IMU Basic Knowledge English Final 11-03-14

Introduction

Basic Knowledge Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application

Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application 1

Directory

30 Preface

4 - 80 Forging History

9 - 11 Production Statistics

12 - 14 Forging Materials

15 - 16 Grain-Flow

17 Tool Design and Profitability

18 - 19 Accuracy of Forged Pars

20 The most important forging processes

21 - 28 Forging Machinery

29 - 31 Automation

32 - 33 Pre-Forming

34 Ring Rolling

35 - 36 Open-die Forging

37 Special Process Hot Forging

38 Special Process Warm Forging

39 - 47 Cold Forging

48 - 52 Process Stages

53 Process Combinations

54 - 55 Tools

56 - 57 Heat Treatment

58 Surface Treatment

59 - 66 Quality Assurance and Material Testing

67 Machining Process

68 Forged parts in competition

69 - 81 Diversity of Forms

82 - 84 Applications

85 Diversity in Forging Technology

86 Optimization of Components

87 - 90 Development Chain

91 - 94 Simulation

95 Sources of Illustrations and Information

96 Imprint

97 - 101 Bibliography

102 Annex

Page number Subject


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Preface

Dear Readers,

Ladies and Gentlemen,

This presentation of the forging industry is designed to offer you an easily comprehensible insight into the highly interesting

and, for the economy, tremendously important world of hot and cold forging.

Even in the age of the Blackberry, IP-TV, Web 2.0 and all of the other colourful accomplishments that our modern world of the

media presents us with every day, machine engineering and plant construction – which is dependent on forged components by

massive forming – is and will remain one of the most important pillars of our present-day prosperity. Without high-strength,

forged metal components, the economic and technical development that we have experienced over the last hundred years

would not have been possible. Electricity and mobility in the form of motorised vehicles of all kinds are just two of the

multifarious fields of application for modern forged parts.

And also in the future, this technology will be used to an ever increasing extent:

Thanks to worldwide economic growth in recent years, the export of forged parts from Germany to all parts of the world has

been steadily increasing. Furthermore, the need to reduce CO2 emissions will also boost the demand for hot and cold forged

parts. The use of renewable energy by way of wind and hydroelectric power plants, economical combustion engines with high

combustion efficiency and low frictional losses, as well as efficient dual clutch transmissions are merely a few of the many

examples of environment protection which would be impossible without forged components. To enable the development and

application of these often very complex and, technically speaking, highly demanding components, an increasing use of cutting

edge computer technology and simulation software is being made in this branch of the industry.

This presentation “Basic Knowledge: Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application” is an “open” PowerPoint File.

This means that it is possible for you to take elements from it for teaching purposes for your own presentation. By using the

search function in PowerPoint, you are able to find the terms you need from the presentation in a few seconds. Besides the

clear, summarised texts on the individual pages, many pages also show more detailed, full text descriptions that will provide

you with further background information. Via directory you are able to switch within the subjects.

Hagen, 01/04/2011

Dr. Stefan Witt

Chairman of the Board

Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V.

German Association of the Forging Industry


Back to directory >>

The art of forging is already 6000 years old

Sketch from the pictures in the grave of Rechmiré, vizir in the

18th Dynasty (ca. 1450 BC)

Forging is one of mankind's

oldest technological processes.

In 4000 BC metals were already

being worked by smiths

The first copper-alloys appeared

around 2500 BC - we call this the

Bronze Age



Forging through the ages I

Mediaeval smelting furnace with accompanying smithy. The furnace

and the smith's fire both used charcoal as fuel in those days.

Between 700 and 500 BC iron

replaced bronze.

The smelting of the iron ore and

the forging process were one

unit until the 13th or 14th

centuries.



Water and steam replace muscle power

Steam hammer "Fritz" in Essen (ca.1860) Water-powered iron hammer (ca. 1780)



The start of drop forging

View of the production area of the Schmiedag

company in Hagen (ca.1910)

Range of products of the Schöneweiss

drop-forging works (ca.1910)

The smiths of those days used hammers driven by transmission shafts to produce a wide range of

forged parts for the railways, for the car industry and for agricultural machinery



Development of forging technology

View of a production facility with a linked automated forging line

The development of drop forging

made possible:

- increasing batch sizes for the

automotive industry

- further development of and

specialization in steel types

- new technologies for tool

production

- development of new machine

types, new production

processes and combinations

of processes, and automation



Production figures - German forging sector

Manufacturing group Production in '000 tonnes Proportion in %

Drop forging industry 1280 65

Flange manufacturers 68 3,5

Pipe-fittings producers 95 4,8

Cold-forging manufacturers 175 8,9

Open-die forgers 350 17,8

Total forging production 1968 100

Production of forgings in 2010

Almost two-thirds of the total forging output comes from the drop-forging sector.



Markets for forged products I

Percentages of steel forged parts delivered in 2009, in tonnes.

More than a third of all forged parts are exported. The automotive sector, together with system

producers (tier one suppliers) receives more than 80% of the total production.

Export 35%

Domestic 65% System suppliers 36%

Mechanical engineering

10%

Trucks 15%

Cars 34%

Others 5%



Current status of drop-forging technology

Germany is the number two producer world-wide. Production in 2008 was 3,000 000 tonnes.



