Journal of the Indian Fisheries Association 18, 1988. 47-67 IMPORTANCE OF LIVE FEED ORGANISMS IN PRAWN HATCHERIES - A REVIEW B.NEELAKANTAN, A.S. RAFIUDD!N, N.R. RATISH MENON AND N.KUSUMA Department of Merine Biology, Karnatak University, Kodibag.Karwar. India. ABSTRACT Live feed organisms play a vital role-in the artificial propagation of penaeid prawn seeds. The methods practised for the culture of phyto and zooplankton for rearing prawn larvae through their various stages are reviewed. Selection of 13 suitable species depends mainly on the culture characteristics, local environ- mental factors and the food requi-rements of the of prawns cultured. Suitability of a few species isolated frOM Karwar waters is discussed. INTRODUCTION With the ever increasing demand for prawns in the export market, the diminishing returns from the capture fisheries and the relative high economic returns from the culture operations, stimulated a spurt in the culture of prawns in the last few decades. In developed countries semi-intensive and intensive prawn culture practices are followed whereas in the developing countries it is still restricted to extensive type. However, the semi-intensive system is now gaining importance and gradually replacing the extensive type.. Artificial propagation of the seeds of fast growing species of penaeid prawns for appropriate and selective stocking is one of the inevitable require- ments of semi-intensive type of culture. Lack of sui table live feed organisms is a major deter- rent in the rearing of marine prawn larvae (Vyas et al.,
Transcript
Journal of the Indian Fisheries Association 18, 1988. 47-67
IMPORTANCE OF LIVE FEED ORGANISMS IN PRAWN HATCHERIES - A REVIEW
B.NEELAKANTAN, A.S. RAFIUDD!N, N.R. RATISH MENON AND N.KUSUMA
Department of Merine Biology, Karnatak University, Kodibag.Karwar. India.
ABSTRACT
Live feed organisms play a vital role-in the artificial propagation of penaeid prawn seeds. The methods practised for the culture of phyto and zooplankton for rearing prawn larvae through their various develap~~ental stages are reviewed. Selection of 13 suitable species depends mainly on the culture characteristics, local environmental factors and the food requi-rements of the s~.:: of prawns cultured. Suitability of a few species isolated frOM Karwar waters is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
With the ever increasing demand for prawns in the export market, the diminishing returns from the capture fisheries and the relative high economic returns from the culture operations, stimulated a spurt in the culture of prawns in the last few decades. In developed countries semi-intensive and intensive prawn culture practices are followed whereas in the developing countries it is still restricted to extensive type. However, the semi-intensive system is now gaining importance and gradually replacing the extensive type.. Artificial propagation of the seeds of fast growing species of penaeid prawns for appropriate and selective stocking is one of the inevitable requirements of semi-intensive type of culture.
Lack of sui table live feed organisms is a major deterrent in the rearing of marine prawn larvae (Vyas et al.,
TABLE 1. KINDS OF ALGAL FOOD USED FOR REARING PENAEID PRAWNS
Kinds of algae
Skeletonema costatum
Chaetoceros ridigus
C. ca!citrans
C. gracilis
Chaetoceros sp.
Thalassiosira weissiflogii
Prawn species used
Penaeus japonicus
P. monodon
P. sel:ifews
P. semisulcatus
P. aztecus
P. duorarum
P. japonicus
P. monodon
P. stylirostris
P. vannamei
P. japonicus
P. merguiensis
P. monodon
P. indicus
Refer-ences
Hudinaga, 1942; Hudinaga and Kittaka, 1967; Liao & Huang, 1973.
Liao, 1970; Lio & Huang, 1973; Liao et al, 1969; Liao & Chin, 1980; anonymous, 1975 a.
1986). Though attempts have been made for rearing prawn larvae on artificial diets by many workers, live fee serves as the natural food and is being widely accepted. In developing countries like India where the ambient temperature supports luxuriant growth of live feed throughout the year, the culture of these organisms may be economically and biologically viable when compared to many artificial feeds,
Live feed can be broadly classified into two major catagories, namely, algal and nonalgal. Algal feeds include all phytoplankton, marine yeast and bacteria. The nonalgal feed consists of zooplankton. Penaeid prawn larvae require different types of feed during their development. These requir~ements vary from purely algal feed, mixed feed (algae and zooplankton) to purely zooplankton.
ALGAE
Different species of algae have been tried in the protozoeal stages of penaeid prawns. The species popularly used are given in Table 1. Other than algae marine yeast has also been tried by Furukawa ( 1973), watanabe ( 1980), El-Amad (1982) and Al Hajj (1983).
Algal food can either be cultured along with the prawn larvae in the rearing tank (same tank method) or separately in the indoor conditions ( separ~ate tank method). In the same tank method a mixed diatom is general y cultured with the aid of sunlight and by sui table fertilization. In addition the algae stimulate the growth of rotifers, copepods etc., and form the natural food. In the separate tank method a monoalgal culture is maintained separ~atel y and provided to the prawn larvae every day. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. The selection of economically superior method depends on local needs and limitations.
