824 GHKU98 T~N A~ C~TRY PLANNING DEPARTMENT ~ GHANA DEPARTEMENT OF PLANNING UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIE KUMASI, GHANA INSTITUTE OF PLANNING AND DEMOGRAPHY INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH AMSTERDAM UNIVERSITEIT VAN AMSTERDAM THE NETHERLANDS Library JAC Internätional’Water arid Sanitation Centre Tel +31 70 30 889 80 Fax +31 70 35 899 64 IMPROVEMENT OF THE MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC TOILET FACILITIES IN KUMASI Ankle Frantzen -ROLES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR- URBAN AND RURAL PLANNING IN AFRICA GHANA RESEARCH PAPERS NO. 9 URPA 824—GJj-.150 28
Transcript
824 GHKU98
T~N A~C~TRY PLANNING DEPARTMENT
~ GHANADEPARTEMENT OF PLANNINGUNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGIEKUMASI, GHANA
INSTITUTE OF PLANNING AND DEMOGRAPHYINSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
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IMPROVEMENT OF THE MANAGEMENT OF
PUBLiC TOILET FACILITIES IN KUMASI
-ROLES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR-
GHANA RESEARCHPAPERSNO.9
MARCH 1998
Ankie Frantzen
Instituteof PlanningandDemography
SectionUrbanandRuralPlanningin Africa
Universityof Amsterdam
The Netherlands
LIBRARY ~RCPO9c~x93l
9~~J9AD THE HAGUETel. ~-J~ 703068980Fax +31 703589964
BAIICQOE: ,.~ ~
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1
Acknowledgements
This research couldnot havebeendonewithout thehelp of manypeople.Iwant to thankthem for their guidance,enthusiasmandespeciallytheirwillingnessto helpduringtheresearch.They madetheresearchin Kumasivery enjoyable.
Although I cannotnameall thepeoplewho helpedmepersonally,I wouldlike to takethis opportunityto thankmy supervisorsin Kumasifor their help ~inthe field’ andmy supervisorsin theNetherlandsfor their supportwhenI preparedtheresearchandwrotethereport:Prof. K. AdarkwaandDr. I.F. Mensa-BonsuoftheUniversityof ScienceandTechnologyandJohanPost,FrancienvanDriel andMomquePeltenburgin the Netherlands.
Furthermore,I wishto thankthe staffof theTownand CountryPlanningDepartment,theKumasi MetropolitanAssemblyandthe WasteManagementDepartment,especiallyK. Owusu-Akyaw,B.S. TampunandJ.C. Mensah.Mygratitudealsogoesout to LukmanSalifu andAnthony Mensah— without theirguidance,information,criticism andadvicethis researchwould havebeenmuchmoredifficult. I amalsoverygratefulto all theprivatecontractorsin Kumasi whowerealwayswilling to help andgive information,especiallyAlbert MensahEphraimand NanaKyei Mensah.
Somepeoplemademy stayin Kumasi unforgettable.Without JohnA.Owusu-Agyemangthis researchwould not havebeenpossibleat all. His help andaboveall his friendshipwereveryimportantduring all thosemonths.This canalsobe saidofAgnesandFrancisCornabandJoisandEric Asamoahand theirchildren.Theirhousesbecamea homefor me during my stay.
My gratitudeandlove alsogo out to Frank,to my motherandto my brotherDick for their support,enthusiasmandinteresttheyshowedin Kumasi’spublictoilets. Finally, I would like to thankNicoletfor herhelpduring thecompletionofthis reportand of coursemy ‘sister’ Sara.
Ankie FrantzenRotterdam,October,1997
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Table of contents
Acknowledgements 1List of abbreviations 3List of maps,tables,figuresandpictures 4List of appendices 5Preface 6
2.1 Generaloverviewof Kumasi 112.2 Currentsituation 132.2.1 Typesof public toilets 132.2.2 Satisfactionwith public toilet facilities 16
Chapter 3: Plansandpolicies 20
3.1 The institutional frameworkfor Kumasi’stoilet facilities 203.1.1 The organisationand role of the KMA 203.1.2Theorganisationandrole of theWMD 213.2 Sanitaryfacilities andprojects 22
Chapter 4: Privatisation of Public Toilets in Kumasi 26
4.1 Managementof public toilets 264.2 Organisationalaspects 284.2.1 Managementby the AssemblyMembers 284.2.2 Therole of the private contractors 294.2.3 Evaluationandmonitoring 294.2.4Views of thevariousactors 30
CentralBusinessDistrictCommitteefor the Defenceof theRevolutionInternationalMonetaryFundKumasiCity CouncilKumasiMetropolitanAssemblyKumasiSanitationProjectKumasiVentilatedImprovedPit LatrineMetropolitanAssemblyMinistry of Local GovernmentandRuralDevelopmentMedical Officer of Health,KMARegionalWaterandSanitationGroup,WestAfricaStrategicSanitationPlanTown andCountry PlanningDepartmentUrbanEnvironmentalSanitationProjectUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgrammeWorld BankWater ClosetWasteManagementDepartment,KMA
4
List of TablesTable 1Table2Table 3Table4Table 5
List of FiguresFigure 1Figure 2
Public toilet site atAlabarInterior of thepublic toilet facility at Okyokohen
131516172:5
1823
List of maps, tables, figures and pictures
List of MapsMap 1Map2
Page
1012
GhanaKumasi
DomesticSanitationServiceCoverageType of Toilet UsersPreferMost andLeastSatisfactionwith PublicToilets in KumasiCriteria for UsageSatisfactionReductionof theuseof public toilets by theinstallationof homefacilities
Inside-mapof a typical public toilet facilityKMA-WasteManagementDepartmentTransitionalOrganisationalChart
List of PicturesPicture 1Picture 2
1919
5
List of appendices
Page
AppendixA List of interviewedpeople 35AppendixB: List of public toilet sitesselectedfor interviews 36Appendix C: Questionnairefor usersof public toilets 37AppendixD: Questionnairefor supervisorsofpublic latrines 44
6
Preface
The UniversityofAmsterdam,the Universityof ScienceandTechnologyandtheTownandCountryPlanningDepartmentin Kumasihaveinitiated ajoint projecttocollectdatafor the KumasiMetropolitanAssembly(KIvIA). Severaltopicswereaddressed,oneof which wasthe provisionof toilet facilities in Kumasiandprivatesectorinvolvementin thesefacilities.The researchpresentedheredealswith thistopic. This study is partof the cooperationbetweenthe threeinstitutions.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Background to the problem
Like manyAfrican countries,the governmentof Ghanawas, andstill is, involved ina large-scaledecentralisationandprivatisationprocess.This is theresultof theStructuralAdjustmentProgrpmmeswhich thegovernmentagreedto implementwith theInternationalMonetaryFund (IMF) in 1983. Ghanais oneof thesuccessstoriesof theStructuralAdjustmentProgrammesdueto the measuresit hastakenin privatisation,decentralisation,reductionof civil servicestaff andincreasingcitizenparticipation.
Privatisationis a cornerstoneof the UrbanEnvironmentalSanitationPolicy(UESP)in Ghana.This policy aimsat ‘strengtheningandpromotingthe involvementof the privatesectorin the provisionof environmentalsanitationservices’(WorldBank, 1996, pp. 42).TheDistrict Assembliesin Ghanaareresponsibleformanagingthe increasingamountof work performedby privatecontractorswho willprovidemostinfrastructureand services.This meansthatthe District Assemblieswould bemoving towardssmaller,moreprofessionalstaffsfocusingonplanning,coordinationandsupervisoryfunctions.
In the earlyeightiesthe operationandmaintenanceof public toiletsinKumasideterioratedto unacceptablelevels. In 1985, the Committeesfor theDefenceof theRevolution(CDRS)1 intervened,andtook over controlof the toiletsitesfrom theKumasiMetropolitanAssembly(KMA). The CDRsintroducedpublictoilet userfeesto financesanitationandmaintenance.
In the StrategicSanitationPlan (SSP)for Kumasi, it is recommendedthattheKMA shouldmoveawayfrom direct provisionof public toilet services,andinsteadpromoteactiveinvolvementof theprivatesector(KMA, 1995,pp. 15). Theprivatesectorwould thenbe involved in theoperationandmaintenanceof the toiletfacilities including thecollectionof userfees.
In accordancewith the privatisationprocess,theKMA alsoprivatisedpublictoilet facilities. The managementof thetoilet facilities by CDRsdid bring aboutsomeimprovements,but notenough.In 1989, a pilot projectto contractoutmanagementof public toiletswasstartedin the CentralBusinessDistrict (CBD).During thisproject,mosttoiletsoutsidethe CBD were still beingmanagedbyCDRs. In 1993, the KMA decidedto renewthe agreementswith theprivatecontractors.From thispoint on, manytoilet sitesthroughoutthe city becamemanagedby private companiesinsteadof CDRs.