Forgeable materials I

Forming characteristics of various material groups

Steel group Standard

Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1

DIN EN 10250-1/-2

Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3

Case-hardening steels DIN EN 10084

Nitriding steels DIN EN 10085

Steels for flame- and

induction-hardening

DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3

Ball- and roller-

bearing steels

DIN EN ISO 683-17

High-temperature

steels

DIN EN 10269

DIN EN 10222-1/-2

Tough-at-low-

temperature steels

DIN EN 10269

DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3

Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5

DIN EN 10250-1/-4

AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267

All metals and metal alloys, with very few exceptions, are suitable for forging. There is a range of more

than 2,500 types of steel from which to choose to achieve the most economical production process.



Forgeable materials II

Steel group Standard Application

Mild steels DIN EN 10222-1

DIN EN 10250-1/-2

Machine parts with low dynamic loading and tensile strength requirements

Heat-treating steels DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Machine parts and automotive components with higher dynamic or static loading

such as steering knuckles, crank shafts, drive shafts and safety critical parts for

automobiles and for use in cable cars and aerial ropeways.

Case-hardening steels

Nitriding steels

DIN EN 10084

DIN EN 10085

Case-hardened gearbox and drive-line components such as gears, shafts, toothed

parts and wear-resistant forming tooling.

Steels for flame- and

induction-hardening

DIN EN 10083-1/-2/-3 Very high wear-resistance for chassis components, for tracked vehicles, conveyors

for the mining industry, very large roller bearings with hardened tracks

Ball- and roller-bearing

steels

DIN EN ISO 683-17 Special steels for hardened roller bearing rings and bodies. The steels achieve their

very high hardness values by good through-hardening.

High-temperature steels DIN EN 10269

DIN EN 10222-1/-2

High-alloyed steels for gas turbine engines, burners and industrial furnaces, forming

tooling and dies.

Tough-at-low-

temperature steels

DIN EN 10269

DIN EN 10222-1/-2/-3

Machine parts for use at sub-zero temperatures, automotive components for use in

extreme conditions, springs and applications with high dynamic loading.

Stainless steels DIN EN 10222-5

DIN EN 10250-1/-4

Fittings for the chemical and food industries, components for marine use, fittings for

the building industry, cutlery and household wares, screws and fasteners and wire

ropes for use in damp conditions.

AFP-Steels DIN EN 10267 Application as with heat-treated steels but more cost-effective for engine and

chassis components such as connecting rods, crankshafts, steering components,

drive shafts and axles.



Forgeable materials III

Medical components

(Hip joints) in titanium

For special applications, materials such as titanium, aluminium, nickel alloys and AFP-steels are also

forged.

Front-wheel swing

bearing

Heat-resistant turbine

blades in nickel alloys

Connecting rods for

truck engines in AFP

steel (precipitation

hardening ferritic-perlitic

steel)



Grain-flow I

Optimal grain-flow increases the dynamic strength of the component

Grain-flow takes place during rolling through the longitudinal alignment of segregations in the steel. In

an optimal forming process, this grain-flow is retained and runs parallel to the surface of the

component.

Four cylinder crankshaft with counterweights



Grain-flow II

Automobile gearbox shaft cold

formed in two stages

The grain-flow (with the segregated core of the raw material) runs from left to right through the

component. Grain-flow breaking out of the side would result in an undesirable stress-raising notch

effect.

The gear profile is milled in the two collars. In the area of the

teeth, the grain-flow is perpendicular to the direction of the load



Tool design and profitability

Dependence of the costs of forgings and of finished parts on the quantity

produced

The required quantities

and batch sizes

determine the form of

the tooling and the most

economical production

process to use.

Expensive tooling and/or

several pre-forming

tools are easier to justify

for high quantities. The

production costs can be

lowered by process

optimization and

automation. The total

costs can also be

lowered by reducing the

amount of machining

required.

Small quantity

Low degree of

adaptation to the

finished form

Medium quantity

Moderate degree of

adaptation to the

finished form

High quantity

High degree of

adaptation to the

finished form

Finished part

As-forged

part

Machining

Production

Material

Tooling

Costs

Machining

Production

Material

Tooling

Machining

Production

Material

Tooling

Finished part

As-forged

part

Finished part

As-forged

part



Accuracy of forged parts

Generally, for steel drop-forgings the dimensional

tolerances laid down in DIN EN 10243-1 apply.

Closer tolerances can be agreed individually between

manufacturer and customer.

For steel open-die forgings, special tolerances apply.

Precision forged pair of bevel

gears with helical teeth and

clutch dogs

= Achievable with conventional production equipment

= Achievable using special methods or in exceptional cases



The tolerances that are technically possible for

forgings depend on

• the position of the dimension; thickness

dimensions which are formed across the

parting line of the dies require larger

tolerances than height and diameter

dimensions contained entirely in one die-half

• the complexity of the forging; here a

distinction is made depending on the fine

detail of the forging

• the weight and size of the forging

• ease-of-forging, depending on the type of

material

The calculation of tolerances is laid down in

DIN EN 10243-1

Tighter tolerances are possible using extra

measures and must be agreed with the

manufacturer.