Even though the first successful rearing of prawn larvae ( Penaeus japonicus) was obtained in Japan by employing the separate tank method., the same tank method has gradually replaced T the separate tank method. This method has been adopted in Taiwan, Philippines, Italy, and Korea. In this method algae are cultured in rectangular concrete tanks of 15 to 250 ton capacity. The propagation of diatoms in the tanks is controlled by adjusting the quality of the fertilizer or by varying the illumina:t±<lm density.
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 51
The fertilizer commonly used include potassium nitrate and dibasic potassium phosphate. Several species of algae contribute to the productioD but among them Skeletonema costatum, Melosira sp, Thaiassiosira sp, Nitzschia sp, Rhizosolenia sp, were the numerically dominant diatoms {Shigueno, 1976). Overblooming of algal cells is the main problem facing the same tank method, sudden collapse of the algal blooms in the afternoon causing mortality of the larvae. It is assumed that the substances released by the death of the diatom cells are toxic to the larvae (Simon, 1978).
In the separate tank method which is now practised in the U.S. A., SEAFDEC in Philippines and Aquacop in Tahiti, the requ1red species of algae are isolated first from the natural waters. Stock cultures are maintained in the laboratory under controlled conditions. These algae are raised to mass quantities as and when required. The culture is harvested at the end of the exponential phase and suspended into the larval tank as food.
The method followed in India shows a similarity to both the same tank and separate tank method. Muthu (1980) reared P. indicus larvae with a mixed diatom culture dominated by C haetoceros affinis. Mixed diatom culture was carried out in rectangular fiberglass tanks of 1 ton capacity, which were filled with natural seawater fertilized with nutrients and exposed to direct sunlight in a glass roofed house. The temperature ranged between 25 and 36°C during the day and this favoured mixed diatom growth dominated by c. affinis. The culture was used for feeding the protozoeal and early my sis stages of P. indicus reared in 2 ton tanks.
There is no single algal species which can be regarded as the best in every respect for culture and use as feed for larval penaeids in the world. Some algae are easily cultured and maintained, while others art3 not. The question of which species is most suitable, largely depends on certain algal characteristics, the culture conditions, and local environmental factors as well as the food requirements of the species of penaeids propagated ( Liao et al. , 1983). In recent years Japanese hatcheries make less use of S. costatu m due to many inherent problems like maintenance of stock cultures and keeping them above 25°C in the tanks as also the short period of harvest (Shigueno, 1975; Kurata and Shigueno, 1976). In contrast Chaetoceros:·sp, were found to be tolerant to high temperature ( Liaoet al. , 1983).
52 NEELAKANTAN et al
In the hatchery of the Pacific coast of Costa Rica which operates an extensive system,C.gracilis has been effectively used as exclusive food for protCAZoea of P. stylirostris and P. va.namei. c. calcitra.ns has been used in Philippines (SEAFDEC) for the mass culture of P. monodon larvae. In the Indian conditions where the ambient temperatur--e is high (>18°C) Chaetoceros sp, may be a suitable feed. Vyas et a.l., ( 1986) reported the unialgal mass culture of C. affinis arid opined that this algae could be cultured throughout the year in the Indian conditions. At the Marine Biological research station, Karwar, we have reported the isolation of centric diatom c. pendulus and conducted feeding experiments and found this algae was suitable for rearing P. merguiensis and M . monoceros larvae (Technical report, 1988) .
ZOOPLANKTON
The zooplankton ·serve the purpose usually in late larval stages for prawns and in early larval stages for fishes. The Artemia nauplii have been successfully used for a long time for laboratory rearing of various species of marine animals. Till today Artemia nauplii are considered to be one of the best live feeds. But considering the high cost and nonavailability of good quality Artemia. cysts on a large scale, scientists and aquaculturists have searched for other suitable zooplankton. In the process some live food organisms were introduced in mariculture. They include the rotifer Brachionus sp, copepods and freshwater cladocerans Daphnia sp, Moina sp, all of which have high reproduction rate, short generation time and have the ability to grow and live in crowded conditions.
Rotifers Most of the rotifers are. freshwater forms, well known as food for freshwater fishes (Solangi & Ozle, 1978; Kamel, 1980). Among them Brachionus calcyflorus and B. ruben have been proposed as food for freshwater fish larvae (Galkovskaya, 1963; Groeneweg & Schluter, 1981; Schluter & Groeneweg, 1981 ) . Only one species, B. plicatilis, is curyhaline, having been cultured in seawater (Ito, 1960).
