. The

meaning of ‘positive attitude’ is explained earlier in the introduction to the questionnaire.

Examples of this include their positive impression that technology improves the quality of

life, it can be used to promote sustainable development and it serves human beings. It is also

notable that more than 80 % of the pupils do not try to avoid technology in their lives.

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Only 2 % fully agreed and 6 % agreed with the statement that ‘‘technological devel-

opment has now reached its peak’’. Youth does not think that technological development

has ceased and neither do they think that there are too many functions on mobile phones.

This observation offers an interesting viewpoint on the development of technology: the

human built environment can and must be developed. The objective of the HBT cross-

curricular theme, ‘‘developing technological ideas, modeling, assessing and the life cycle

of artifacts’’ also points in this direction. Young people have a clear picture of a world that

is not yet ready. They also clearly disagreed with the statement ‘‘technology is developed

by engineers only’’ (fully agreed 2 % and agreed 9 %). However, only 2 % fully agreed

and 9 % agreed with the statement ‘‘I am a good developer of technology’’. It seems that

young people do not believe in their own capabilities as developers of technology.

From the gender equality point of view it is interesting to note that about half of the

respondents regarded men as not being better developers of technology than women,

although about one-third were unable to express an opinion. Slightly less than one-fifth of

the respondents considered men better developers of technology than women.

Attitude factors

Four factors were formed on the basis of the attitude section:

F1 Positive attitude towards technology (alpha 0.82)

F2 Cautious attitude towards technology (alpha 0.66)

F3 Activity as a developer and user of technology (alpha 0.81)

F4 Conception of technology as a male issue (alpha 0.74)

Attitudes by gender, language group and region

A positive attitude towards technology was the most dominant factor. Girls and boys differ to a

statistically extremely significant extent in their attitudes towards technology. Although the

mean values on the scale 1–5 are not large, they are statistically extremely significant in that

boys always have a more positive attitude and girls’ attitudes are more cautious. Rasinen et al.

(2009) have presented results which are in line with the present study (Figs. 5, 6).

Fig. 5 Attitude factors by gender

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Although girls’ attitudes towards technology are more cautious than boys’ (factor F2),

this factor was less dominant than the other three factors (alpha 0.66). A statistically

significant difference between the language groups can only be found in factor F4:

‘‘Technology as a male issue’’.

There is no significant difference between the various types of municipalities and provinces.

When examining girls’ and boys’ results by type of municipality, an almost significant dif-

ference can be found in factor F4 (technology as a male issue) between boys in rural and urban

municipalities. In factor F1 (positive attitude towards technology) and in F3 (activity as a user

and developer of technology) an almost significant difference exists between boys in Lapland

and Southern Finland. There is a similar difference in the mean values between boys in Lapland

and Oulu Province. However, the numbers are too low to show a statistically valid difference

(Figs. 7, 8).

Fig. 6 Attitude factors by language group

Fig. 7 Boys’ attitude factors in urban, densely populated and rural municipalities

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Young people’s attitudes towards technology have been widely studied internationally,

for example in PATT studies (www.iteea.org/Conference/pattproceedings.htm). Even

though the attitudes section of the HBT evaluation is considerably smaller (both in terms of

participants and scope of the questionnaire), some similar trends can be found in results.

Activity know-how of technology

When interpreting the results of the activity know-how section, it has to be noted that

pupils’ answers represent their own assessment of their know-how. It was not possible to

study the actual level of activity know-how in this study.

The statements

Analysis of the statements shows in general terms that the pupils have diverse and versatile

skills in both traditional and modern technology. Most of them stated that they were able to

use basic tools, for example a drill (88 %), a screwdriver (98 %), a hammer (99 %) and a

saw (99 %). 90 % of the respondents claimed to be able to use a battery-run drill and 91 %

a sewing machine. On the other hand, it seems most pupils have not learned to solder since

only 58 % claimed to know how. It was also surprising that only 57 % of the respondents

claimed to know how to use pincers.

As active users of ICT and social media young people were, as predicted, very active

and competent operators. For instance, 71 % of the pupils claimed to know how to upload

videos onto YouTube, 88 % how to use a digital video camera and 60 % how to edit videos

on a computer. 99 % knew how to change the SIM card on a mobile phone. 82 % of the

pupils declared themselves to be users of Facebook, Twitter and such like. In contrast, the

results show that only 57 % of the pupils would be able to repair a flat tyre on a bicycle.

