Implications of automation and collaboration in cockpit operations: the road towards reduced crew operations
Philippe Palanque - Professor University Toulouse III, France -
• Usability Body of Knowledge : Function allocation (also known as task allocation) is a classic human factors method for deciding whether a particular function will be accomplished by a person, technology (hardware or software) or some mix of person and technology. To do this, the investigator considers error rates, fatigue, costs, hazards, technological feasibility, human values, ethical issues, and the desire of people to perform the function.
The issue of function allocation
Jordan, N. (1963). Allocation of functions between man and machines in automated systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 47, 161-165.
• Usability Body of Knowledge : Function allocation (also known as task allocation) is a classic human factors method for deciding whether a particular function will be accomplished by a person, technology (hardware or software) or some mix of person and technology. To do this, the investigator considers error rates, fatigue, costs, hazards, technological feasibility, human values, ethical issues, and the desire of people to perform the function.
The issue of function allocation
Jordan, N. (1963). Allocation of functions between man and machines in automated systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 47, 161-165.
• Usability Body of Knowledge • Function allocation (also known as task
allocation) is a classic human factors method for deciding whether a particular function will be accomplished by a person, technology (hardware or software) or some mix of person and technology. To do this, the investigator considers error rates, fatigue, costs, hazards, technological feasibility, human values, ethical issues, and the desire of people to perform the function.
The issue of function allocation
Jordan, N. (1963). Allocation of functions between man and machines in automated systems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 47, 161-165.
Function = task Entity = human/machine able to
execute a task Execution = input-output / analysis
/ edcision / execution
• There are many ways to allocate functions – Allocate to systems (automation) – Allocate to operators (collaboration) – Allocate to both operators and systems (groupware)
• Issues to be addressed – Satic versus dynamic allocation – Local versus remote (processing power) – Synchronous versus asynchronous (communication) – Mutual awareness – Authority sharing (static versus dynamic) – Faillures
• Human errors • System faults and failures
However …
• Automation is only one way • Collaborative systems is "another" one
studied in the reserach domain called CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperative Work)
Automation versus Groupware
Group tasks
7
McGrath J. E. Groups: Interaction and Performance. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1984.
Aspects of cooperation
8
Ellis C. A., Gibbs S. J., Rein G., Groupware: some issues and experiences, Communications of the ACM, v.34 n.1, p.39-58, Jan. 1991.
Group activities
10
Calvary, G., Coutaz, J., Nigay, L. From single-user architectural design to PAC*: a generic software architecture model for CSCW. In Proc. of CHI '97. ACM, NY, USA, 242-249.
11
The functional clover
Production Communication
Coordination
(Salber et al., 95)
1. Services offerts
7 design considerations for Collaborative Visual Analytics (Heer & Agrawala, 2007)
• Division and allocation of work • Common ground (experience, common knowledge)
and Awareness • Reference and deixis • Incentive and engagement • Identity, trust and reputation • Group dynamics • Consensus and decision making
12
Human-Computer Interaction issues • Usability (performance, effectiveness, satisfaction) • Interaction techniques • Awareness versus privacy
– WYSIWIS – Portholes – Filtering
Mark Stefik, Daniel G. Bobrow, Gregg Foster, Stan Lanning, Deborah G. Tatar: WYSIWIS Revised: Early Experiences with Multiuser Interfaces. ACM Trans. Inf. Syst. 5(2): 147-167 (1987)
Jun Rekimoto: Pick-and-Drop: A Direct Manipulation Technique for Multiple Computer Environments. ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology 1997: 31-39
Joëlle Coutaz, François Bérard, E. Carraux, James L. Crowley: Early Experience with the Mediaspace CoMedi. EHCI 1998: 57-72
14
Shared workspaces
Integration by… Metaphors (rooms):
TeamRooms (Greenberg, 96)
fusion of video communication and shared editing Clearboard (ishii, 92)
1. Services offerts
15
Shared workspaces
Integration by… Metaphors (rooms):
TeamRooms (Greenberg, 96)
fusion of video communication and shared editing Clearboard (ishii, 92)
1. Services offerts
17
Coordination on an ATC workstation
• The paper strip is a coordination tool
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Coordination on an ATC workstation
2. Coordination
• Conventions – Paper strips positioning – Colors
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Coordination on an ATC workstation
• Social norms – “information waving”
DU: Display Unit
KCCU: Keyboard and Cursor Control Unit
CDS : Control and Display System Standard ARINC 661 Specification
A380 Cockpit
Distributed Cognition ? Collaborative System ?
Cooperation and function allocation ?
No! Dependability!