I In 1982, Rawhngsinitiated People’sDefenceCommittees’to createmass-participationat the locallevel m the‘revolution’ and to createand fosterpublic awarenessandvigilance After two years,thecommitteeswere renamedCommitteesfor theDefenceof theRevolution
8
1.2 Objective and problem statement
Although the KMA did involve the private sector in the management of public toiletfacilities in Kumasi,a numberof problemsremain.Thesearepartly relatedto thequality of the contractors,inadequatemonitoringandpolitical factors. In January1997, the KMA’s Assemblymemberssuddenlytook overthe managementof thepublic toilets from theprivatecontractors.
At present,the toilet sitesarenotmanagedwell. TheAssemblyMembersdonot seemcapableof providingadequateserviceto theusers.Dueto this inability,thetoilets arebeginningto deteriorate.Pressureis mountingfrom both insideandoutsidethe local administrationto reversethis decisionandto onceagaincontractoutpublic toiletsto privateoperators.I decidedto focusontheseproblems.
Theaim of theresearchis to consider:How canimprovementsbemadein theprovisionofpublic toiletservicesinKumasi,with a specialemphasisonthepotentialsoftheprivatesector?
Thestatementof theproblemis:Whatis therole ofthepublic andprivatesectorsin theprovisionofpublictoiletfacilities in Kwnasi, whatare theproblemsin termsofthequality of 1 heservicesand howcouldthemanagementofpublic toiletfacilities bebestimprovedin thefitture?
Thisleadsto thefollowing specific researchquestions:• Whatis the significanceof public toilet facilities in Kuxnasi?• Whatis therole of thevariousactorsin theprovisionandmanagementof public
toilet facilities?• Whatproblemsare involved in the provisionandmanagementof public toilet
whathasbeentheir impact?• In whatwaycouldtheprovisionandmanagementof public toilet facilitiesbe
improvedby makingbetteruseof thecapacitiesof the variousactors?
1.3 Researchmethodology
To explaintherelationshipsbetweenthe public and theprivate sectorsconcerningpublic toilet services,andto investigatethe meansfor improving toilet facilities inKumasi,variousmethodswereapplied.The researchquestions,aslisted in § 1.2,servedasguidelinesthroughoutthe study.
Theresearchstartedwith areviewof theliteratureon Kumasi, toilet facilitiesandtheprivatisationprocess.Subsequently,openinterviewswereheldwith peoplefrom the WasteManagementDepartment(WMD), City EngineersDepartmentandsomeof the private contractors.
To obtainanoverallpicture ofpublic toilet facilities and theproblemsconnectedwith thesefacilities, a randomsurveywascarriedout. A questionnairewasdesignedto interviewusersand supervisorsat sevendifferentpublic toilet
9
locationsin Kumasi.Tenusersandthe supervisorof thetoilets respondedto thequestionsat eachlocation.2Thesesevenlocationsrepresentedthedifferentkinds oftoilets. Although the samplesizeof 70 respondentsmayseeminadequate,giventhehomogeneousnatureof theusers,the answersarequite indicative of theproblemsandthe possiblesolutionsexpectedfrom thepublic.
Theinformationobtainedfrom theseinterviewswasthenusedfor the nextseriesofsemi-structuredinterviewswith peoplefrom theWMD, KMA, CityEngineersDepartment,andwith privatecontractors,theAssemblyMembersandothers.Theinterviewsfocusedon issuessuchascleanliness,maintenanceandotherproblemsrelatedto public toilet facilities, therelationshipsbetweenthevariousactorsinvolved in theprovisionof servicesand on thepossibilitiesofimprovingtheseservices.All theseintervieweesarelisted on page35. Mostof thesepeoplewereinterviewedseveraltimes, in orderto confrontthem with informationandopinionsobtainedduring previousinterviews.
In additionto theseinterviews,I hada discussionwith a groupof privatecontractors,attendedtwo educationalprogrpmmeson householdtoilet facilitiesandfollowed thelitigation betweentheprivatecontractorsandthe KMA. Thismatterwill be settledin court.
To completethe study, a seminarwasorganisedat theendof the researchperiod.All theintervieweeswereinvited for this seminarexceptfor theusersandsupervisorsofthepublic toilets.Thus, everyonewasinvited who wasinvolved inprovidingpublic toilet servicesin Kumasi. My preliminaryfindings andrecommendationswere presentedat this seminar.More importantly, the seminarbroughtall thesepeopletogetherandgavethem a forum to discussthis study’sfindings and recommendations.
1.4 Organlsation of the report
This report is divided into five chapters.This chapterservesasan introduction; itpresentsthe aim andstatementof theresearchandthemethodologyemployed.Theresultsof theresearcharepresentedin the following chapters.
Toilet facilities in Kumasiarethe subjectof chapter2. First, a generaloverviewof Kumasi is given.This is followed by informationaboutthecurrentsituation, and,morespecifically, thedifferentkinds of public toiletspresentandthe users’satisfactionwith thesefacilities.
Thenextchapterdealswith theplansandpoliciesconcerningpublic toiletsin Kumasithroughanexaminationof theinstitutional frameworksurroundingthetoilet facilities. This chapteraddressesthestructureandrole of the KMA andtheWMD, andthe sanitaryfacilities andprojects.
Chapter4 concernsthe privatisationof thepublic toilets in Kumasi. Inaddition to the performanceof public toilets, theorganisationalandfinancialaspectsarealsodealtwith in this chapter.Therole of the KMA andtheWMD israisedaswell, asis therole ofprivate contractorsin supplyingpublic toiletfacilities. Furthermore,the evaluationandmonitoringof themanagementandmaintenanceof toilet sitesandtheopinionsofvariousactorsare treatedin thischapter.Thelastpartof thechapterreflectson thepolitical aspects.
2 SeeAppendixA for the sevensites,AppendixB for thequestionnairefor usersandAppendixC for the
questionnairefor supervisors.
NORTHERNREGIQN
•tw’sMi ~
10
Map 1: Map of Ghana showing the location of Kumasi
UPPERWEST
REGION•Wa
REGION
CENThREGIoN
Coa~
Copynght PetervanTot / Rotterdams,Dagblad, 1998
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Chapter 2: Toilet facilities in Kumasi
2.1 Generaloverviewof Kumasi
Kumasilies at the heartof theAshanti Kingdom,onceoneof the largestandmostpowerful of all Africankingdoms.CurrentlyKumasiis the secondlargestcity inGhanaandtheadministrativecapitalof theAshanti Region.It is locatedat thecentreof thecountry,about300 km north-westof Accra, the nationalcapital (Map1). Themetropolitanareacovers150 km2. In accordancewith thedecentralisationprocess,theKumasiMetropolitanArea is madeup of four submetropolitandistricts:Asokwa,Bantaina,ManhyiaandSubin (Map 2).
Between1960 and 1970, thepopulationof Kumasigrewfrom 218,000to345,000— anannualgrowthrateof 5%.In the 1970-1984period,Kiimasi’sgrowthslowedto 2.4%,which waslower thanthenationalurbangrowthrateof3.4%(Governmentof Ghana,1993,pp. 4). We mustbearin mind, however,thatthereis a greatdifferencebetweenofficial andunofficial populationfigures.Currentunofficial estimatesalreadysetKumasi’spopulationat onemillion.Accordingto theDevelopmentPlanfor Kumasi,on the otherhand,thepopulationof the city wasonly 800,000in 1996.
Trade,commerce,fanningandmining areprimaryactivitiesin theAshantiRegionof whichKumasiis thecapital.Cocoaand high-qualityhardwoodaremajorexportproducts.The city is renownedfor its famous8,000-stallCentralMarket,oneof thelargestin Africa. This marketservesasa majorcentreof commercenotonly for the Ashantiregionbut alsofor the restof the country.Businessin Kumasiis dominatedby theinformal sectorhowever.Kumasi’slocationis strategicwithinthecountry.Thecity’s centrallocation in thenationalroadnetworkmakesit anidealcommercialcentrefor bothagriculturalproducecomingfrom thehinterland,andthe distributionof goodsacrossthe country(Korboe& Tipple, 1995,pp. 270).
Living conditionsin manypartsof the city arepoorandhousesareverycrowded.About 95%of all householdslive in multi-family buildingsor‘compounds’.Most of thesearesingle-storeybuildings,but about25%of allhouseholdslive in multi-storeybuildings(Whittington etal, 1993, pp. 734).Ninetypercentof all householdslive in a singleroom.TheaveragehouseholdsizeinKumasiis 4.6 peopleandtheaveragenumberof peoplein a compoundis about50. Thesecompoundshaveno roomdevotedspecificallyto cookingor washing.Manyof theseactivitiestakeplacein the courtyardof thecompoundor in thestreet.