Accuracy of forged parts



The most important forging processes

All hot-forming processes take place at around 1,200C

Five main methods are used

in forging:

- Drop-forging

- Upsetting

- Extrusion

- Open-die forging

- Ring rolling

Drop-forging Upsetting

Extrusion Open-die forging Ring rolling

Upper die

Punch

Workpiece

Gripper jaws

Upsetting punch

Workpiece

Die

Workpiece

Lower die

Ejector

Saddle

Workpiece

Saddle

Workpiece

Axial rolls Mandrel

Main roll



Forging machinery I

Main types of machine

energy-dependant press-force-

dependant machine-stroke-dependant

with linear

stroke

with rotary

working motion

Double-acting

hammers

Counterblow

hammers

Screw presses

Hydraulic

presses

Eccentric presses

Crank presses

Upsetting

machines

Ring rolling

Reducer rolling

Cross rolling

Three main types

Of machine are

used for Forging:

- energy-

dependant

- press-force-

dependant

- machine-

stroke-

dependant



Forging machinery II

energy-dependant press-force-dependant machine-stroke-dependant

Presses

The machine types are shown depicting the limiting conditions at the end of the working stroke. Each

machine type has its advantages and disadvantages and is specially chosen depending on the part to

be produced.



Hammers for drop forging I

The double-acting hammer

(energy-dependant) is hydraulically

or pneumatically driven.

To dampen the vibrations, the

hammer is mounted on spring

elements

Power unit

Ram

Upper die

Lower die

Anvil block

Vibration damper

elements

1

2

3

4

5

6

6

1

2

3

4

5



Hammers for drop forging II

The counterblow hammer is driven

pneumatically – ideal for large

pieceweights

The counter movements of the ram

reduce vibrations

Drive

Ram

Upper die

Hammer frame

Lower die

Lower ram

Hydraulic ram

clutch

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7



Presses for drop forging I

The screw press is suitable for

long runs and can be automated

A large amount of forming energy

is available

Frame

Punch slide

Punch guide

Screw spindle

Spindle nut

Clutch

Flywheel bearings

Spindle brake Hydraulic

equipment

Ejector

Pneumatic

counterweight

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1

2

3

4

5

6

9

7

8

10

11



Presses for drop forging II

The hydraulic press offers a constant

maximum press force over the whole

stroke

It is particularly suited for hot- and

cold-extruding with a long working

stroke

Hydraulic cylinder

Ram

Table

Machine frame

Electric motors

Walking beam

automation

Forming station

Material feed

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

5

1

2

4

3

7

6

8



Presses for drop forging III

The eccentric press is machine stroke

dependant and readily automated at high

rates of production (strokes per minute)

Frame

Ram

Connecting rod

Ram guide

Clutch and brake system

Counterweight

Ram adjustment

Reduction gearbox

Double-helical gearing

Upper and lower ejector

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

8

1

5

9

6

3

7

2

4 10



Presses for drop forging IV

The wedge press is tip-resistant and is

ideal for off-centre forging Frame

Ram

Wedge

Ram guide

Clutch and brake system

Counterweight

Ram adjustment

Reduction gearbox

Double-helical gearing

Upper ejector

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

8

6

7

2

4 3

1

5

10

9



Automation of important forging equipment

Walking beam system Tongs arm system

Feed gripper

Transport grippers

Lower die

Tongs arms

Tongs slide

System drive unit

Transverse slide

Press framer

Feed gripper

Power unit

Transport

grippers

Walking beam unit

Press frame

Lower die

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

4

3

8

5

6 7



Automated multi-die hot-forging presses

Automatic multi-die hot-forging press with

inductive pre-heating equipment

Tool area of a multi-die hot forging press with

four dies

Multi-die presses for hot forging (e.g. Hatebur) are fully automatic in operation.

The speed is continuously variable and large numbers of pieces can be produced



Automated production line

A series of eccentric presses linked to form a production line using robots – the operator is keeping an

eye on the whole process



Pre-forming 1

Reducer rolling, through the distribution

of material, optimises flash and saves

raw material when forging

Roll drive with automatic backlash compensation Water-cooled brake and asbestos-free brake pads Clutch with asbestos-free pads Flywheel with large energy reserve Automatic rocker arm

Length compensation cylinder Servo-controlled electric transverse feed Crank-rocker drive mechanism

Eccentric mounting of the lower roll for adjusting the distance between rolls Feeder device to position the workpiece between the grippers of the manipulator

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1

2

3

4

10 9

8

7

6 5



Pre-forming 2

Cross-wedge rolling is suitable for parts with a

circular cross-section and is used to distribute

material in one production step. For simple

shafts it can be suitable for the production of

finished parts.

Roll segments

Work rest

Machine frame

Electric motors

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4



Ring rolling

Typical radial-axial ring rolling machine

Seamless rolled rings are

typical products of the

forging industry.

Ring rolling can produce

seamless rings with square

and rectangular cross

sections as well as rings with

internal and/or external

profiles.

The largest diameter which

can be produced today is

approx.

8 metres



Open-die forging I

Open-die forging press with underfloor-

mounted equipment and an integrated rail-

mounted manipulator Automated open-die forging using underfloor-

mounted equipment with a freely movable

manipulator

Open-die forging is the oldest method of forging.