The rotifers are cultured on a mat?s scale in many hatcheries (Table 1). A major breakthrough in rotifer culture was made by Hirata & Mori ( 1967) who found that they could be raised on baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerev isiae). Later pure cultures of C hlorella sp, were tried as feed. The roti fers have shown higher reproductive rate in c hlorella sp, medium than in yeast. Following this work several species of marine yeast were isolated
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 53
and they were found to be adequate food for roti fers (Furukawa & Hidaka__, 1973: Kawano et al, 1976, Al-Hint y & James, 1983). Some of the marine bacteria have also been used as food for rotifer. Yasuda & Taga ( 1980) have reported that the roti fers fed on two Pseudo monas strains ( Pl-P7), have shown good growth. In artificial feeds the rotifers showed better growth ( Gatesoupe & Luquet, 1981). Mass culture of rotifers can be carried out by batch culture, semicontinuous culture and feedback culture systems.
B. plicatilis has become one of the important components of the hatchery. The densities of rotifers applied to the larval tank may range between 5 and 30 individuals per millilitre. Owing to their small size they could be introduced in the culture tanks when the larvae are in protozoeal stages. El-Amad ( 1982) reported that the optimum feeding level for the P. semisulcatus larvae may be close to a mean value of 112.3 rotifer per larvae per day. Al-Hajj et al. , ( 1983) have reported for the same species that the larvae consumed on an average 240 rotifers per day between the first protozoeal and the first mysis stages. In adverse conditions frozen rotifers were also offered to the larvae. P. japonicus larvae did not show any variation in growth when fed on either frozen or live rotifer (Yamasaki et al. , 1981).
Artemia: Artemia salina has been found to be an excellent rood for a diverse group of cultivable organims. Kinne ( 1977) has indicated that more than 85% of the marine animals cultivated so far have been offered A.salina Ql.S food. There are 50 brine shrimp strains from various continents and countries. The nutritive value of the Artemia strains does not alter much.
Hudinaga in 1958 for the first time successfully reared P .Japa.nicus using Artemia nauplii during my sis and post-larval stages (Liao et al., 1983). Freshly hatchedArte-mia nauplii appear to be a better food to the "larvae of P. mono don, P. indicus, P. kerathurus, M etapenaeus monoceros, M. ensis, M. endevouri and Macrobrachium rosenbergii (Sorgeloos, unpublished). The number of Artemia nauplii is kept at a density of 1 to 5 nauplii per ml of culture medium. The feeding experiments conducted on P. semisulcatus by 'Al-Hajj et al. , ( 1983) showed that for the development of mysis stage to first postlarval stage, an average of 183.33 Artemia nauplii per larva per day was optimal. In recent years the use of decapsulated cysts in rearing the larvae of P. monodon, M. ensis, M. endevouri and M. rosenbergii (Lavina, 1978) and M. monoceros (Royan,
54 NEELAKANTAN et al
1980) has shown good survival.
Cope pods : The cope pods constitute an important component of the food chain in aquatic system. In a review on the cultivation of cope pods, Omari ( 1973) has stated that so far only 30 species-20 calanoids, 1 cyclopoid and 9 harpacticoids have been reared for one or more filial generations under laboratory conditions.
Culture of copepods was carried out with different types of food. Algae and diatoms were. found to be excellent diet for the culture of copepods (Kitajima, 1973; Ikeda, 1973; Rothbard, 1976; Gopalan, 1977; Kinne, 1977; James & Thompson, 1980). A calanoid, Gladioteran pactinatus, has produced multiple generations in unialgal diet of Isocnrysis galbana, but with Tetraselmia chuii and Phaeodactylum tricornatum the development was slow (Arnott et al., 1986). Some of the copepods: Pseudocalanus minutus, P. elongatus, Temora longicornis and Eurytemora aftinis were successfully reared on I. galbana ( Corkett, 1967; 1970). However I. galbana has been used more often in mixec;:l diets to overcome possible nutritional problems generally associated with the use of single species food. The marine yeast Candida sp and C hlorella sp were used for the mass culture of a cyclopoid, Apocyclops borneoensis (James & Al-Khars, 1984). The experimental mass culture of harpacticoid, Nitocra s pinipes, W{;}.,s carried out in 4 different feeds such as Chlorella sp, shrimp head meal, compound feed and salvinia detritus, among which Chlorella sp..L served as the best feed (Go pal an, 1977}. Goswami ( 1977) based on his experiments suggested that the harpacticoid, Laophante setosa, can be reared on detritus. By using market vegetables or wheat bran, higher densities were achieved with several other species (Tisbe holothuriae, Amphiscalla subdebilis, N. spinipes and Microstris elatensis) (Kahan, 1979; 1981; Kahan and Azoury, 1981).