Fig. 8 Girls’ attitude factors in urban, densely populated and rural municipalities

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It is particularly interesting to note that only 21 % of the pupils admit to having

‘‘developed technological ideas’’ and only 11 % to having ‘‘made applications of the

technological ideas developed by themselves’’. The results are in line with similar ques-

tions dealing with attitudes (see the section on attitudes above). It seems that although the

pupils believe that technology will not only be developed by engineers, they do not feel

themselves to be active agents in technological processes. According to the HBT cross-

curricular theme, however, pupils are to be encouraged to undertake this type of activity.

Several uses for a clothes peg

The last assignment in the activity know-how section was to think up as many different

uses as possible for a clothes peg. This task is connected to one of the objectives of the

HBT cross-curricular theme: ‘‘developing technological ideas, modeling, assessing and the

life cycle of artifacts’’. The definition presented at the beginning of the questionnaire

emphasized the importance of this objective as one of the central issues of the cross-

curricular theme. It is, however, evident that this assignment alone could not exhaustively

measure whether the relevant objective and subject matter had been taken into account in

teaching or not. Given the opportunity, pupils can develop a whole variety of uses for a

clothes peg even if they have not been encouraged in this type of ideational activity at

school. The answers bring some added value to the study, even though they cannot be

regarded as central findings. Additionally, to supplement the clothes peg task, other

qualitative study methods should be included, for instance observing pupils while they are

solving practical problems with the help of a clothes peg.

In spite of the preceding critical words, this assignment was included in order to

emphasize the objectives of developing technological ideas. In fact, pupils came up with a

diverse range of possible uses and applications for a clothes peg and the results say

something about the enthusiasm, joy, inventiveness, creativity and divergent thinking of

young people.(Feldman 1993). Responses were similar among both Finnish speaking and

Swedish speaking youth.

Examples of the pupils’ ideas:

‘‘Hanging up curtains, picking up things from the ground without getting your fingers

dirty’’

‘‘Preventing smells’’ (this came up very frequently)

‘‘Hanging up dry clothes’’

‘‘As a barrette or hair slide, hanging things up, as a key holder’’

‘‘As a cigarette holder, to prevent the fingers smelling’’

‘‘To close a coffee (or any other) bag tightly, to hold the cables of a computer’’

‘‘As a toy crocodile’’

‘‘To fix photos, cards, etc. on the wall’’

There is an interesting contradiction between this assignment and some of the activity

know-how and attitude questions. A considerable number of the pupils did not feel that

they had been active developers of technology or technological ideas, neither did they

claim to have made technological applications of the ideas developed by themselves. In

other words, it seems that the pupils did not regard the clothes peg assignment as having

any connection with the development of technological ideas. We once again encounter the

same problem as earlier in defining technology: the clothes peg is not considered to be a

part of technology in any shape or form.

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Activity know-how by gender and language group

On the basis of the data collected it seems that boys are clearly more active developers of

technological ideas than girls. 29 % of boys and only 12 % of girls declared that they had

developed technological ideas, with 17 % of boys and 12 % of girls reporting that they had

made applications from their ideas. This indicates that all pupils should be encouraged in

the development of technological ideas, particularly girls.

The use of various tools seems to suggest that craft education still segregates girls and

boys. Generally speaking, girls are not familiar with the tools used during technical

handicraft lessons. For example, 98 % of boys report that they know how to use a drill, the

corresponding figure for girls is 78 %. The equivalent figures for a battery-driven drill are

97 % and 82 %, for pincers.76 % and 36 %, and for a soldering iron. 88 % and a

noticeably lower 26 % for girls. An interesting and pleasing exception is in the use of a

hammer: 100 % of girls say they are able to use a hammer, but ‘‘only’’ 99 % of boys.

Although a bicycle is probably used equally by girls and boys, there was a difference in the

number claiming to be able to mend a flat tyre: 81 % of boys but only 31 % of girls.

Examination of the techniques connected to textile work show that the same trend towards

segregation continues: girls (95 %) are better users of a sewing machine than boys (65 %).

Girls (87 %) are more active users of the social media (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) than

boys (77 %). 86 % of boys and 56 % of girls claim to be able to upload videos onto

YouTube, and 71 % of boys and 50 % of girls know how to edit videos. There were no

significant differences between boys and girls in knowing how to load and turn on a

dishwasher and changing the SIM card on a mobile phone.