It is used for one-off workpieces, short production runs and for very heavy parts

Forging saddle

Forging saddle

Forging press

Workpiece

Manipulator

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

5

3

4



Open-die forging II

Longitudinal forging machine with four radially-arranged tools.

Manipulator

Forging tools

Forging machine

Workpiece

Manipulator

The arrangement of the tooling on a longitudinal

forging machine for high precision rotary swaging

of hollow parts with an optimized weight

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3 4 5



Special forging processes

Die rolling

Cross-rolling Wobble forging Swaging

These special processes are

largely used for the mass

production of families of similarly

shaped parts

Electric upsetting

Contact electrode

Hydraulic cylinder

Workpiece

Upper tool

Lower die

Workpiece

Roll segment Base tool

Roll segment

Workpiece

Lower die

Workpiece

Upper die

Wobble bell

Workpiece

Tool segment

Tool segment

Anvil plate

Base tool Tool segment



Special process warm forging

Shaft for a tripod CV-joint manufactured

using a combination of warm forging

and cold sizing.

A drive shaft component manufactured using a

combination of warm forging and cold sizing.

As-forged part on the left, finished part on the right



Cold Forging

Definition:

Cold forging = no heating of the workpieces and/or forming starts at room temperature.

Most producing companies are medium-sized companies.

up to 49 employees



50 – 199 employees

200 – 399 employees

400 and more employees

Cold Forging

Cold forging Worldwide 2008 Cold forging Europe-wide 2008

Annual production in thousands of tons

German share

Globally: 24.6%

Annual production in thousands of tons

German share

Europe-wide: 74.7%

450

298



17

25

40

122

160

399

19

122

160

50

North America

Europe

China

Japan

Russia

Australia

India

Germany

France

UK

Spain

Rest

Cold Forging

Advantages Difficulties

Near-net-shape forming Extensive treatment of the workpiece

Higher dimensional accuracy than with

forged parts Less degree of forming than with hot forming

Very high degree of material utilisation Complex forms difficult to realise

No scaling Higher tool expenditure

High surface quality

High workpiece strength through strain hardening

Expedient grain flow as with hot forming

No heating necessary

Very suitable especially for large quantities



Cold Forging

Typical methods and special methods

Essential cold forming processes are:

Tapering, extruding, upsetting, thread rolling, and ironing

Thread rolling

Ironing Upsetting

Forward extrusion

Drawing Backward can extrusion Rotary swaging

movable roll jaw

fixed roll jaw

Raw material on which

thread is applied



Cold Forging

Exemplary parts

Clutch wheel (bicycle) | 18g

Drive junction (cardan shaft) |1000g

Steering fork (automotive) | 160g

Gear shaft 5000g

Shaft housing (car tie

rod) | 290g

Gearshift level (PRINZ) | 209g

Dowel screw (KAMAX) | 13g

Pinion (acrument) | 137g



Cold Forging

Special methods

Combination of hot and cold forming

• The methods to be chosen depend on the process chain

• Criterion for an expedient combination: Mere cold forming would

require at least one process annealing step

• Direct competition: hot forming and machining

Hot forging

High formability

Cold forging

High precision

Primary forming at high

temperature allows high degrees

of forming

Part-conform finished sizes and

surface qualities can be achieved

in cold state

Pinion cage

Combination of hot and cold forming

Fixed joint

Combination of semi-hot and hot

forming



Cold Forging

Materials and machines

Classic cold forming material:

Preferably non-alloyed case hardening and tempering steels with a C-content

of max. 0.5 % (alloy shares at most 5%).

Tools of a multi-stage press

www. zeller-gmelin.de

Hydraulic press

Coil

www.asia.ru

Processable types of materials:

• Steel

• Non-ferrous heavy metals

• Aluminium

• Stainless steel

Blank forming:

• Sections

• Coils

Types of presses:

Drive type:

• Mechanical presses

• Hydraulic presses

• Servomotor presses

Number of steps:

• Multi-step presses

• Single-step presses

Design:

• Horizontal

• Vertical



Cold Forging

Process chain

Pre-treatment Coating Forming Post-processing Annealing

• Coating removal

• Annealing

• Machining

• Thread rolling

• Lubricant carrier layer

(e. g.: Zink phosphate)

• Lubricant

(e. g.: soap, MoS2)

• New lubricant systems

• Shearing

• Blasting

Forming mostly takes place

in several stages



Cold Forging

Current trends and developments

• Function integration: Integration of additional functions in parts

• New, more solid materials

• Ready-to-fit parts

• Reducing the economic minimum quantity

• Phosphate-free forming / alternative lubricants



Processes prior to forging I

Depending on the hardness of the material, its cross-section and the cut-off rate required, various

cut-off systems are used for making blanks .

Sawing offers the

advantage of the greatest

precision and the largest

cross-sections, but has

higher material wastage,

longer cycle times and

higher costs.

Cold shearing has the

advantages of low material

wastage and short cycle times.

The disadvantage is that the

cross-sectional area is limited

(to max. 150mm)

Hot shearing is independent of

material hardness and is well

suited for integration into high

speed automated forging lines.