Freshwater Cladocerans: Among freshwater zooplankton, the organisms belonging to the cladoceran group have been widely used in· fish and shellfish hatcheries. Two important genera, Daphnia and Moina, have been established as important live food organisms in culturing fish fry (Alikunhi, 1962; Alikunhi et al, 1955; I v leva 1973; Masters, 1975; Chen, 1979) , Macrobrachiumlarvae (Alikunhi et a1,1981) and penaeid larvae (Hudinaga 1942). Although they are freshwater organisms they have been successfully used in the fl"'ozen condition to feed marine organisms (Normap et a~,1979~
In experimental culture Banta (1921) used 'stable tea'
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 55
an extract of horse manure to culture cladocerans in the laboratory. Conklin and Provasoli ( 1977; 1978) have successfully grown M. macrocopa in a synthetic biphasic medium. Experimental results of Nandy et al, ( 1977) indicate that D. lu m hotlzi attained a maximum production of 12, 650 to 15,000 per litre when fed with brewer's yeast, but poor production in c hlorella vulgaris and in a mixed diet of C hlorella sp and poultry manure. By using chicken manure Ventura & Enderz ( 1980) developed M:>ina sp,culture with a density of 500-1000 animals per litre. De Pauw et al, ( 1980) maintained a population of D. magna cultured on a sole feed of micronised ricebran (less than 60 micron) for 20 continuous generations without noticeable differences (De Pauw et al , ) 1 981 ) •
NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD ORGANISMS
The growth of any organism is mainly .d~pendant on the nutritive value of the feed, i.e., the quantity of protein, lipid, carbohydrate, vitamins and minerals. The proximate composition shown in Table 2, indicates that all the food organisms have the required quantities of protein lipid and carbohydrate. An important determinant of the overall nutri tiona! value of a food stuff for crustaceans is its lipid content (Schauer et al. I 1980). The rotifers fed exclusively on baker's yeast lacked the highly unsaturated fatty acids, but enrichment in algae for 8-24 hours, brings up the essential acids. Artemia have been classified into two types according to "the fatty acid composition; one (the freshwater type} containing a · high concentration of 18: 3W3 which is an EFA for freshwater fishes and the other (the marine type) high in 20: 5 W 3 for marine fishes (Watanabe et al. , 1978) . The food value of Artemia from Utah was improved by allowing them to feed on I. galbana (Wickins, 1972). The co.pepods T igrio pus sp and Acartia sp contain relatively high amount of 20:5W3 irrespective of the culture media and the organisms (Watanabe et al. I 1980). The Da[1hnia sp;. and Moina sp_. have shown low fatty acids when fed with yeast, but gained high concentrations of 20: 5W3 by feeding poultry manure and algae, thus making them ideal for fish from the view point of EFA.
EXPERIMENTS WITH LIVE FEED - OUR EXPERIENCE
With an intension to isolate and culture a few phyto and zooplanleton and assess their suitability for the rearing of penaeid prawn larvae, for the local conditions, several
TABLE 2. DAILY PRODUCTION OF B. PLICATIUS IN MASS CULTURE SYSTEMS AT VARIOUS VOLUMES AND SAliNITIES
Reference
Theilacker & McMaster, 1971
Furukawa & Hidaka, 1973
Cruz & Mill ares, 197 4
Devancheile & Girin, 1974
Allessio, 1974
Amat, 1975
Mi!!ares & Gonzalez, 1975
Person-le-Ruyet, 1975 Hirayama & Nakamura, 1976
Kawano et ai, 1978
Hirata, 1979
Fontaine &. Revere, 1980
Hirata, 1980
Production -1
rotifer 1
-1 day
5387
16300
24719
24250
40000
42571
31000
55000 28500
59633 7143
57000
34000
BOOOO
Maximum rotifer density
-1 m!
N.S.*
1000
360
150
55
300
420
340 434
1100 90
530
583
514
Salinity 0 /oo
33
N.S.
diluted
seawater
N.S.
N.S.
33
35
N.S. 22
N.S. N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Volume litre
464
1000
14
250
600
60
20-100
100 12
1090
Food organisms
Dunaliella sp
Marine Yeast
Nan'lochloris sp
T etraselmia sp
A mix of: Dunalieiia salina, Platymonas suecica, Chromomonas fra
garioides, Phaeodactylum tricbrna
tum, Chlorelia ovalis, Glenodinium sp.
Tetraselmia sp
Platymonas sp
Tetraselmia suecica Chlorella sp.
Chlorella sp., driet bread Yeast. 10000 or Chi orella sp., marine yeast. 20000
,_ .... .... >- .... co v::J v::J ro co ro co 0 N N u u U.r::. Uu.. ..- ... ...... .- .- .- N N N -Brachionus- a 86.4- 7.8- 3.7- - 0.4- 14.4- 20.4- 1.7- 10.1- 3.2- 0.1- 22.8- 3.0- 0.5 Watanabe et al.,
plicatilis b 87.6 8.0 4.2 - 0.9 19.4 24.3 2.2 11.0 4.7 0.4 27.7 3.4 - (1978 a & b).
Artemia salina
Egg z San Francisco - 54.4 6.4 - 6.3 15.2 10.5 2.9 28.5 7.1 0.6 3.6 - - Watanabe et a!., m
m ( 1978 a)
r )lo :::-:
Utah - - - - - 12.4 6.0 3.5 28.0 5.6 28 3.2 - - Schauer et al., )lo z
To start with~ algae such as Chaetoceros pendulus, Chlo~
rogibba trochisciaeformis, Synechosystis aquatilis and zooplan-kton Brachionus plicatilis, ( Rotifera), Pseudodiapto·mus sp, Euter pina sp, (Copepoda) and Daphnia spA (Freshwater cJ..adoceran) etc. , were isolated from the coastal waters of Karwar and freshwater ponds.