Fault Prevention/avoidance, Fault Tolerance, Fault Forecasting, fault
Recovery
Faults and Failures
Adapted from: Avizienis, A., Laprie, J.-C., Randell, B., Landwehr, C. Basic concepts and taxonomy of dependable and secure computing. In IEEE Trans. on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol.1, no.1, pp. 11- 33, Jan.-March 2004
Security
Adapted from: Avizienis, A., Laprie, J.-C., Randell, B., Landwehr, C. Basic concepts and taxonomy of dependable and secure computing. In IEEE Trans. on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol.1, no.1, pp. 11- 33, Jan.-March 2004
Security
Reliability
Security
Reliability Fault Tolerance
Security
Reliability Fault Tolerance
Usability & UX
Security
Reliability Fault Tolerance
Usability & UX
Reducing Flying Crew
• New actors • New tasks (empty the dishwasher) • New interfaces • New rules and regulations • New communication media • New training • New failures
Reducing Flying Crew
• New actors • New tasks (empty the dishwasher) • New interfaces • New rules and regulations • New communication media • New training • New failures
Reducing Flying Crew
• New actors • New tasks (empty the dishwasher) • New interfaces • New rules and regulations • New communication media • New training • New failures
Automation Problem(s)
1. How are the autonomous entities represented in the user interface?
2. How (in general) to design interfaces that enable the control of semi-autonomous objects?
3. How to – Design, – Develop, – Specify – Evaluate user interfaces/interaction for CCS
Challenge for Automation in Safety-Critical Systems
– Analysis of the current context of the operations, – Identification plans – Decide for plan – Input the plan – Trigger supervisory system to execute plan – Follow the execution of the plan (current
execution and future execution) – Interrupt plan – Modify plan
Solutions Needed
• Operator as automation overseer • Problem: how to come back to low tactical level
(e.g. in case of system failure or degradation)
• How is the operator able to identify new plans or modifications?
• How is s/he able to build new plans or configurations?
• How to assess beforehand the impact of potential new plans or configurations?
• How to interact with current configuration?
Solutions Needed
• Operator as automation overseer • Problem: how to come back to low tactical level
(e.g. in case of system failure or degradation)
• How is the operator able to identify new plans or modifications?
• How is s/he able to build new plans or configurations?
• How to assess beforehand the impact of potential new plans or configurations?
• How to interact with current configuration?
Regina Bernhaupt, Guy A. Boy, Michael Feary, Philippe A. Palanque: Engineering automation in interactive critical systems. CHI Extended Abstracts 2011: 69-72
New User Interfaces Accessible
Apple strategy iPhone, iPad, iWatch
Apple strategy iPhone, iPad, iWatch
The road to hell is paved with the head of people
with good intentions Regina Bernhaupt, Guy A. Boy, Michael Feary, Philippe A. Palanque: Engineering automation in interactive critical systems. CHI Extended Abstracts 2011: 69-72
Alighieri, Dante. Divina Commedia 1307-1321
44
Thank You for Your Attention “L’enfer c’est les autres – Hell is other people” – Jean Paul Sartre Nobel Prize in Literature, 1964
Examples
Introduction
Initial Concepts
Paradigm Shift to Higher Automation Levels
Research directions • Roles assignement • Metaphors issues • Design issues • Implementation issues • Dependability and Usability
Initial Concepts
AUTOMATION IS ABOUT…
HUMAN VS. MACHINE
(Replacement)
HUMAN -MACHINE
COOPERATION(Team)
ATM
Flight Trajectories Manageme
nt
Automation
Improvement of Processes through the
use of Technology
ATM is just “all management activities devoted to reach an efficient flight trajectory for all airspace users”
Thus automation must be understood in this context as a “tool used to improve ATM related processes through the use of technology
• Counting minutes, second and hours difficult for human – Especially when they sleep
• A watch is of great help for that – Is this automation of a human task (no
human has been doing that – counting springs, using sun, …)
– Is this an autonomous entity
Clock exampl e
• Counting minutes, second and hours difficult for human – Especially when they sleep
• A watch is of great help for that – Is this automation of a human task (no
human has been doing that – counting springs, using sun, …)
– Is this an autonomous entity
Clock exampl e
The Paradigm Shift
Shift from a controller-based system towards a more distributed system.
Shift from Tactical Management towards a more Proactive system.
Shift from Airspace – Based operation towards a Trajectory – Based operation concept.
SESAR will help create a paradigm shift
1
2
3
Roles Assignment
w role assignment based on :
First dimension “BEST TIME” for decision making:
Strategic vs. tactical planning layer
Second dimension “DECISION PLACE”:
Controlled vs. autonomy.
Third dimension “BEST PLAYER”:
Human vs. automated player.
Considering that the overall system performance is taken as the main driver to decide when the decision or event should be initiated: Will the overall system maintain the required stability under the decided
“best time”? This is important, because in an evolving ATM system during the various stages of the planning, buffers and feedback loops are necessary to react on unexpected changes.
• What is the impact of uncertainties in a system when most decisions are taken a long time in advance? E.g. how can this system react on a late passenger? Would it become mandatory to act like those airlines which “won’t wait, if you’re late”?
• How can an adaptive system be designed where the degree of strategic decisions can be chosen, e.g. depending on uncertainty and/or others factors?
• Do the greater number of functions allocated at strategic planning layers imply more complex and rigid operational scenarios?
• Can ATM system deliver required safety and efficient when most of decisions are allocated at tactical level?