Processes prior to forging II

Inductive heating equipment

Inductive heating of cut-off blanks to a forging

temperature of approx. 1,250 C



Process stages in manufacture

Lower rough forging die Lower finish forging die Trimming tool Trimming punch

Production stages of a

drop-forged crankshaft

form left to right:

- Steel blank

- Pre-formed blank

- Rough-forged part

- Finish-forged part

- Forging and trimmed

- flash

- Crankshaft



Process steps after forging

Trimming and piercing Subsequent forming (e.g.

bending, sizing, expanding)

Flash and piercing-slugs are

removed by trimming and hole-

piercing.

Post-forging processes save

material and processing costs,

reduce the dimensional variation

and make possible undercuts.

Forging with flash

Trimming die

Trimming punch

Flash

Forging

Piercing punch

Forging with

inner flash

Piercing die

Forging

Internal flash

Forging

Forging

Forging

Arm after

bending and

sizing

Arm before

bending

Big and little

ends in as forged

condition

Before

expanding

After

expanding

Big and

little ends

punched

to size



Special process for post forming

The breaking (cracking) of the big end is carried

out by applying pressure to a splitting wedge

The pair of cracked surfaces are unique and offer

a high degree of fitting accuracy with relatively little

effort

The connecting rod big end is fractured in a defined way using a splitting wedge to give an exact fit –

this saves the sawing and milling operations. The individual fracture pattern is used to provide an exact

fit between the two surfaces.



Process combinations

Shock absorber

lugs: drop-forged

and upset

Trailer axle: drop-

forged and welded;

light-weight design with

a combination of different

materials

The use of combinations of processes enables multi-axis forming to be carried out and thus complex

geometrical forms to be manufactured

Gear wheel with

internal spline: warm-

forged and cold-sized;

very high degree of

accuracy on the flanks

of the teeth

Carrying sleeve for a

truck: drop-forged

and hot-extruded;

multistage forming



Tooling for forging

Open-die forging

Various forms of saddle

For open-die forging, saddles with various different working surfaces are used. Dies have the "negative"

form of the workpiece and can therefore only be used for specific forms

Flat saddle

Pointed saddle

Rounded saddle

Single-impression die Multiple-impression die Multi-stage die

Lower dies

Drop-forging: typical types of die

Closed die Die with several closure lines

Lower die Ejector

Upper die

Die-holder

Movable

die halves

closed

Movable

Die halves

opened

Ejector

Forging

Die-holder



Toolroom: manufacture of dies and other tooling

Diagram showing die manufacture

The form of a die is produced either by spark-erosion or by high-speed milling. The surface of the

form is treated is various ways to improve its life (e.g. by grinding, polishing, nitriding and/or hard-

chrome plating ).

The milling head of the high-speed milling

machine rotates at up to 40,000 rpm.

CAD design of

the form geometry

CNC milling

of the form

Finishing of

the die form

Finished die

Spark-erosion

of the die form

Milling of

the electrode

Surface treatment

of the die form



Heat treatment of forgings I

Schematic representation of heat-treatment processes used for steel drop-forgings

Ac3: temperature at which the transformation of ferrite into austenite on heating is completed

Ac1: temperature at which the formation of austenite on heating commences

RT: room temperature

Normalising (N) *Austenite formation and quenching Quenching

and tempering (QT)

Heat-treatment from the forging heat Soft-annealing (A)



Heat treatment of forgings II

right: diagram showing the most important heat

Treatment processes for aluminium drop-forgings

Controlled cooling from the forging heat, continuous cooling process

Controlled cooling from the forging heat (P),

isothermal transformation

left: diagram showing heat-treatment processes

for steel drop-forgings



Surface treatment I

After forging the workpiece is descaled by shot-blasting. The shot size is between 0.8 and 2.8mm

Steel wire pellets (1,400 - 2,000 N/mm2)

or steel grit (45 - 50 HRC) are used as blasting media



Quality assurance for forged parts

The machine is calibrated using the yellow

workpiece (the so-called setting gauge or

reference part).

The finished workpiece is checked dimensionally using a coordinate measurement machine. The

measurements are made either on a sample basis or 100% for safety critical parts (e.g. for aircraft

components).

Diagram showing a quality control chart to

demonstrate process stability



Non-destructive materials testing I

The lower green zigzag line on the VDU

indicates the fault

When examined under UV light, the surface

faults become visible

Magnetic-resonance testing: the raw material is

excited by a magnetic field. Faults (resonances)

show up on the VDU.

Magna-Flux process: ferromagnetic particles

align themselves preferentially along surface

faults.



Non-destructive materials testing II

In non-destructive testing of materials the component remains intact and can be used further. This

enables 100% testing to be carried out (e.g. for aircraft components)

Vickers hardness testing using a

pyramid and calculating the area

of indentation

Brinell hardness testing using

a sphere and measuring the

diameter of indentation (10; 5;

2.5 and 1 mm)

Rockwell hardness testing using

a cone and measurement of the

depth of indentation



Non-destructive materials testing III

Ultrasonic testing

This method is used for both magnetic and non-magnetic materials.

This material fault (chevron crack)

was caused by the material flow

being too rapid



Non-destructive materials testing IV

Ultrasonic testing VDU image



Non-destructive materials testing V

Dye-penetration testing (capillary process)

A special dye, which penetrates cracks, is applied to the workpiece. After rinsing and the subsequent

application of a developer, the cracks become visible. This process is used for testing non-magnetic

metals.