About 38%of thepopulationin Kumasiusethe400 public toilets scatteredthroughoutthecity becausetheylackprivate facilities in their building orcompound(Mensah,1996,pp. 6). The currentsystemof public toilets in thecity isinadequate.The quality of servicesdeliveredis verypoor, the numberof facilities isinsufficientandthereis agenerallackof maintenance(Mensah,1996, pp. 39).Moreover,thehumanwastefrom public toilets is oftendumpeddirectlyinto theNsubinriver. Theseshortcomingshaveresultedin very high public healthrisks.
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2.2 Currentsituation3
‘Generally, thelevelsofcleanlinessat thetoilet siteshaveimprovedconsiderablysincetheadventofthefranchisemanagementscheme.However,there is still a longway to goasfar asthedesiredlevelsofservicein termsofcleanlinessareconcernecL’(Mensah,1996, pp. 35)
In September1996, whenAnthony Mensah(WMD) wrote the textabove,thecleanlinessof public toiletswasstill improving. In January1997,thesituationchanged.Contractswith private companieswerenot renewedandthe KMA handedover the managementof public toilets to theAssemblyMembers.Beforedescribingthe currentsituation,it is importantto introducethevarioustypesof toiletfacilities presentin thecity.
2.2.1Typesof public toilets
About 38 percentof theofficial number of 800,000 Kumasi’s inhabitantsdependon public toilets. Most of thesepeoplehaveno facilities at home.Demandfor public toilets is placedinto two categories,namely,residentswho haveno toiletfacility in theirhouse,andvisitors travellingorworking in the area,especiallyinthe CBD. Table 1 showsthenumberof peopleusingthevarioustypesof toilets inKumasi.
Tuble 1: DomesticSanitationServiceCoverae in Kumasi IRMA, 1990)Sanitation!ystem No. ofUnits Population - Population %
IndiscriminateDefecation - 30,000 64,000 5 8Totals 600,000 800,000 100 100Sources figuresfor 1990 from Mensah, 1996, pp. 12, figures for 1996 arequotedfromtheMiiustxy of LocalGovernmentandRuralDevelopment, 1996, pp 96.
Thereare400 public toilet sitesin Kumasi.Themajority of theseare locatedin thevariousneighbourhoodsthroughoutthecity. Thereareeleven sites in theCBD, which provideserviceto some150,000non-residentswho frequentthe CBDand its immediateenvironseveryday(Ministry of Local GovernmentandRuralDevelopment(MLGRD), 1996,pp. 98).Theremainingfacilities areat speciallocationslike schoolsandhospitals.About 64%of the toilets in town areaquaprivies (seedescriptionbelow). Approximately15%arebucketlatrines,20%are
3The‘current situation’ m this report refersto theMarch-July 1997 researchpenod.
Public toilets aredislodged(emptied)on a regularbasisin Kumasi,aboutonceor twice perweekdependingonthenumberof usersat eachsite.This mustbe donemoreoftenduring therainy season.At busysiteslike the centralmarket,toilet facilities aredislodgedaboutten timesa month.Dependingon thecontractor,a trip costsbetween30,000 - 35,000cedis.4Thereis no differencebetweenthetypeof sitesconcerningthepriceof desludging.At somelocationsthis shouldoccurmorefrequentlybecausethe pits oftenoverflow. However,sincethe costsofdesludgingaresohigh, somepublic toiletsat busylocationsarenot dislodgedoftenenough.Thevarioustypesof public toiletsin Kumasiaredescribedbelow:
1) Aqua PrivyAquaPriviesareessentiallysmall septictankslocateddirectly underneathasquattingplate.Thesehavea drop-pipewhich extendsbelow theliquid level in thetankto form a simplewaterseal.To preventodour,fly andmosquitonuisance,thewatersealhasto beadjustedwith eachuseby addingwater to the tankvia thedrop-pipeto replaceany losses.Wasteis depositeddirectlyinto the tankwhereitdecomposesanaerobically(i.e. without oxygen) in the samewayit would in a septictank. Thetank requiresdesludging.Themain disadvantageof this systemis thatthewatersealoftenbreaks(Broome& Trattles, 1986,pp. 44). Most AquaPriviesinKumasiwereinstalledover30 yearsago,andtheyarenow operatingasholdingtanksdueto inadequateupkeepofthe soak-awaysystems.Sincewateris nolongerusedto provideseals,AquaPrivy systemsareoftenquite malodorous(Mensah,1996,pp. 26).
2) BucketLatrineTheBucketLatrine— officially forbiddenin Kumasidueto manydeathsamongconservancyworkersfrom theextremelyunhealthyworking conditions— consistsof a squattingplateor seatimmediatelyabovea 20-30litre bucket,into whichfaecesandurine fall. Removalis sometimescalled ‘nightsoil collection’becauseit iscarriedoutat night. Thebucketcanbe removedby a small doorat the backof thelatrine. This systemis condemnedbecausethe servicingis very unpleasant.
Theselatrinesareusuallypoorly designed.As a result, theyarenot easytokeepclean.Generallytheysmell verybad andarebreedinggroundsfor insects.Atmostsites,thesystemis veryunhygieriic (Broome& Trattles, 1986,pp. 44).Themajority (66%) of theusersinterviewedduring the studyview bucketlatrinesastheleastfavourableoption.
In the late 1980s,aftermostof thelabourerswho collectedthebuckets3-5timesperweekwerelaid off by theKMA, theybeganto operateasfreelancecontractorsworking without supervision(MLGRD, 1996,pp. 97).
2000 cedi.sis theequivalentof aboutUS$1
15
3) Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine — KVLPTraditionalpit latrineshavetwo main disadvantages:theyusuallysmell badandtheyattractflies andotherdisease-carryinginsectsthatbreedin thepits. For thatreason,theVentilatedImprovedPit Latrinewasdeveloped,which exhibitsnoneoftheseproblems.A VIP is a traditionallatrine to which aventpipe, coveredwith ascreenis addedto minimiseodourandfly problems.A VIP canhaveoneor two pitswhich areusuallylined with honeycombedcementblockwalls. It canbedesignedeitherwith alternating(with two pits undereachsquattingslab)or non-alternatingpits. Thetwin-pit alternatingoffsetVIP wasdevelopedin Kumasiandis thereforereferredto asthe KumasiVentilatedImprovedPit latrine’ in Ghana.The twin-pitconceptenablesthe contentsof onepit (oncefilled) to decomposewhile the other isin use,providedthat sufficient time is allowed(two yearsor more).Afterwards,thedecomposedmaterialscanbedug out by handwithout anyserioushealthrisks.VIP latrinesarevery easyto maintainand,asidefrom regularcleaningandrepairs,needno further attentionuntil the pit is nearlyfull (Mensah,1996,pp. 26).
4)WCWCs havetwo main disadvantages:theyarevery expensiveandtheyuselargequantitiesof water.Moreover,mostof the flushing devicesbreakfrom extensiveuse.TheWC toilet facilities currently in usein Kumasiareof thesitting type. Usersaccustomedto squatting(requiredfor moretraditionalkinds of toilets) tendtocontinuethis practice.The resultis a fouling of the toilet bowl, wetting of thefloor,and,more importantly,damageto theunit (Mensah,1996, pp. 27). TheWCs arenot connectedto a sewersystem,but emptyinto concreteseptictanksunderground.Most of the timeit is not possibleto useWCs dueto a lackof water.In spiteof this, 68%of theusersduring the surveyreportpreferringWCs the most.
Table2: Type ofToilet UsersPrefer the Most andLeast (1997)~Preferred toilet by users: Most (%) Least(%)AquaPrivy 12 10BucketLatrine 12 66KVIP 8 14WC 68 5Bush 0 5Totals 100 100
UserspreferWCs becauseof the convenience,lack of stenchand becausetheyareverycleanandeasierto dislodge.Becauseof the stench,disposalproblemsanddirty environment,bucketlatrinesarelessdesirable.KVIPs wereexpectedto beverypopularbut becauseof thedesludgingproblems,the stenchandtheheat,theyareevenlesspopularthanaquapriviesandbucketlatrines.