Pupils’ views on the teaching of the cross-curricular theme

The data indicated that the pupils consider that they have mainly studied HBT-related

matters during regular classes (88 % of respondents). It seems that in this respect the idea

of studying cross-curricular themes during normal lessons has been realized. A slightly

different viewpoint is revealed by the fact that 70 % of the respondents say that they have

studied technology-related issues outside school, with as many as 75 % saying they have

studied such issues at home. The ideal situation would be for schools and the surrounding

society to consciously educate pupils in a coordinated and purposeful way in pursuit of the

same objectives. Or is it more a matter of school not offering much more education in this

field than homes and surrounding society? If this is the case, school education does not

bring any added value to the life of young people, not at least in this respect.

Just less than half (47 %) of the pupils feel that they have studied the HBT cross-

curricular theme as shared teaching in various subject areas. Only slightly more than one-

fourth (29 %) feel that the cross-curricular theme has been ‘‘included in joint events such

as assemblies’’. Slightly more than half (54 %) think that the cross-curricular theme has

been visible in school routines. The results are not very encouraging and clearly the theme

should also be more conspicuously present in these school activities. According to the

Framework Curriculum, cross-curricular themes should also be integrated into optional

studies as well as joint events (assemblies, festivities, etc.) and ‘‘they are to be manifest in

the schools’ operational culture’’.

The results seem to indicate the difficulty of integrating learning into the school’s

operational culture and other school events, rather than only into subject teaching. There is

still considerable work to do in developing schools towards a more holistic learning

environment (Fig. 9).

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Some observations on achieving the objectives of the cross-curricular topic

A central role in achieving the cognitive objectives of the HBT cross-curricular theme is

played by the content matter taught in various classes. Mathematics and science make an

important contribution, for instance with regard to subject matter in electricity and

electronics. An analysis of the NFC (Rasinen et al. 2008) indicates that references to

technology are infrequent in physics contents and objectives, but are particularly

numerous in craft (especially technical craft). The visual arts curriculum refers to

learning innovative skills, but in the objectives and contents of other subject areas there

are no references to technology or learning of innovativeness. The results of the study

show that pupils understand the connection between manual skills and technology with

as many as 90 % of respondents perceiving this relationship. In the study of technology,

learning by doing cannot and should not be avoided. It is a central method of learning and

in this respect pupils seem to strongly agree. The objectives to do with linking manual

skills and technology presented in the curriculum seem to have been achieved, at least to

some extent.

The results reveal that young people have a clearly positive attitude towards technology

(factor F1), which, however, does not mean that their attitudes are unreserved and

uncritical (factor F2). Most of them seem to weigh up the ethical, moral and equality issues

connected to technology. They also tend to pay attention to the responsible use of tech-

nology and sensible choices, seeing technology and sustainable development as inter-

connected. These observations are in line with the objectives and contents of the cross-

curricular topic concerned. Young people’s attitudes indeed paint an optimistic picture of

the future since there will be a need for citizens who have a positive attitude towards

technology, but who are also able to constructively criticize technology and act and make

choices accordingly.

As far as developing technological ideas, modeling and studying the life-span of arti-

facts is concerned, the curricular objectives have barely been achieved. Even though the

majority of young people think that it is not only engineers who develop technology and

despite being inspired by the ‘‘clothes peg’’ assignment to come up with ideas, they felt

that they had not developed technology or technological applications. The objectives of the

HBT cross-curricular theme, however, suggest that pupils should have been offered these

types of opportunities.

Fig. 9 The places where technology is learnt by gender

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Limitations of the study

The number of respondents in the questionnaire study was 1,181 9th graders from both

Finnish speaking and Swedish speaking schools. The results of the study can be regarded

as reliable, but their reliability is restricted to this group of respondents. Even though the

rather large number of respondents adds to the reliability of the results, supportive methods

could have been implemented. In investigating the knowledge, attitudes and activity know-

how of the pupils another type of research method could also have been used. Observation

would be an effective way of validating the findings, particularly when ascertaining

whether students have a deep knowledge or if they really master a certain skill. The

selected methods, however, resulted from National Board of Education procedures and the

large number of participants answering the questionnaire. Moreover, due to the practices of

National Board of Education, all the schools and respondents participating were anony-

mous to the authors.

Assessing one’s personal achievement on a Likert scale is always a certain kind of value

statement. If assessments were made by an external observer the scaling would obviously

be more reliable, but this would have required more human resources for data collection.