Destructive materials testing I

Destructive material testing for tensile strength and notch bar impact value is carried out on samples

taken from batches of parts. The test specimens are made from finished components.

Tensile testing Load-displacement diagram of a tensile

test



Destructive materials testing II

The notched bar impact test is a destructive test. The test specimen is machined out of the finished

component.

In the notched bar impact test a pendulum is swung

against the test specimen. The energy required (in

Joules) is proportional to the difference between the

heights of the pendulum H and h. This gives a

measure of the toughness of the material.

The notched test specimen has

dimensions of 10 x 10 x 50 mm

and is fractured by the pendulum



Machining of forged parts

High-speed steel (HSS), tungsten carbide (TC) and ceramics are all used to make cutting tools.

Cutting tool material f = 0,2 mm f = 0,4 mm Cutting tool material f = 0,02 x d

TC, uncoated 225 190 HSS, coated 25

TC, coated 290 230 TC, coated 90

ceramic 650 500


TC, coated 250 190 TC, coated 70

ceramic 550 450

Cutting tool material fz = 0,12 mm fz = 0,25 mm cutting tool material f = m (pitch)


TC, coated 200 180 HSS, coated 8

Milling cutter inserts Threads

Turning Drilling

Hardness HB

190-220

220-250

190-220

220-250

Cutting speed vc (m/min)

Recommended cutting speeds for the machining of forgings



Forged components in competition

The costs were reduced markedly by

incorporating a forged part

The forged full-floating axle is cheaper,

does not need subsequent hardening

and tempering and has a reduced scrap

rate.

In comparison with its cast equivalent the forged full-floating axle shown here has superior material

properties and high process stability.



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing I

Steel and aluminium chassis

components for car manufacture.

Engine parts are mostly made of

hot-forged steel

Gear-box parts made of steel -

hot-forged and cold-sized

In car manufacture special properties are required, which can be achieved using hot-, warm- and cold-

forging or a combination of several manufacturing steps.



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing II

Drive-train and axle parts: hot-,

warm- and cold-forged

Gear-box shafts are often cold

extruded

Improved accuracy and finer detail can be achieved using combinations of hot-, warm- and cold

forming processes.



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing III

Section through a Mercedes-Benz 7G-Tronic automatic gearbox

Gear-wheels

Shafts

Parking lot

Planet-carrier

The high torques in the

gearboxes of today's diesel

engines can only be transmitted

by heavy duty forgings. The

components are cold- or hot-

forged or made using a

combination of processes.

1

2

1 2 2

3

4

4

3



72

Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing IV

Axle pivot

Axle drive shaft

Control arm

Wheel carrier

Differential

Forged parts meet high demands

for fatigue strength, lightweight

construction and cost-effective

manufacture

Mercedes-Benz Car, powered rear axle

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4

5



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing V

Upper transverse control arm

Lower transverse control arm

Universal joint

Achszapfen

Left-hand wheel trunk

Right-hand wheel trunk

Suspensions have to meet the

criteria of driving dynamics, ride

comfort, component size, weight

and modularization (platform

systems).

Mercedes-Benz Car, non-driven front axle

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 2 3

4

5 6



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VI

This component, optimised using FEM methods,

Is made of aluminium

In vehicle

construction,

engineers are

looking for the

lightest

possible

designs. This

saves fuel and

CO2 emissions

and improves

comfort and

driving

dynamics.

The low unsprung weight

increases sprung comfort



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VII

Suspension support, forged in aluminium

Four cylinder motor-cycle crank drive with

integrated forged gear-wheels to drive and

Control the camshaft

Kurbelwelle Pleuel



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII

Four cylinder valve drive of a diesel engine

Rocker arm

Push-rods - cold-formed parts

Valve bridge

Camshaft

Inlet and outlet valves

The valve drive has to withstand

extremely high accelerations and

temperatures. Forged components fulfil these

requirements.

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

4

3

5



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII(a)

Double floating axle with dual tyres on a truck.

Mount of support

Differential

Leaf spring holder

Gear wheels in differential

Propeller shaft

Axle drive shaft

Planetary gears

In very highly stressed areas

forged components improve

operating safety.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 2 3

4 5 6 7



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing VIII(b)

Double floating axle with dual tyres on a truck.

Differential

Leaf spring holder

Cardan shaft

Flange for

cardan shaft

In very highly stressed

areas forged

components improve

operating safety.

1

2

3

4

1

2

3 4



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing IX

Cardan shaft with universal joints

Flange

Cross pin

Joint fork

Hollow shaft

Butt-welded joint fork

The individual components of

a cardan shaft have to transmit

high torques and be

maintenance-free at the

same time.

1

2

3

4

5

1 2 3 4 5



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing X

Blade hinge

Cylinder eye

Scarifier tooth

Drive sprocket

Track guide

Track idlers

Track links

Forged components are ideal

for handling the extreme

mechanical and dynamic

loading on heavy construction

machinery.