Thesefigures werecollecteddunng thesurvey
16
2.2.2 Satisfaction with public toilet facilities
Thehistoryof the sanitationsituationin Kumasirevealsthat theKumasiMetropolitanAssemblyprovidespoorquality servicesasfar aspublic toiletsareconcerned.In 1985CDRstookover themanagementof thepublic toilets from theKumasi City Council becauseof substandardmaintenance(seealso§ 3.2 & 4.1). In1989a pilot projectwassetup within theframeworkofthe Kumasi SanitationProjectthat aimedto stimulateprivatesectormanagementof severalpublic toiletsby usinga franchiseapproach.Becausethe experienceswerereasonablypositive,theKMA decidedto continueand extendthis privatisation.However,for reasonsdiscussedbelow (~3.2)themanagementwashandedoverto theAssemblyMembersin 1997.
At present,public toilets in Kumasi arenot managedwell. Accordingto theusers,servicesareverypoorandhavebecomeworsesincetheAssemblyMemberstook overcontrol.The researchhasshownthat only 10%of public toilet usersinKumasiare ‘very satisfied’with the facilities theyusemostof thetime. Of the70usersinterviewedduringtheresearch,43%arenot satisfiedat all with theuseofpublic latrines.The rest,47%, arereasonablysatisfied,but alsocomplainaboutmaintenance,cleanlinessand/oruserfees.
Of all theusersinterviewedfor thesurvey,the usersat Alabar (seepicture 1,page19) weretheleastsatisfied,and 70%were ~notsatisfiedat all’ with the publictoilet, due to thelackof cleanlinessand stench.Both the service(accordingto 40%of theusers)andthecleanliness(50%of theusers)at this locationis poor.Thislocationusesbucketlatrines.
At the sitesat NsuoAse(bucketlatrines), CentralMarket (aquaprivy) andAmaahAgric Bank (KVIPs), half of the userswerenot satisfiedat all. UsersinAnlogawere themostsatisfiedwith the latrinetheyuse,namelytheaquaprivy,while 30%of theuserswerevery satisfiedand only 20%werenot satisfiedat all.
Thereis a clearrelationshipbetweentherespondentswho weresatisfiedLwith thefacilities, andthetype of facility present.Locationsprovidingtypesoftoiletsusersprefermost, scorehigherin the survey.
Table 3: Satisfactionwith PublicToilets in Kumasi (1997)6How satisfied are you with the public latrine you now use? %Very satisfied 10Satisfied 47
Not satisfiedat all 43Totals 100
6Thesefigureswerecollectedduring the survey.
17
Commoncomplaintsaboutpublic toilets in Kumasiinclude:
• stench• desludgingproblems• too closeto the houses• buildingsaredilapidatedandmustbemodernised• not enoughcubicles• otherusersarenotcareful with thetoilets / misuseof toilets• toiletscancauseinfectionsif not clean(peopleareafraid of contractingAids
from public toilets)• not enoughtoilet paper• lackof water,soapandtowelsfor washinghands• no night watchman• verydirty, cleaninginsidethe toiletsmustbe improved• lack of light• verydirty environment• lack of periodicrenovationsandpainting• inadequateservicefor themoneyusershaveto pay• inadequatewatersupply
Usersof public toiletshaveto payauserfeefor eachvisit, 30 cedisfor latrinesand50 cedisfor WCs. Supervisors,hired by theAssemblyMemberswho managethetoilets, aresupposedto performmaintenanceandsanitationfrom theseuserfees.However,theseservicesleft muchto be desired.At all public toilet sitesusersreceiveda scrapof newspaperastoilet paper.In addition,mostsiteshavenowater,no soapandno towels.
Most users,65 percent,aredissatisfiedwith the servicesofferedat thepublictoilets becauseof thepoorconditions.Only 11%think that the servicesaregood.Fifty-sevenpercentarecontentwith thelevel of privacyand34%think thatthis isfair. Figure 1 aswell aspicture2 (page19) showsthat little privacyexistsforpublic toilet users.En spiteof all the complaintsaboutcleanlinessduring thesurvey,23%of theusersaresatisfiedwith it, 43%considerthetoilets fair and34%areunhappy.
painting of the buildmgs,thenumberof cubiclesandthe avaiiabihtyof toilet paper,water, soapandtowelsaswellasthepresenceof awatchman
18
Figure 1: Interior of a typical public toilet facility in Kumasi
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C)
I I I II I I I
I I = entrance= cubicle
= wall in front of and in betweencubicles
As figure 1 shows,cubiclesaresituatednext to eachother.At mostsites,inbetweenthe cubiclesarewalls at shoulderheight.Thereareno doorsin front of thecubicles.Thereis awall at the front of theentrancesto give userssomeprivacy.Afew wastebasketsareprovidedfor thetoilet paper.
Overhalf of the peopleusingpublic toilets, 55 percent,think they do not getenoughvalue for their moneybecauseof the poor conditions and services.About41% of theusersarewilling to pay up to 80 cedismoreif the situationimproves.
Most sitesarecleaneddaily or severaltimesa day. Labourerswho cleanthesitesusedisinfectants.At mostlocationstherearetwo labourers.Supervisorshavedifficulties finding labourersto cleanthe toilet sitesbecauseofthe abjectworkingconditions.All siteshaveabouttwo peopleto collecttheuserfees.After peoplehavepaid, theyreceivetheir toilet paper.At somesites,a watchmantakescareofthebuilding at night, while othersitessimply closeat night.
In additionto theAssemblyMemberswho managethepublic toiletspersonally,theAssemblyMembersalsohire supervisors.Thesesupervisorsareresponsiblefor thedaily managementof the toilet sitesbecausemostAssemblyMembersdo nothaveenoughtime to do sothemselves.Supervisorshaveto findlabourersand feecollectors.Theyalsohaveto takecareof desludgingandmaintenanceproblems.Somesupervisorsmanagemultiple sites.AssemblyMemberspaya monthly wageto the supervisors.Their incomevariesfrom site tosite, but nowhereis it well-paid. For their part,theAssemblyMembersearna profitfrom managingthepublic toilet sites.
19
Picture1: Public toilet site at Alabar,were users are ‘not satisfiedat all’ due to thelack of cleanlinessand stench.
Picture2: Interior of thepublic toilet facility atOkyokohen. As at othersites,thereareno doorsin front of the cubicles.Thus little privacy existsfor public toilet users.
20
Chapter 3: Plansand policies
3.1 The institutional framework for Kumasi’s toilet facilities
Environmentalsanitationis an essentialcomponentofthehealth,productivityandwelfareof theGhanaianpopulation.All District, Municipal and MetropolitanAssembliesin Ghanaareconcernedaboutsanitation,drainageandwastemanagement,andgive it highpriority in their developmentobjectives.TheGovernment’stenyear (1991-2000)National EnvironmentalAction Plan (NEAP)highlightssanitationandwastedisposalasmajorissues(World Bank, 1996,pp. 41). In closecooperationwith theWorld Bank, thegovernmentof Ghanapreparedthe UrbanEnvironmentalSanitationProject(UESP) to improveenvironmentalsanitation.Theseprojectsarepartly relatedto theimprovementofpublic toilets, aswill beshownin this chapter.In Kumasi, theKMA is responsiblefor theimplementationof theseprojects.
3.1.1The organisatlon and role ofthe KMA
In 1962, Kumasiachievedan official statusof a ‘city’ and with it, thecreationoftheKumasi City Council (KCC). The KCC, like its predecessorthe KumasiTownCouncil (establishedin 1943),providesgeneralpublic toilet servicesfor the city aswell asinfrastructure.In 1988/89,with the creationof District andMetropolitanAssemblies,the statusof Kumasiwaselevatedto that ofa ‘metropolis’, thusmakingtheKCC the KumasiMetropolitanAssembly(KMA) (Salifu, 1995, pp.51).
TheKMA is madeup of 86 AssemblyMembers,sixty of whom areelectedfrom their respectiveareas,and 25 of whom areappointedby the president.Theselast25 representvariousinterestgroups.Thefinal memberis the headof the KMA,the ChiefExecutive.He is both appointedby the nationalgovernmentandis arepresentativeof this government.Sincehemustapproveall contractsandplansinKumasi,he is a verypowerful actor.
The KMA usedto bethe soleproviderof public toilets in Kumasi. In 1985,theCDRsintervenedandstartedto managemostof thetoilet facilities (see3.2 &4.1). After fouryearstheKMA decidedto startapilot projectto investigatethepossibilitiesof privatisingpublic toilet management.Between1994and 1997almostall public latrinesin Kumasiwere managedby privatecontractors.