Best Decision Time (timetable)
Best Decision Place (centric vs autonomous)
Considering that the overall system performance is taken as the main driver to decide where the decision or event should be initiated : • What is the level of correlation between complexity and centric
processes?
• What is the level of correlation between autonomy and centric process?
• To what extend are segregated airspace structures the solution to the questions of where and when to implement autonomy?
• Do tactical decisions imply autonomous and fully automated processes?
• Is high traffic density/complexity a key factor limiting autonomy?
• In which scenario (centric or autonomous) will automation provide higher overall system performance?
• Does strategic decision making imply centric scenarios?
Best Decision Player (human vs sytem)
Considering that the overall system performance is taken as the main driver to decide where the decision or event should be initiated: • Should trajectory management (e.g. Trajectory deconfliction, even tactical
decisions) be fully automated?
• To what extent do strategic decisions require human intervention?
• How can uncertainty be managed in automated systems?
• Are the current frameworks for automation, cognition and human factors enough to capture ATM singularities?
• Is a fully automated air transport system socially/psychologically acceptable?
• Can the ATM system be decomplexified through automation?
• How to deal with transition issues when implementing higher levels of automation?
• How can resilience be taken into account in automated systems design?
• Does uncertainty require human centred decision making?
The Horse Metaphor (input)
A Controlable Horse (output)
Look at the ears, the body shape and the tail (not easy)!!
A Controlable Horse (output)
Look at the ears, the body shape and the tail Listen at the noise from horse Fuse that information from different sources
(not easy)!!
A Controlable Horse (output)
Look at the ears, the body shape and the tail Listen at the noise from horse Fuse that information from different sources
(not easy)!!
The Horse Metaphor
The Horse Metaphor
The Horse Metaphor
The Horse Metaphor
The Details of the Metaphors
The Details of the Metaphors
The Details of the Metaphors
Number of papers on automation (1954 – 2011)
1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010Year
0
200
400
600
800
1.000
1.200
1.400
1.600
1.800
2.000
2.200
2.400
2.600
2.800
3.000
3.200
3.400
3.600
3.800
Num
1 1 6 2 410
614 9
4 38 35
116
49 59
72
56 78
114
88 99 123 141 138
189
137 172210 258
256249 262
334
298
445393
382
551 528
449
623
884
849
1.041 1.022
1.018
1.330
1.347
1.711
1.954
2.236
2.845
2.816
2.9493.011
3.292
3.616
2.910
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
2
18
1.330
1.347
1.711
1.954
2.236
2.845
2.816
2.9493.011
3.292
3
2.910
Number of papers on automation (2000 – 2011)
> 2000
> 3000
• Things will degrade – Make sure they degrade gracefuly
• Things will fail – Make sure they will fail safely
• Operations will carry on – Make sure they carry on with good
performance
Dependability Issues for Automation
Interactive cockpits architecture
69
Example: the engagement of the auto-pilot through a click on the corresponding PicturePushButton
A661_WidgetEvent
A661_SetParameter_ON
Wich widget ?
Modify display
A FAULT-TOLERANT SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE AND ITS FORMAL SPECIFICATION FOR EMBEDDED, REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS – ERTS² 2014 –TOULOUSE, FRANCE
Functional Failures modes
• Control flow failures
• Display flow failures
70 A FAULT-TOLERANT SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE AND ITS FORMAL SPECIFICATION FOR EMBEDDED, REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS – ERTS² 2014 –TOULOUSE, FRANCE
Wrong control No control Unforeseen control
Wrong display No display Unforeseen display
The FCU
71
Airbus A380 Flight deck
FCU: Flight Control Unit
A FAULT-TOLERANT SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE AND ITS FORMAL SPECIFICATION FOR EMBEDDED, REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS – ERTS² 2014 –TOULOUSE, FRANCE
72
Airbus A380 Flight deck
FCU: Flight Control Unit
The FCU Backup
FCU Backup
A FAULT-TOLERANT SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE AND ITS FORMAL SPECIFICATION FOR EMBEDDED, REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE SYSTEMS – ERTS² 2014 –TOULOUSE, FRANCE
• The Human-System interaction does not exists
• Human-System interaction takes place using an interactive system – More complex than the other systems – Hardware/software integration – Rapidly evolving
Usability issues in ATM
• The Human-System interaction does not exists
• Human-System interaction takes place using an interactive system – More complex than the other systems – Hardware/software integration – Rapidly evolving
Usability issues in ATM
Design Issues for Automation
76
Thank You for Your Attention “L’enfer c’est les autres – Hell is other people” – Jean Paul Sartre Nobel Prize in Literature, 1964
77
Remote collaboration
78
Domains involved
Situated action L. Suchmann
Distributed Cognition Ed. Huchins
Activity Theory S. Boedker
Human Sciences
Computer Science
Prototyping (low and high fidelity) Lab studies (experimentations) Field studies (observation)
Ethnomethodology B. Gaver
Networks and telecom Automation and autonomous entities
HCI Distributed systems
Sociology Anthropology Socail psychology
Psychology Linguistics Communication Sciences
Methods