Bulldozer with scarifier Bulldozer

with scarifier

Drive-sprocket segment

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1 2

3 4 5 6 7



Diversity of forms in automotive manufacturing XI

Lower pivot bearing

Brake lever joint

Axle

Side bearer

Slack adjuster

Brake block slack adjuster

Brake lever

Bow girder

Brake block shoe

Wheel tyre

Forged components have a long life and

meet the high safety requirements of

rail vehicles.

On the left a wagon bogie.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

8

10



Use in pipe fittings

Left: Valve for direct welding into a pipeline

Right: Valve with flanges for bolting

Handwheel

Collar

Neck

Gland follower

Bonnet

Casing

Flanges

Seating ring

Eyebolt

Valves are corrosion- and acid-

proof. They are used for liquid

and gaseous media.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9



Use in aircraft manufacture

The four-engined Airbus A380

puts its trust in forging technology Bladed disks

Alongside their use in jet

engines, forged components are

also used in highly-loaded areas

such as wings, rudders, control

surfaces and landing gear.

High pressure turbine blades

Turbine shaft Turbine

1

2 3

4 5

1 2

3 4 5

Low pressure compressor



Use in wind turbines

Drive shaft

Generator

Planetary gearing

Blade adjustment. Rotor pitch

Disc brake

Connecting rings to steel tubular tower

Large roller bearing with azimuth

adjustment

Blanks for gear-wheels, rolling and

plain bearings

View into the nacelle of a modern wind energy plant

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8



Diversity in forging technology

97 percent of forged and formed parts are made of steel, but also aluminium and

titanium as well as such non-ferrous metals as copper, brass and nickel alloys.

With the assistance

of various forging and

forming processes such

as hot-, warm- and cold

forging and their

combinations, a large

range and diversity of

specialized components

can be manufactured –

with piece weights

ranging from a few

grams up to several

tonnes in the case of

open-die forging.



Optimization of components

FEM programs

(finite element methods)

offer the possibility of

optimizing weight and

geometry right at the

design stage.

The illustration shows a steering arm with a generated FEM lattice grid

Forgings – Significance, Design, Production, Application


86

Development chain I

A rear wheel carrier passes computer-aided through the stations

above on its way from the specification through to production.

Design, toolmaking and production

are closely associated with each other

to fulfil the customer's requirements.



specifications/ loadcases

part development part optimisation

process development

production/ machining

http://wallpapers-diq.com/wallpapers/51/Volvo_FH16-660_Powerful_Truck.jpg

Development chain II

Design, toolmaking and production are closely associated with each other to fulfil the customer's

requirements.

Example: the customer gives the installation space and the required properties for an aluminium front wheel

swing bearing for a car. From this a first model is made and from this the forging design is developed.



Development chain III

With the aid of design software (e.g. Catia, UG), the forging design is discretised according to the

limiting stresses.



Development chain IV

Linear-elastic FEM-simulation showing the stresses in the component.



Simulation I

Simulation requires high-performance hardware

for the very rapid calculation of the finite element

simulation with the aid of a cluster.

Cluster of nine

processor computers

and one control

computer



Simulation II

Visible fault caused by lack of material or an

unsuitable die-form

Using the material flow simulation, designers can already see in advance whether the material

distributes itself optimally during the forging process.

Visible lap caused by a fault in the form in the

previous operation(s)



Simulation III

Yoke during the forging operation

The material flow simulation enables designers to view the forging process and possible faults in

the developed tooling.

Gear shaft



Simulation IV

In addition, the tooling stress can be simulated in advance.

The coloured gradation shows the relative or equivalent stress.



Sources of illustrations and information

We would like to thank the following companies for their great help in providing illustrations

and technical information:

Copyright 2011. All shown images, photos and texts are copyrighted. Partial reproduction of any contents

only permitted by referencing the source.

Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V., Goldene Pforte 1, 58093 Hagen, Deutschland.

Our website: www.metalform.de

Acument Global Technologies, Inc.

BMW AG

Bombardier AG

BPW AG

Buderus Edelstahlwerke-

Schmiedetechnik GmbH

Caterpillar AG

CDP Bharat Forge GmbH

Dango & Dienenthal GmbH

Daimler AG

FEMUTEC / simufact engineering GmbH

GKN GmbH

Hatebur AG

Hammerwerk Fridingen GmbH

Hirschvogel Automotive Group

Kamax-Werke

Karl Diederichs KG

Lasco Umformtechnik GmbH

Mahle Brockhaus GmbH

Müller-Weingarten AG

Pratt & Whitney

Presswerk Krefeld GmbH & Co. KG

Prinz Verbindungselemente GmbH

Räuchle GmbH + Co. KG

Schubert Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH

Schuler Group

Siepmann Persta GmbH

SITEMA GmbH & Co. KG

SMS Group

ThyssenKrupp Gerlach GmbH

ThyssenKrupp Presta AG

Volkswagen AG

Zeller + Gmelin GmbH & Co. KG



Imprint

Editor

Infostelle Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V.

Editorial office and responsible for production:


Manuscript

Ing. Horst Apholt

Layout

Peter Kanthak

Freelance designer, Wickede

Publisher


Goldene Pforte 1

58093 Hagen

Germany

Phone: +49 23 31 9588-30

Fax: +49 23 31 9587-30

E-mail: [email protected]

Website: http://www.metalform.de

VAT-no.: DE 125 127 673

Print-no. BW-411

Printed in Germany

ISBN: 978-3-923726-26-9

The presentation is copyrighted. Partial reproduction of

any contents only permitted by referencing the source.