As mentionedabove,Kumasiis divided into four submetropolitandistricts:Asokwa,Bantama,ManhyiaandSubin. Eachdistrict hasits own Sub-MetropolitanCouncil andeachof the KMA’s foursub-districtsis responsiblefor managingthepublic toilets in its area.All submetropolitandistrictsmustpreparea sanitarymanagementplananda contractregardingsanitarysitemaintenancefor bothlatrinesand solidwastetransfer.Thesemanagementplansmustincludeprovisionsfor upgradingthefacilities, feecollection,cleaning,repairanddesludging.Theseplansinform thesubmetropolitancouncilsaboutthe upkeepof thevariouspublictoilet sitesin their districts. Contractscanbe closedwith communitygroupsorprivatecompanies(Governmentof Ghana,1993,pp. 12). Presentlythesecontractsareclosedwith theAssemblyMembers.Accordingto the Governmentof Ghana,
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Unit Committeeswithin the sub-districts(the smallestunitswithin the politicalstructureof theKMA) will beresponsiblefor theinstallationof sanitationfacilities.At present,however,theseUnit Committeeshavenot yet beenofficially established.
During the 1989-1996period,the KMA wasthe official ownerof thepublictoilet structuresbecausetheybuilt the sites.Howevertheyagreedto contracttheseout to privatecontractors.TheAssemblyMemberscontinueto managethe toiletsitesbut the KMA remainstheowner.
Thesecontractschangetherole of theKMA in relationto thetoilet facilities.The KIvIA movedawayfrom directprovisionof public toilet servicesand begantopromoteactive involvementofboth communitiesandespeciallytheprivatesectorin their delivery.To effect this change,the KMA establisheda WasteManagementDepartment,staffedby managementandengineeringprofessionalsresponsibleforguiding theimplementationof the StrategicSanitationPlanfor Kumasi(Governmentof Ghana,1993, pp. 12).
3.1.2 The organisation and role of the WMD
TheKIvIA bearsultimateresponsibilityfor wastemanagementin Kumasi.To carryout this task,the KMA createdanindependentWasteManagementDepartment(WMD) to fine-tuneandperiodicallyupdatethe StrategicSanitationPlan,mobiliseresourcesto implementcomponentsof theplan,managethetenderingprocessforconstructionandservicecontracts,supervisethedesignandconstructionofsanitationfacilities, andmonitor thewastedischarges(Governmentof Ghana,1993, pp. 12). Theliberalisationof the WMD wasa preconditionsetby the BritishOverseasDevelopmentAdministrationfor giving financialsupportto the WMD.
In 1990, theWMD wascreatedby theannexationof the MechanicalEngineersDepartmentandpartof theEnvironmentalHealthDivision of theMedical Officer of Health (MOH) Department,all of which were officesof the KMA(MLGRD, 1996,pp. 99).The WMD wascreatedto hannonisethe operationsof thevariousdepartmentsandto establisha departmentdedicatedto wastemanagementproblems.
TheWMD is responsiblefor managingthe collection anddisposalof bothhumanandsolid wastein Kumasi. At presenttheWMD consistsof five divisions,all which havetheirown tasksandresponsibilities:Administration,HumanWaste,Solid Waste,Landfill and Maintenance(figure 2, page23). TheHumanWasteDivision is mostrelevantto this study.This division, actingthroughfour units(ContractsMonitoring, CommunityLiaison, DesludgingServicesandLatrineConstruction),is responsiblefor theprovisionandmanagementof theoperationandmaintenanceof public toilets.
The ContractsMonitoring Unit administersthe OperationandMaintenancemanagementcontractsunderthefranchisescheme(privatisationof public toiletfacilities); the CommunityLiaison Unit, in cooperationwith theHealthEducationDivision of the KMA, works to promotecommunityparticipationandhealtheducation;the DesludgingServicesUnit providesa septictankemptyingserviceforboth domesticandpublic toilet facilities for a fee;andtheLatrine ConstructionUnit coordinatestheinstallationof bothhomeandpublic toilet facilities. ThePublic HealthMonitoring Unit oftheMOH is expectedto performaregulatoryfunction. Dueto problemssuchasa low skill-level of the professionalstaff, and
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weakplanningandmanagement capability, this unit is not performingoptimally(Mensah,1996, pp. 23).
TheWMD ContractsMonitoring Unit is responsiblefor handlingtheoperationandmaintenancemanagementcontractsunderthefranchisescheme.This is donein cooperationwith the submetropolitancouncilsbecausetheyhadmademanagementplansfor their districts. Althoughthe ContractsMonitoring Unitis chargedwith managingthe proceduresfor public facilities, the submetropolitancouncilsbearfinal responsibility.Dueto the shortcomingsof theWMD, likeinsufficient contracts,mismanagementandpoorsupervision,aFranchiseManagementCommitteewassetup in 1996.Anotherreasonfor establishingthiscommitteewasto helpthe submetropolitancouncilsrespondto the failuresof theWMD, which were promptedby the nevercompletelyimplementeddecentralisationprocess.The FranchiseManagementCommitteeis madeup of fourKMAadministrators,two AssemblyMembers,the MetropolitanHealthDirector, the CityEngineeranda representativeof theWMD.~
3.2 Sanitaryfacilities and projects
Public sanitaryfacilities in Kumasidatebackto 1923whentheKumasiPublicHealthBoardintroducedthe PanLatrineSystem.TheBoardhad beenestablishedto conducttheplanning,developmentandmanagementof sanitaryfacilities in thecity. Beforetheintroductionof thepanlatrines, theonly public sanitaryservicewasthepit latrinewhoseconstructionandmaintenancewasgenerallydoneat thecommunities’own initiative (World Bank, 1990, pp. 1). In 1939, a law waspassedthatrequiredeveryhouseto beequippedwith a latrine. ThethenKumasiCityCouncil (KCC) providedlabourerswho emptiedthebucketstwo or threetimesaweekfor a monthly fee perhouseandusedsuctiontrucksto dislodgeseptictanks(Mensah,1996, pp. 11).
In thefollowing years,a sewagesystemwasconstructedand installedin partsofKumasi. In 1985, theKCC constructed100 KumasiVentilatedImprovedPit (KVIP)Latrines.Also in 1985, the KCClaid off 400 of its labourersin accordancewithnationallabourrationalisationpoliciesasenforcedby theIMF andthe StructuralAdjustmentProgrpmmes.Thepan latrineemptyingservicesbecameprivatisedandfeeswereincreased.Consequently,mosthouseholdswereforcedto stopusingtheirpanlatrinesandhad to resortto thepublic toilets. Thesuspensionof thelabourersalsoaffectedtheKMA’s ability to managetheoperationandmaintenanceof thepublic latrines,resultingin allowing the quality of serviceto deterioratetounacceptablelevels(Mensah,1996, pp. 11).TheCommitteesfor theDefenceof theRevolution(CDRs) andothercommunitygroupsthenintervenedto restorethequality of service.Thisinterventionled to the introductionof userchargesforpublic toilets. Userspaidfor the costof operationandtheprovisionof toilet paper.This involvementof the CDRsin the managementof public toiletsbroughtaboutsomeimprovements,but the sanitationlevelsremainedunacceptable.
~This mforma~onwasobtainedby JohanPost,Umveraity of Amsterdam,who conducteda senesof interviews onthis subjectin January 1997
In 1989, the UNDPand the KMA launcheda pilot projectcalledthe KuinasiSanitationProject(KSP). In thisproject,KVIPs wereprovidedin privatehouseholdsreducetheuseof public toiletsat threetestsitesin Kumasi.During theproject,mosthousesin the threeareaswereequippedwith private sanitationfacilities; 43KVIPs werebuilt in SouthSuntreso,100 in MoshieZongo and 50 in Ayigya.
Anotherpilot projectof theKSP concernedtheimprovementof publiclatrines.Oneof thecomponentswasthe improvementof themanagementbyintroducingprivatising/franchisearrangements.The otherwasto renovatesomeofthe existingpublic latrines.Within Kumasi’sCentralBusinessDistrict (CBD), 12siteswerecontractedto five privatecontractors(see4.1).Throughcompetitivebidding, contractorscould indicatetheirability to performthe services,andtheirequipmentlevelsand presenta proposalfor thefranchisemanagementof theselectedsite (Mensah,1996, pp. 31).By 1994, all thepilot projectshadbeencompleted.
Thecontractswith thefive privatecontractorswereevaluatedin 1993.Throughoutthe implementationof theproject, theprivate contractorsweremonitoredby theKMA in termsof cleanliness,maintenanceandtimely paymentoftaxes.The franchiseapproachwasnot fully satisfactory,because,in general,thesiteswerenotvery clean.However,owing to thefact that thesituationhadimproveda little, the KIvIA decidedto renewthecontracts.The KMA decidedtoestablishfoursubmetropolitancouncilsin Kumasi Asokwa,Bantama,Manhyiaand Subin— to beresponsiblefor public toilet services.In 1994, arrangementssimilar to the franchisemanagementschemewereestablishedto organisethemanagementof the public toilets in therespectivesubmetropolitandistricts ofKumasi.All private contractorscouldplacea bid, including thosewhich did notoriginally participatein thepilot project.