Feeding experiments were conduted to determine the acceptability of c. pendulus and the percentage survival of larval stages z
1 M
2• From the observation, c. pen-
dulus appeared to be prom1s1ng live feed for zoea ·and early my sis stages of P. merguiensis and M. monoceros. The average percentage survival of P. merguiensis and M. monoceros larvae was 84% and 86% respectively.
Microalgae Chlorogibba trochisciaeformis and S.acquatilis were fed to B. plicatilis. The result showed a rotifer production of more than 500 numbers/ml within 5 days in both the algal medium. These rotifers were in turn fed to the mysis stages of prawn larvae and good growth and high survival rate of 80% were observed.
Experiments were also conducted to ascertain the food value of B. plicatilis, Artemia nauplii, calanoid copepod Pseudodiaptomus sp, harpacticoid copepod Euterpina sp, Daphnia sp and mixed zooplankton containing all the 4 species to the postlarvae of P. merguiensis, a widely cultured prawn species in this region. The postlarval stages (PL
1 PL
25) were provided with adequate quantity of
the above mentioned live feeds. The results indicated that the larvae fed on harpacticoid cope pod Euter pina sp, showed better growth, in addition to high survival of 87% but in the case of other zooplanKters good growth was observed though survival· rate decreased as follows: Artemia naupli~ 77. 5%, mixed zooplankton 76%, B. plicatilis 71%, Daphnia sp, 68% and calanoid copepod Pseudodiaptomus sp 60%.
From the above experiments we could conclude that C. troc hisciaefor mis and S. aquatilis are good live feed for culturing rotifers and copepods, while C. pendulus is a promising live feed for the protozoeal stages of prawn larvae. B. plicatilis could be provided as feed during stages W.hiie harpacticoid copepod ( Euter pina sp) gives encouraging results for the PL stages of the ·prawn P. merguiensis.
60 ~-4EELAKANTAN et al
CONCLUSION
Even though the trend to develop artificial feed is fast IAeplaci,ntJ the live feed, some outstanding quality of live feed cannot be overlooked. The natural food is free from pollution, and it has high calorific value, greater digestibility, and good conversion efficiency. If the locally available species are used, they will be very effective and economical too. This idea is well supported by the experiments conducted here.
Hardy species such as Chaetoceros sp, Brachionus sp, Euterpina sp, etc., which withstand wide· .fluctuations con-ditionsinvironmental and grow luxuriantly could be ideal
feed for the larvae of prawns. In addition these species are available abundantly throughout the Indian coast.
The diatom Chaetoceros sp, could well form the diet of protozoeal stage, and the euryhaline B. plicatilis for the my sis stages. Artemia nauplii now being scarce and costly, a replacement could be found in harpacticoid copepods which could be fed to the postlal~vae for good growth and higher sur vi val.
With the semi-intensive and intensive now gaining ascendence in this country, is cheap and the problems of pollution, in the developed countries. economically should be encouraged by isolating and .available species.
REFERENCES
culture of prawns wh-ere the labour much less unlkie viable live food culturing locally
Al-Hajj, A.B., C.M. James, S. Al-Ablani and A.S.D. Farmur, 1983. Advances in hatchery production of Pena8US semisulcatus in Kuwait' with particular reference to ti1s refinement of feeding practices. J. World Maricul. Soc. 14: 64-1!!.,
Alikunhi, K.H., 1952. On the food of young Carp fry. J. Zoo!. Soc. India, 4: 77-84.
Alikunhi, K.H., H. Choudhari, and V. paachandean, 1955. On the mortality of carp fry in nursery ponds and the role of plankton in their survival and growth. Indian J. Fish, 2: 257•-313.
Alikunhi, K.H., S. Ravindran, P.K. Sukumaran and M.K. Pavithan, 1985. Report on mass rearing of shrimp larvae at the Regional Shrimp Hatchery, Azhicode during 1981. Bull. Dept. Fish 1/ ___ ,_. "l1 /.11\
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 61
Anonymous, 1975 a. Mass production of the fry of Sugpo, P e naeus monodon Fabricus and some notes on its biology, in the Mindanao state University Institute of Fisheries Research and Development (MSU - IFRD) Philippines, Annual Report, 1.
Anonymous, 1975 b. Preliminary studies on the mass production of the fry of white prawn, Penaeus indicus Milne Edwards and its life history, in the Mindanao State University of Fisheries Research and Development (MSU - IFRD) Philippines, Annual Report, 19.
Anonymous, 1975 c •. The effect of food types on the survival of the zoea stages of Penaeus monodon Fabricus in the Mindanao State University Institute of Fisheries Research and Development, Philippines. Annual Report, 79.
Anonymous, 1.976 a. Prawn programme; in southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Annual Report, 11.
Anonymous, 1976 b. Prawn programme; in Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre. Annual Report, 13.