Conclusions and suggestions for development

As stated above, it seems that the development of technological ideas has not been

implemented at all in HBT cross-curricular teaching, even though this particular section of

the cross-curricular theme could have introduced something new and concrete that would

steer pupils towards innovativeness and creativity. Paying more attention to this aim would

better link visual art and craft education to this cross-curricular theme, particularly since it

is only in visual arts and craft studies that learning of innovation processes is given as one

of the learning objectives. It is particularly the contents of craft education that refer to the

learning of a technological innovation process (Rasinen et al. 2009). The attitudes of youth

towards technology and the development of technology were in line with the objectives of

the NFC, yet the wide-ranging utilization and application of technology, let alone the

further development of technology, has not been made possible, neither in this particular

cross-curricular theme nor in school routines. A positive observation, however, was that

the majority of young people understood the connection between technology and manual

skills.

The cross-curricular themes have also been studied from the perspective of teachers

and principals. The teachers felt that cross-curricular themes are discrete and disconnected

but their contents are important (Sulonen et al. 2010), as Korkeakoski and Siekkinen

(2010, p. 9) also note: ‘‘it makes good pedagogical sense to cross subject boundaries and

construct meaningful content entities’’. One of the central needs for development is to

improve the pedagogical functionality of the cross-curricular themes and to clarify their

status.

Korkeakoski and Siekkinen (2010, p. 55) also mention that: ‘‘When the municipalities

and schools were asked what were the most difficult issues to apply in local curriculum

planning, the answer was: the cross-curricular themes.’’ One-third of the respondents

wanted to have more information on how to teach the cross-curricular themes and how to

make learning and teaching more holistic. This is a powerful message to be heeded in

drawing up the future NFC. On the other hand, teachers should also be obliged to pay

attention to the cross-curricular themes in their daily routines, something which could be

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aided, for instance, by assessing achievement in the cross-curricular themes. It is also

essential to provide updating training for teachers by giving them concrete ideas and

learning materials for their daily routines, which would assist in implementing the

objectives and contents of the curriculum. According to Sulonen et al. (2010) the principals

felt that the status of skill-based and arts subjects as well as that of cross-curricular themes

should be enhanced. The pupils, in turn, considered that there should be more time for

skill-based and art subjects and more opportunities for optional studies. Also Korkeakoski

and Siekkinen (2010, p. 9) note that more time needs to be allocated to skill-based and art

studies.

Not really anywhere in the objectives and contents of the cross-curricular theme is much

emphasis placed on the application of know-how. If know-how is applied, it becomes more

meaningful and better relates to people’s everyday lives. It also has more practical value.

Through functional learning experiences know-how can be applied and it becomes

meaningful—it is conceptualized, it is understood. In technology and its development

applied know-how has an essential relevance. This observation, together with learning by

doing, brings to technology education a pedagogical approach oriented to active doing and

making—the very substance of technology education.

The fact that technology was not defined in the NFC affected the interpretation of the

objectives and contents of the HBT cross-curricular theme. In spite of having a positive

attitude towards technology, young people have quite a narrow understanding of it, mainly

as a subject area connected to ICT. Even the introductory note in the questionnaire,

‘‘technology can be understood as human built environment’’, did not change this narrow

view of technology. In forthcoming NFC it will be essential to define the concept of

technology and to note that learning by doing and supporting the technological ideation

processes of children must play a central role. In addition, one of the learning objectives

should be identifying and solving problems, a view which is also in line with international

interpretations of technology education. Among others, Layton (1993) has written about

technological problem solving, especially in technology education. Problem solving starts

with identifying a flaw or need in the built environment. Although it is important to prepare

pupils to understand the human built environment and the core principles linked to its

functioning, it is even more important to give the pupils opportunities to plan, develop and

apply technology in a creative and innovative manner (Jarvinen 2006, pp. 32–35). When

planning the new curriculum it would be worthwhile to take account of these views and

important to define them clearly so as to avoid any chance of misinterpretation.

Several articles dealing with technology education offer suggestions on how to organize

technology education. Co-operation between various subject areas is regarded as impor-

tant, but other worthwhile options include establishing a new subject area or developing

craft education in the direction of technology education (UPDATE Final Report 2010,

Segregaation lieventamistyoryhman loppuraportti [Final report of the work group on the

alleviation of segregation] 2010).

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