Recentlythe UrbanEnvironmentalSanitationProject(UESP)hasbegun,aprojectwhich coversGhana’sfive majorcities: Accra, Kumasi,Sekondi-Takoradi,TemaandTamale.This project camein responseto theUrbanDevelopmentStrategyReviewconductedjointly by the World Bankandthe GovernmentofGhanain 1993-94(World Bank, 1996, pp. 11). The UESPhasfive components:
During thepreparationof theproject, eachofthe five MetropolitanAssemblies(MAs) in Ghanaprepareda StrategicSanitationPlan (SSP)which outhnesitsstrategyfor providingcomprehensivesanitationservicesby theyear2005 (WorldBank, 1996, pp. 12). The MAs usedtheir SSPsto identify thespecificsanitationsub-projectsto be includedin the UESP.The staffof the KMA-WMD, togetherwiththeUNDP/World BankRegionalWaterand SanitationGroup,WestAfrica Office(RWSG-WA),producedan SSPfor the 1990-2000period.Theplanis aresponsetotheinadequatesanitationconditionsexistingin Kumasi andreflectsthewillingnessof theKMA to takethenecessaryorganisationaiandfinancialstepsto provideaffordablesanitationservicesfor all segmentsof thepopulation.
Theunderlyingprinciplesof the SSParethe needto review andadaptstrategiesasperceptionchangeswith experience,to incorporatebetterandevolving
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techniquesinto the deliveryof services,maintenancemanagementandto progressasmilestonesareachieved(MLGRD, 1996, pp. 61). In 1995,the first majorupdateof theSSPtook placefor the 1996-2005period.The updateof theoriginal SSPbadbeennecessarydueto the changesin populationbetween1990 and 1995.Accordingto thisupdate,theKMA will:
1. strengthenand reorientits WMD to overseeimplementation,~2 promotetheprovisionofservicesby theprivatesector;and3. seekfinancingfor a mix ofhousehold,publicand schoolfacilities to servethe
Accordingto the SSP,theprivatisationof the managementof thepublic toilets andthe provisionof sanitationfacilities in all homesis oneof themain goalsfor thefuture. Thelatter is includedin the UrbanWproject,partof the UIESPsanitationcomponent.Thisprojectwould help finance1,700householdlatrines(KVIPs) inKumasi(expectedto benefita total of about42,000people).Theprojectwould bear50%ofthe constructioncostsandthebeneficiarieswould contributetheotherhalf.This three-yearprojectstartedin August 1996 andis opento all peoplein Kumasi,exceptthe SubinandAsafo areas,andis especiallydirectedat theindigenousareasandone-storeybuildings.Asafo is excludedbecauseof its simplified sewageprojectimplementedunderthe KSP. About 20,000peoplein this areahavebeenconnectedto thesewersystem.Subinis excludedbecauseit is a commercialarea.
Theinstallationof homefacilities is expectedto resultin thedeclineoftheuseof public toilets in thefuturedue to a reduceddemandfrom residents.
Table5: Reduction of the useof public toiletsby the Installation of homefacilities (UNDP/KMA 1992)
Table 5 doesnot providea realisticimpressionof the situation.Thepopulationfiguresmentionedin thetablearealreadyout-of-date.In 1997, theofficialpopulationwas800,000,but unofficially Kumasi hasapopulationof aboutonemillion. Theplanis to build 1,700 householdfacilities for about25 peopleeach.This meansthat 42,500inhabitantswill benefitfrom thisproject.Assumingapopulationof 800,000inhabitants,this meansa 14%declinein the useof publictoilets, so 24%of thepopulationwill still haveto usepublic toilets. If oneassumesthecurrentpopulationto be 1 million, the decreaseis only 11%. In that case,27%of the inhabitantswill still not havetoilet facilities athome. In 1990, thepopulationforecastfor 2000with a high growthrateof 3%was774,694.
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Chapter 4: Privatisation ofPublic Toilets in Kumasi
4.1 Managementof public toilets
Management,asdefinedby the UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(Mensah,1996, pp. 20) is The processof controlling, directingand handlingaresource,facility or groupof people.Themanagementof the operationandmaintenanceof public toilets includesanyactionstakento ensurethe properoperationof thefacilities to provideeffectiveserviceto the users.’AccordingtoMensah,theseprincipleswerelacking in themanagementof public toilet facilitiesin Kumasiduring theyearswhentheKMA wasdirectly responsible.As wasexplainedin thepreviouschapter,this wasthereasonwhy CDRsfirst took over themanagementof public toilets. Thisbroughtaboutsomeimprovements.However,sanitationlevelswerestill far belowwhat could beconsideredasacceptable.Shortcomingsin the managementof both the KMA andthe CDRs were:
In 1989,the KSP initiated a pilot projectin theCBD. This projectsoughttoestablishthe feasibility of thefranchisemanagementmethodof selectedpublictoilets within the CBD. The 12 sitesselectedfor this projectarecharacterisedbyintensiveuseandconsequentlyhavetheproblemof overuseandinsufficientupkeep.Thehigh rateof useat theselocationssparkedthe interestof privatecompanies.
Themain basisfor the adoptionof thefranchisemanagementschemefor theoperationandmaintenancemanagementof public toilets is thegrantingtheexclusiveright to deliver services.The competitionfor this covetedstatusresultsinefficiencysavingsand the injection of innovativeand commercialmanagementintotheindustry (Mensah,1996, pp. 30). Privatecontractorswho wereinterestedinthis schemecouldrespondto an advertisementplacedby theICMA. Registeredbiddershad to demonstratetheir ability to performtheservice,showthat they hadsufficient equipmentand submita proposalfor managingthe selectedsite.Theyalsohadto indicatewhich of the 12 sitestheywere interestedin managing.
The aim wasto selectwell-establishedorganisationsthatwould beableto managethe latrinesat hygieniclevelsandmaintaintherequisitestandards.Finally, fivecompanieswereselectedfor the pilot project.After theywereinformedabouttheirsuccessfulbid, theywereaskedto submita detailedproposalwithin oneweek.
Both the KMA andtheprivatecontractorssignedanagreementwhich clearlydefinedtheresponsibilitiesof the contractingparties.The KMA offeredthe 12 sitesfor a specificcontracttermandthe selectedprivatecompanieshadto effectdailyoperationandmaintenanceof the facilities which adheredto setminimumstandardsof service.An appropriatepercentageof theexpectedrevenue,dependingon the site,had to bepaid asa surtaxto theKMA or the submetropolitancouncils.This amounthadto beearmarkedfor majorfacility improvements,thebuilding ofnewsitesor to developmentinfrastructure.Managerswereresponsiblefor minormaintenanceat thetoilet sites.
Throughoutthe CBD pilot project,mostof theremainingpublic toilets inKumasi (outsidetheCBD) were managedby caretakersappointedby theElectoralAreas’AssemblyMembers.Thesesiteswerelocatedmainly in the neighbourhoods.The qualityof servicewasrelativelylow in comparisonto theCBD dueto theabsenceofa monitoringmechanism(Mensah,1996,pp. 34).
In 1992, during thepilot project, theAssemblyMembersattemptedto takeoverthemanagementof thepublic toilets from theprivatecontractors.The matterhadto be settledin court, andthe ruling favouredthe contractors.
In 1994 arrangementssimilar to thefranchisemanagementschemewereintroducedfor all the public toilet facilities in Kumasi.From this pointonwards,competitivebiddingwaspossiblefor all privatecompaniesin town. Theyhadtofollow the sameprocedureasduring thepilot project.
In thecourseof thefollowing years,public toilet facilities in Kumasiweremanagedby 44 private contractors.In 1997,theKMA, for political reasons,decidedto transferthe managementof public toilets from the privatecontractorstotheAssemblyMembers.Theaffectedentrepreneursonceagaintook themattertocourt. However,evenafterseverallawsuits,thejudgecouldnot reacha decision.
Almost all theactorsinvolved in public toilet facility provisionin Kumasiwantedthetoilet sitesto beprivatisedagain.Eventhe RegionalMinister of theAshantiregionorderedthe ChiefExecutiveof Kumasito re-privatisethepublictoilets in July.
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4.2 Organisational aspects
Accordingto this study, the main problemof improving public toilet facilities inKumasiare theorganisationalaspects.A multitudeof actors,like theAssemblyMembersand privatecontractors,but also the ICMA andtheWMD, are involved intoilet services,with a notablelackof overall coordination.Becauseof thelack ofclarity abouttheroles of thevariousactorsinvolved in managingthe public toilets,no onefeelsresponsible,and servicescontinueto deteriorate.