Aquacop, 1977. Reproduction in captivity .and growth of Penaeus monodon Fabricius in polynesia, Proc. World Maricule Soc., 7: 927.
Arnott, G.H., G. W. Brand and L.C. Kos, 1986. Effects of food quality and quantity on the survival, development and egg production of Gladioferens pectinatus (Brady) (Copepoda: Calanoida). AusL J. Mar. Freshw. Res., 37:- 467-473.
Banta, A.M., 1921. A convinient culture medium for daphnids. Science, 53: 55 7-558.
Beard,. T. W ., J.F. Wick ins and D.R. Arnstein, 1977. The breeding and growth of Penaeus merguiensis De Man in laboratory recirculation system, Aquaculture, 10: 275."
Beard. T. W ., and J.F. Wick ins, 1980. Breeding of Penaeus monodon Fabricius in laboratory recirculation system. Aquaculture, 20: 79e
Chen, F .Y ., 1979. Progress and problems of netcage culture of grouper (Epinephelus tanvina F) Singapore. Proc. World Maricul. Soc. 10: 260-271.
62 NEELAKANTAN et ~~
Conklin, D.E. and L. Provasoli, 1977. Nutritional requirements of the water Flea Moina macrocopa. BioL, Bull.,, 152: 337-350o
Corkett, C.J., 1967. Technique for rearing marine calanoid copepods in lab ora tory conditions. Nature, Land. 216 ( 511 D), 58-59.
De Pauw, N., L. Jr. De Leenheer, P. Laureys, J. Morales and J. Reartes, 1980. Culture 0' Algues et d' lnverte' bre's Sur Dechets Agricules. Im R. Billard (Ed): La Pisciculture en Etang, I.N.R.A., Pubt. Paris. PP. 189-214.
El-Amad, Z.M.K. 1982. Determination of optimal feeding rates for different developmental stages of Penaeus semiculcatus using various live food organisms. Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait. 56 PP.
Emmerson, 1
W .D., 1980. Ingestion, growth and development of Penaeus indicus 1larvae as a function of Thalassiosira weissflogii cell concentration. Marine Biol., 58; 65.
Emerson, W.O. and B. Andrews, 1981. The effect of stocking density on the growth, development and survival of Penaeus indicus Nilne Edwards larvae, Aquaculture, 23; 45.
Fujinaga, M., 1967. Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonieus) cultivation in Japan. Proceeding of World Scientific Conference on the Biology and culture of shrimps and prawns, F AO Fisheries Report No.5. Vol.3, Mistakidis, MoNo, Ed., Mexico, 811.
Furukawa, T .. , K. Hidaka, and K. Hirano, 1973. Production of larvae of Penaeus japonicus Bate with marine yeasL Bulletin of the F acuity of Agriculture, Miyazaki University 20( 1 ): 93-110. (in Japanese).
Furukawa, T., and K. Hidaka, 1973. Technical problems encountered in the mass culture of the rotifer using marine yeast as food organisms. Bull. Plankton Soc. Japan, 20: 61-71.
Galkovskaya, F.A., 1963. On the utilization of food for growth and conditions bf higher yield in rotatoria, Brachionus calcyflorus Pallas. Zool. Zh. 42: 505-512.
Ga tesoupe, F .J. and P. Luquet, 1981. Practical diet for mass culture of the rotifer, Brachionus pZicatilis:application to larval rearing of sea bass Dicenharchus labra:r. Aquaculture, 22: -163.
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 63
Gopalakrishnan, K., 1976. Larval rearing of red shrimp Penaeus marginatus. Aquaculture, 9: 145.
Gopalan, U.K., 1977. Experimental mass culture of a Harpacticoid copepod Nitocra spinipes Boeck. Proc. Symp. Warm water zoopl. Spl. Publ. UNESCO/NIO: 558-562.
Goswami, S.C., 1977. Laboratory culture of a Harpacticoid copepod Laophonte setosa (Boeck). Ibid., PP 563-570.
Groeneweg, J. and M. Schluter, 1981. Mass production of fresh water rotifers on liquid wastes. II, Mass production of Brae hionus rubens Ehrenberg 1838, in the effluent of high rate algal ponds used for the treatment of piggery waste. Aquaculture, 25: 25-33.
Hirata, H. and Y. Mori, 1967. Mass culture of the rotifer fed baker's yeast. Saibai Gyogyo, 5: 36-40.
Hirata, H., Y. Mori and W. Watanabe, 1975. Rearing of prawn larvae, Penaeus japonicus, fed soy-cake particle and diatoms, Mar. Biol., 29: 9.
Hudinaga, M., 1942. Reproduction, of Penaeus japonicus Bate. Jpn.
development and J. Zool., 1 0( 2):
rearing 305-393.
Hudinaga, M. and J. Kittaka, 1967. The large scale production of the young Kuruma prawn, Penaeus japonicus. Bat. Bull. Plankton Soc. Jpn., 35-46.