4.2.1 Managementby the AssemblyMembers
As mentionedbefore, theKMA bearsultimateresponsibilityfor thepublic toiletsinKumasi. More specifically: theChiefExecutiveof Kumasimakesall importantdecisionspersonally.In actualfact, however,the ChiefExecutivealwayshasto givehis consentbeforecontractsbeforetheycanbe signed.This implies,therefore,thatthe managementof public toiletswill not bereturnedto theprivatesectorunlessthe Chief Executiveagreesto it.
Apparently,the difficulty is that theChief Executivedoesnot want toreconsiderhis promiseto theAssemblyMembers.Thelatterarevery reluctanttorelinquish controlof thefacilities becauseit providesan importantsourceofrevenue.This wasprobablyan importantreasonwhy thepresentChiefExecuthrewasvotedinto office.
Presently,the AssemblyMembersaremanagingthe toilets, andthis hascausedsomeproblems.First of all, thereis theproblemof supervision.AssemblyMembershaveto reportto the submetropolitancouncilsfor themanagementof thepublic toilets.WhentheChiefExecutivehasgrantedhis consent,the foursubmetropolitancouncilsareresponsiblefor managingtheoperationandmaintenanceof thepublic toilets. Whenthe privatecontractorsmanagedthe sites,theAssemblyMembersinspectedthemon behalfof thesubmetropolitancouncils.Currently, the councilsarestill responsiblefor this supervision,so theAssemblyMembersare,in effect,monitoringthemselves.This meansthat no oneoverseesthework doneby the AssemblyMembers.Moreover,usersno longerhaveanindependentbodyat which to file their complaints.In the past,theycouldcometothe WMD or to theAssemblyMemberswith their complaints.
Furthermore,the AssemblyMembersdo not paya surtaxto thesubmetropolitancouncils.Dueto insufficient funds, thecouncilsdo nothavethemoneyfor majorrepairs.Therefore,theconditionof thetoilets is deteriorating.Accordingto thepresentsupervisors,anotherreasonfor this declinearethehighcostsof runningthe sites.Theyarenot satisfiedwith the low userfees.As theresearchhasshown,it is difficult at themomentto do evenminor repairs.Thefacilities facemanyproblemslike blockages,watershortage,breakdownsof theplumbing, desludgingandso on. It is not possibleto discusstheseproblemswiththeAssemblyMembersor the submetropolitancouncilsdueto lackof overallcoordination.
It shouldbe clearthatthe managementof the toilets by theAssemblyMemberscausesmanydifficulties. A third problemis the lackof experienceof theAssemblyMembersin managingthe public toilets. A final dilemmais theperiodofmanagementby theAssemblyMembers.Electionsfor theAssemblyMemberstike
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placeeveryfour years.Thenextelectionsaredue in 1998. It is not yet clearwhowill managethetoilets afterthe electionsif theyarenot re-elected,the newAssemblyMembersor theAssemblyMemberswho were removedfrom office. Whenthe managementof the toilet facilities is transferredto differentpeopleeveryfouryears,thoseresponsiblewill not takegood careofthe sitesbecauseit is onlytemporary.During thisperiodthey canexploit the siteswithout investingin thefacilities. As theyearsgo by, the stateof thepublic toilets will becomeworseandworse.
4.2.2 The role of the private contractors
In Kumasi, 44 privatecontractorsusedto managethepublic toilet facilitiesthroughoutthecity for severalyears.Theirmanagementwas,accordingto theusers,successful.
Oneof thepossibledisadvantagesof privatisationis that it cangive rise to amonopolysituation.However,becauseof the considerablenumberof contractorsinvolved in liquid sanitationservicesin Kumasi,a monopolysituation is, for thetime beingat least,outof thequestion.Nevertheless,somecontractorsaremoreimportantthanothersandhavelargerenterprises(e.g. Albert Joseph& Co. Ltd,PlanetGreenandSak-M& Co Ltd.). Almost all contractorsarepartof anorgaiusationwhich meetseverytwo weeks.Oneof themain topicsdiscussedwithinthe organisationis the above-mentionedlawsuit. MostprivatecontractorshavebecomeunemployedsincetheAssemblyMembersbeganto managethetoiletfacilities.
In additionto the successfulmanagementby privatecontractors,privatisationcreatesfunds to developmuch-neededinfrastructuresuchaspublictoilet facilities. Finally, it providesmoreefficient servicesbecausethe contractorshavethe necessaryequipmentto managethetoilet facilities, andtheyhaveaqualifiedstaff.
4.2.3 Evaluationandmonitoring
Evaluationandmonitoringof public toilet facility managementis necessarytoimprovethe toilet servicesbothnow andin the future.Monitoring shouldbedoneregularlyduring the contractswith the AssemblyMembersorthe privatecontractors.Inspectionsshouldalsotakeplaceregularly,at leastat themiddleandendof thecontractperiod,andthis shouldbeunannounced.
Whenmonitoring, it is of primaryimportanceto ensurethat servicesareprovidedproperly. Siteshaveto be clean,maintenancemustbeperformedwell,septictankshaveto bedislodgedon time andthe surtaxmustbepaid regularly.Secondly,usersatisfactionhasto bemeasured.Furthermore,permanentmonitoringmust bedone.This couldbecarriedout by the submetropolitancouncils,theWMD, a local committeeora groupofusers.Theessentialrequirementis that the monitor is independentof the managerto preventapotential conflictof interest.Usersmusthavean independentbody wheretheycanfile their complaints.Theteammustbe ableto monitor thesituationat a siteovertime. That is why the teamhasto bepermanent.To obtainbetterresults,checks
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mustoccurirregularlyandunannounced.Fourth, meetingsbetweentheinspectionteamandthe managersofthe toilet facilities shouldmeetregularly to solveanyproblems.Finally, monitoringarrangementshaveto be includedin the contracts.
Strict criteria for evaluationshouldbeestablished,with anemphasisoneffectiveness,qualityof service,andimprovingstandardsandusersatisfaction.Furthermore,it is importantto controlthe costssupervisorsincur, performa cost-benefitanalysisandto control userfeesand surtaxes.Thenegativeaswell asthepositiveaspectsof managementareequallyimportantduring evaluation.
4.2.4Views ofthevariousactors
Almost all theactorsinvolved in providingpublic toilet servicesin Kumasiagreedthat it would bebetterif thetoilets wereto becomeprivatisedagain.Not only theprivate contractorswant to managethetoilets themselves,but theWMD, thesubmetropolitancouncils,the ICMA andothersfeelthat it would bebetterto re-privatisethetoilets assoonaspossible.Evensomeof theAssemblyMemberssharethis opinion.Theresearchresultsclearlyshowthat public toilet facility usersalsosupportprivatisation.
Whenthe toiletswerein privatehandstheywere managedbetterthantheyarenow. Anotherargumentfor privatisationis that it enablestheWMD,submetropolitancouncilsor local conmiitteesto makecontractswith privatecontractors,thusdefinitively establishingthecontractperiodandtheamountofsurtaxdue.Finally, whenpublic toiletsarerun by privatecontractors,it is possiblefor theWMD, thelocal committeesor the submetropolitancouncilsto conductcomprehensiveinspectionandcontrol.
During a concludingseminarat theendof the study, a numberof actorsagreedthat privatecontractorsarebetter-equippedto managethetoilet facilitiesthantheAssemblyMembers.In spiteof this, the toilets still remainedunderthecontroltheAssemblyMembersin September.
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Chapter 5: Conclusionsand recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
In therecentpast,public toilet facilities in Kumasihaveimprovedsubstantially.However,the effectivenessofthe managementleavesmuchto be desired,especiallysincetheAssemblyMemberstook overcontrolof thetoilet sites.This studyshowed
that themanagementandmaintenanceof the toilet facilities arein greatneedoffurtherimprovement.
About 38 percentof Kumasi’spopulationdependson public toilets.Thisnumberis not expectedto declinesignificantly dueto a predictedgrowthinpopulation.Despitethe installationof homefacilities, the needfor public toiletswill continueto begreat.Thusit is importantto havecleanandwell-maintainedtoilets for all peoplewho eitherlack facilities at homeorwho arevisiting placeslikethe CBD. Substandardsanitationandmaintenancearecurrentlymajorproblemsat most sites;serviceis very poorandthefacilities arebadly managed.Problemsinclude stench,desludging,dirty sitesandthelack of water,soapandtowels.Furthermore,somesitesareoverused,do not haveenoughcubiclesandmostusersaredissatisfiedwith the services.Accordingto theresearch,only 10%areverysatisfiedwith thepublic latrinestheyusethemostat themoment.This low level ofsatisfactionmustbeaddressed.Importantgoals in this regardinclude:
Accordingto theresearch,organisationalaspectsareidentified assomeofthemajorcausesof problemsmentionedabove.Dueto lackof overallcoordinationandcooperationbetweenthevariousactors,themanagementof thetoilets is lesseffectivethanit couldbe. At present,no onefeels responsiblefor runningthetoiletfacilities. This is due to lack of clarity abouttheroles of thevariousactorsinvolvedin public toilet services.
Anotherimportantreasonfor the physicalproblemsis the managementofthe toilets by theAssemblyMembers.Thishascreateda monitoringproblem.Noonesupervisesthework of theAssemblyMembersandusersno longerhaveanindependentbodyatwhich to file theircomplaints.Furthermore,moneytomaintain thetoilet sitesandto build newsitesis lackingbecausetheAssemblyMembersdo notpayanysurtax.Finally, theAssemblyMemberslackexperienceinmanagingpublic toiletsand theycanbevotedouteveryfouryears.It is not clearwho will run thetoiletsafterthe 1998 elections:the newAssemblyMembersorthepresentones.Onecanhardlyview this systemasanexampleof goodmanagement.It is betternot to involve political interestsin themanagementof suchessentialservicesaspublic toilet facilities.
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Facedwith all theseconsiderations,toilet servicescontinueto deteriorateinKumasi.Furtherimprovementsrequirenotonly privatisationbut the managementandservicingof the public toiletsmustalso becomemoreefficient. This studywillnow concludewith somefinal recommendationsfor bettermanagementandimprovementofpublic toilets in Kumasi.
5.2 Recommendations
As alreadystated,thelevel of cleanlinessatthe toilet siteshaveimprovedconsiderablysincethefranchisemanagementscheme.However,thereis still a longway to go to reachthedesiredlevelsof service.Theconditionsand servicesofpublic toilets in Kumasiare likely to improveif public toiletsareprivatisedagaininthe future. As revealedby the research,themanagementof thetoilets by privatecontractorsinsteadof theAssemblyMemberswasmuchmoresuccessful.To runpublic toilets effectively,it is importantnot to involve political issuesinmanagement.Thus, the mostimportantrecommendationof this study is topnvatisethepublic toilet facilities. Theaim must be to selectwell-establishedcompanieswho areableto maintainthe toiletsat hygieniclevelsandmeettherequisitestandards.The criteriamustbe thesameasthat usedduring thefranchisemanagementscheme;generalinformationandattachment,businessplan, experienceandspecialconsideration.
To createthis cleardivision of tasks,the KMA, throughtheWMD, mustberesponsiblefor determiningthecriteriaconsideredfor privatecontractors,for theagreementon contractswith private companies,for major maintenanceof thetoiletsandfor building newtoilet sites.Themanagersof thetoilets should, in turn,pay their surtaxto theWMD. TheWMD shouldalsobe responsiblefor monitoringtheprivate contractors.
The four submetropolitancouncilsshouldbe responsiblefor the selectionofcompaniesto managethepublic toilet sites.Furthermore,thesecouncilsshouldberesponsiblefor monitoringthe private companies.In this case,the inspectormustbe independentof themanager.For users,it mustbe possibleto complainto thesubmetropolitancouncilsaboutthemanagementof thetoilet sites. During themonitoring, strict criteriamustbemaintainedregardingthedeliveryof services.Thesecriteriamustbemadeclearto themanagersofthe public toilets. It mustbeobvious to them whatthe consequencesarewhen,for example,thetoilets arenotclean.It is only thenthat the problemslisted abovecanbe solved.
Anotherelementthat is importantfor improving public toiletsis education.
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It is alsotheresponsibilityof the usersto help keepthesite clean.Someusersareconcernedaboutinfectionscausedby thetoiletswhentheyarenotclean.Educationprogrammescanteachthe usershow to avoid infections.
Finally, the KMA andWMD haveto discusspossiblybuilding newpublictoilet facilities in thefuture. At present,thereis overuseat somesitesandsometimestherearenot enoughcubicles.Despitetheinstallationofhomefacilities,the demandwill notdeclinesignificantly in the nearfuture. Whenall managerspaytheir surtax,it is possibleto performmajormaintenanceandbuild newsites.
As statedbefore,managingthetoilets by privatecontractorsinsteadof theAssemblyMemberswasmuchmoresuccessful.Privatecontractorsarewilling towork hardto managethesitesbecausethis generatesprofit. This is alsothereasonwhy theyarewilling to investmoneyin thetoilet facilities andpaysurtax.It is alsoto their benefitwhenthetoilet sitesarekept in goodcondition. Ongoingmonitoringandevaluationwill forcethemto continuallyservicethe sites.Presently,theAssemblyMembersarerunningthe toilet sitessimplyto earnmoney.Theyareneitherinterestedin the toiletsnor their users.For theAssemblyMembers,beingpoliticians, their primaryfocusis not the upkeepof toilets, andthus theyarenotpreparedto investmoneyor find competentpersonnel.Therefore,the toiletsarenotbeingmanagedwell by theAssemblyMembers.
Theserecommendationscouldbe asolutionto the problemsof improvingandmanagingthe public toilet sites. Hopefully, this researchwill bea valuablecontributionandwill help stimulateeffectiveandimprovedmanagementof thepublic toilet facilities in Kumasi.
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References
• Broome,J. & Trattles,D. (1986). Informationand training for Low-CostWaterSupply andSanitation.WashingtonDC, World Bank.
Descriptionof CurrentPractices,Attitudes, andPerceptions.In: WorldDevelopment.Vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 733-748.
• World Bank / UNDP / KMA (1990).KumasiSanitationProject.Public Latrineimprovementschemefor the centralbusinessdistrict of Kumasi.Designreport.World Bank / UNDP RegionalWaterandSanitationProgramme& KumasiMetropolitanAssemblyMetropolitanEngineersDepartment.
• World Bank (1996).UrbanEnvironmentalSanitationProject.StaffAppraisalreport,Republicof Ghana.InfrastructureandUrbanDevelopmentDivision,WestCentralAfrica Department,Africa RegionalOffice.
BantamaadministratorSubinadministratorManhyiaMedicalOfficer of HealthBantamaWMDAsokwaadministratorAsokwagovernment appointeeSubinWMDManhyiaadministrator
5. Do you haveemployment:a) notemployed 0b) employed(whatkind of employment) 0
6. If not employed,how do you paytheusercharges:
7. Why areyou usingthis public latrine:a) no facility at home(GO TO PAGE 5) 0b) working in this area 0c) visiting this area 0d) other (describe)______________ 0
8. Do you usuallyvisit only this public latrineor alsootherpublic latrines:a) this public latrine 0b) other(where)__________________ 0
9. Sincewhenhaveyou beenusingthis public toilet/or otherpublic toilets inKumasi:no. days/~.._weeks/ months/ years
10. Hasthepriceyou haveto pay for usingthepublic toilets changedduringthisperiod:a) no 0b) can’t tell 0c) yes(describe) _______________ 0
11. How muchdo youpay to usethepublic latrine:cedispervisit:
12. Are you satisfiedwith the amountyou pay:a) yes 0b) no (describe) 0
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13. Whichmembersof the societyare to beallowedin freeor couldbechargedhalftariffschildren: free / half tariffsdisabled:free / half tariffsold people:free / half tariffsothers______________________________
14. Frequencyof visit:day / __week / month
15. Total amountof moneyspentper~_day / ~_week / monthfor usingthepublic toilet
16. Do you know how muchmoneythe membersofyour household-including yourself- arespendingperday / week / monthusingthe public latrines
17. What typeof servicedo you getfor themoney:a) analcleansingmaterials 0b) water 0c) soap 0d) towels 0e) other(describe)_______________ 0
18. Hastheseserviceschangedduring theyears:a) no 0b) can’t tell 0c) yes(describe) 0
19. Which type of public toilet do you prefermost:a) KVIP 0b) bucketlatrine 0c) WC 0d) aquaprivy 0e) other (describe)_______________ 0
20. Why do you preferthis type of sanitarysystemmost:a) typeof sanitarysystem 0b) money 0c) easyto reach 0d) other(describe)______________ 0
21. Which typeof public toilet do you preferthe least:a) KVIP 0b) bucketlatrine 0c) WC 0d) aquaprivy 0e) other(describe)_______________ 0
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22. Why doyou prefer this typeleast:a) type of sanitarysystem 0b) money 0c) not easyto reach 0d) other (describe)________________ 0
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