Hudinaga, M. and J. Kittaka, 1975. Local and seasonal influences on the large scale production method for penaeid shrimp larvae, Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 41: 843.
Ikeda, T ., 1973. On the criteria to select copepod species for mass culture. Bull. Plankton Soc. Japan, 20 (1): 41-46.
Ito, T., 1960. On the culture of mixohaline rotifer B rachionus plicatilis O.F. Muller in the sea water. Rep. Fac. Fish. Pref. Univ. Mie., 3: 708-740.
Iveleva, I.V ., 1973. Mass cultivation of Invertebrates Biology and Methods. Translated from Russi on, Isreal Program for Scientific translation, Jerulelem, 193 PP.
James, C.M. and A.M. Al-Khars, 1984. Studies on the production of planktonic copepods for aquaculture. Proce. of the second
64 NEELAKANTAN et al
International conference on copepoda, Ottawa, Canada 13-17.
James, C.M. and P.K. Martin Thompson, 1986. Production of copepods in an outdoor culture tank. Proc. Symp. Coastal Aquaculture, 4: 1275-1280.
Kahan, D.; 1979 a. Vegetables as food for marine harpacticoid copepods. Aquaculture, 16: 345-350.
Kahan, D., 1981. Effect of some ecological factors on the growth of the copepod Schizopera elatensis, a potential food organism for hatcheries. 15th European Marine Biology $ymposium, Kiel. Sept. 29 to October 3, 1980. Kieler Meeresforsch., Sonderh., 5: 544-553.
Kahan, D. and M. Azoury, 1981. Laboratory cultivation of Nitocra spinipes Boeck from the solar pond (Gulf of Aqaba Red sea). In: H. Rosenthan and O.H. Oren (Eds) Research on Intensive Aquaculture. European Maricult. Soc. Spec. Publ. Bredene, Belgium, 6: 117-132.
Kawano, T., Kojima, H. Ohosawa and K.· Moringa, 19..76. Feed and method of aquianimals cultivation. U.S. palent, 3: 939, 279: 1-16. .
Kawano, T ., and S.M. Kamel, 1980. A bibliography on: rotifers. Symposium on Coastal Aquacult~re, 12-18. January 1980, Cochin, India.
Kinne, 0., 1977. Cultivation of animals. In: 0. Kinne (Ed.) Marine Ecology, Wiley, London, 3 (2): 579-1293.
Kurata, H. and K. 5higueno, 1976. Recent progress in the farming of penaeid shrimp. F AO Technical conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan, FIR: AO/Conf/76/R.17, 24 pp.
Liao, I.C., T.L. Huang and K. Katsutani, 1969. Summary of a preliminary report on artificial propagation of Penaeus monodon Fabricius, JCRR Fisheries Series, 8, 67.
Liao, I. C. and T .L. Huang, 1973. Experiment on propagation and culture of prawns, in Taiwan, in Coasta Aquacultura in IndoPacific region, Pillay, T. V .R., Ed., Fishing News Books, Farnham, Surrey England, 328.
Liao, I.C., t978. On the artificial propagation of five species of prawns, China Fish. Mon., 205; 3.
LIVE FEED Jl..ND PRJI..WN HATCHERY 65
Liao, I.e. and L.P. Chin, 1980. Manual on propagation and cultivation of grass prawn. Penaeus mon.odon. Tungkang Marine Laboratory, Taiwan.
Liao, I.C., Huei-Meei Su and Jan-Hwa Lin, 1983. Larval foods for penaeid prawns, In: J.P. McVey (Editor), CRC Handbook of Mariculture. Vol 1: Crustacean Aquaculture, CRC press Inc., PP 43-69.
Maguire, G.B., 1979. A report on the prawn farming industries of Japan, the philippines and Thailand, New south Wales State Fisheries, 11 0.
Masters, C.O., 1975. Encyclopedia of live foods. T.F .H. Publication PP. 1-366.
Mock, C.R. and M.A. Murphy, 1970. Techniques for raising pena eid shrimp ·from the egg to post .larvae. Proc. World Maricul. Soc., 1, 143.
Muthu, M.S., 1980. Development and culture of penaeid larvae A review. First All India Symposium on Invertebrate reproduction, July 1980.
Nandy, A.C., D.R. Das and S.K. Majumdar, 1977. Technique to obtain sustained culture of a cladoceran, Daphnia lumholtzi Sars. Proc. Symposium. on warm water zooplankton Special publ. UNESCO/NIO, 540-542.
Norman, K.E., J.B. Blakely and K.K. Chew, 1979. The occurrence and utilization ofthe cladoceran Moina macrocopa (Straus) in a kraft pulp mill treatment lagoon. Proc. World Maricul. soc. 1 0: 116-121.
Omari, M., 1973. Cultivation of marme copepods. Bull. Plankt. Soc. Japan. 20: 3-11.
Pimolj inda, T ., 1977. Identification and culture of common diatom as possible feed for Penaeus monodon.· Q. Res. Rep. Aquacult. Dep. Southeast Asian Fish. Dev. Cent., (No.1) 4-5.
Royan, J.P., 1980. Decapsulated brine shrimp cysts - an ideal feed for shrimps in aquaculture. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 9(2): 125-126.
Sa mocha, T. and C. Lewninsohn, 1977. A preliminary report on rearing penaeid shrimps in Israel., Aquaculture, 10:29L
66 NEELAKANTAN et al
Schauer, P .s., O.M. Jones, C.E. Olney and K.L. Simpson, 1980. International study on Artemia IX. Lipid level, energy content and .fatty acid composition of the cysts and newly hatched nauplii from five geographical strains of Artemia. In: G. Persoorie, P. Sorgeloos, 0. Roels and E. Jaspers {Eds) The Brine shrimps Artemia. Universa Press Wetteren, Belgium. 3: 353-364.
Schluter, M. and J. Groeneweg, 1981. Mass production of fresh water rotifer on liquid wastes. 1. The influence of waste environmental factors on population growth of Brachionus rubens. Aquaculture, 25: 17-24.
Shigueno, K., 1969. Problems on prawn culture (Penaeus japonicus Bate} in Suisan Zo Yoshoku · Sosho Vol. 19, Nikon Suisan Sigen Hogo Kyokai, Tokyo. (in Japanese).
Shigueno, K., 1975. Shrimp culture in Japan. AssoCiation for InternaUbnal Technical Promotion, Tokyo, Japan, 153 PP.
Shigueno, K., 1976. Advance in prawn culture (Penaeus japonicus Bate), in F AO Suisan Zoshoku Kokusa Kaigi Ranbun Shu, Suisan Cho. Tokyo, 8. (in Japanese).
Simon, C.M., 1978. The cultur.e of the diatom Chaetoceros gracilis and its us·e as a food for penaeid protozoea larvae. Aquaculture, 14: 105.
Solangi, M.A. and J. T. Ogle, 1978. A selected bibliography on the mass propagation of rotifers with emphasis on the biology and culture of Brachionus plicatilis. Gulf Research Reports, 6 (1): 59-68.
Technical Report, 1988. Intensive culture of planktonic species for rearing of prawn larvae towards efficient commercial production of prawns. Annual project report submitted to University Grants Commission by Karnatak University, Dept. of Marine Biology, Karwar.
Ushiro, M., S. Yamasaki and H. Hirata, 1980. Examination of bacteria as food for Brachionus plicatilis in culture. Min. Rer. Data File Fish. Res. 1: 96-106.
Ventura, R.F. and E.M. Enderez, 1980. Preliminary studies on Moina sp. production in freshwater tanks. Aquaculture, 21: 93:.96.
LIVE FEED AND PRAWN HATCHERY 67
Vyas, A.A., N.D. Chhaya, A.V. Buch, M. Bhaskaran, A.J. Patel and V .J. Mohile, 1986. Mass Cu1 ture of centric diatom Chaetoceros affinis (Lauder). A promising live feed for prawn larvae. Ind. J. Mar. Sc. Vol. 15: P 55.
Watanabe, T., F. Oowa, C. Kitajima and S. Fujita, 1978. Nutritional quality of Brine shrimp Artemia salina, as· a living feed from the view point of essential fatty acids for fish. Bull. of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 44 ( 1 0): 1115-1121.
Watanable, T ., 1980. Studies on the improvement of feeding techniques for rearing the larvae of Penaeus semisulcatus, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait. 11 PP.
Watanabe, T., F. Oowa, C. Kitajima, S. Fujita, 1980. Relationship between dietary value of brine shrimp, Artemia salina, and their content of W 3 highly unsaturated fa tty acids. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 46: 35-41.
Watanabe, T., T. Tamiya, A. Oka, H. Hirata, C. Kitajima and s. Fujita, 1983. Improvement of dietary value of live food for fish larvae by feeding them on W.B. highly unsaturated fatty acids and. fat soluble· vitamins. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish., 49: in press.
Wick ins, J.F ., 1972. The food value of the brine shrimp Artemia salina L., to larvae of prawn Palaemon serratus Pennant. J. Exp. Mar. Bioi. Ecol., 10: 151-170.
Yamasaki, S., M. Usugi and H. Hirata, 1981. Rearing of the prawn Penaeus japonicus fed on the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Mar. Fac. Fish. Kagoshima Univ. 30: 289-294.
Yasuda, K. and N. Taga, 1980. Culture of B rachionus plicatilis Muller using bacteria as food. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 46: 933-939.
![WELCOME [] FISH FEED PRODUCERS IN BD Aftab Feed Products Ltd Mono Feed Mills Ltd ACI Godrej Agrovet (Pvt) Ltd Nourish Poultry & Hatcheries Ltd Aman Feeds Ltd National Feed Mills Ltd](https://static.documents.pub/doc/80x56/5aa663bc7f8b9a517d8e73a8/welcome-fish-feed-producers-in-bd-aftab-feed-products-ltd-mono-feed-mills-ltd.jpg)