The publications of the Infostelle Industrieverband

Massivumformung e. V. are based on the group research

of the companies affiliated under the Industrieverband

Massivumformung e. V. organisation.

Image sources:

The following companies have supported this

presentation by providing source material:



Bibliography

Historical development

Pischel, H.:

Geschichte des Massiv- und Blechumformens.

Krefeld: K. Dannat 1987

Sonnenschein, F.H.:

Die Technikgeschichte des Schmiedens.

Technische Kulturdenkmale 14 (1985) S. 12/17

v. Wedel, E.:

Die Geschichtliche Entwicklung des Umformens in Gesenken.

Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag 1960

Branch overview

Vieregge, K.:

Gesenkschmieden in Deutschland – im Zeichen des Wandels.

Umformtechnik 27 (1993) 3

Voigtländer, O.:

Perspektiven der Massivumformung in den 90er Jahren.

Werkstatt und Betrieb 121 (1988) 7. S. 561/567

Layout of forgings

DIN 7523:

Schmiedestücke aus Stahl;

• Teil 2_09.86: Bearbeitungszugaben, Seitenschrägen,

Kantenrundungen, Hohlkehlen, Bodendicken, Wanddicken,

Rippenbreiten und Rippenkopfradien

DIN 7527:

Schmiedestücke aus Stahl;

• Teil 1_10.71: Bearbeitungszugaben und zulässige Abweichungen

für freiformgeschmiedete Scheiben


für freiformgeschmiedete Lochscheiben


für nahtlos freiformgeschmiedete Ringe


für nahtlos freiformgeschmiedete Buchsen


für freiformgeschmiedete, gerollte und geschweißte Ringe


für freiformgeschmiedete Stäbe



Bibliography

DIN EN 10 243:

Gesenkschmiedeteile aus Stahl

• Teil 1_12.95: Warm hergestellt in Hämmern und Pressen

Maßtoleranzen Deutsche Fassung EN10 243-2: 1995

DIN 17 864:

02.93: Schmiedestücke aus Titan und Titan-Knetlegierung

(Freiform- und Gesenkschmiedestücke)

DIN Normenheft 7:

Anwendung der Normen über Form- und Lagetoleranzen in der

Praxis.

4. Auflage Berlin und Köln; Beuth-Verlag 1987

Breuer, H.-W.:

Gestaltung beanspruchungs- und fertigungsgerechter

Schmiedeteile.

Konstruktion 43 (1991) S.285/291

Dahme, M. u.a.:

Gemeinschaftliche CAD/CAM- Entwicklungen: Basis für

Simultaneous Engineering.

Schmiede-Journal (1995) September S. 17/18

Production of forgings

Dahme, M. und Hirschvogel, M:

Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Kalt-, Halbwarm- und

Warmumformung. Werkstatt u. Betrieb 124 (1991), S. 865/868

Düser, R.:

Gesenkwalzen – Ein Maximum an Präzision bei einem Minimum an

Material- und Energieeinsatz. Umformtechnik 26 (1992) 1, S. 33/40



Elsinghorst, <<D.:

Neues Maschinenkonzept: Präzisions-Schmiedehammer.

Schmiede-Journal (1997) September, S.26/28

Groene, S.:

Axiales Gesenkwalzen – ein Verfahren der Warmformgebung zur

Herstellung von rotationssymetrischen Schmiedeteilen für die

Kraftfahrzeugindustrie, Thyssen Techn. Ber. 18 (1986) 2, S.

353/360

Jung, H.:

Erhöhung der Fertigungsgenauigkeit nach dem Schmiedeprozess

durch Warm- und Kaltprägen, VDI-Z 133 (1991) 11, S. 49/56

König, W. und Klocke, F.:

Fertigungsverfahren Bd. 4 Massivumformung Düsseldorf

VDI-Verlag 1995

König, W. und Klocke, F.:

Fertigungsverfahren 4 - Umformen

Springer-Verlag 2006

Körner. E. u.a.:

Möglichkeiten des HW-Fließpressens in Kombination mit dem

Kaltfließpressen. Symposium „ Neuere Entwicklungen in der

Massivumformung“ 28./29.05.91 Fellbach.

Lange, K. und Meyer-Nolkemper, H.:

Gesenkschmieden 2. Auflage Berlin, Heidelberg New York:


Lange, K. (Hrsg.):

Umformtechnik Bd. 2, Massivumformung. Berlin, Heidelberg,

New York: Springer-Verlag 1988

Metals Handbook:

Vol. 14, Forming and Forging 9. Ed. Metals Park

(Ohio): American Soc. for Metals 1988

Schiller, w.:

Wirtschaftliches Fertigen durch gratloses Schmieden – Kostenvorteile,

Industrie-Anzeiger 110 (1988) 5, S. 34/36

Schuler GmbH (Hrsg.):

Handbuch der Umformtechnik. Berlin, Heidelberg:


Vogt, H.–J.:

Gesenkschmieden und Schweißen. Der Konstrukteur 10 (1979) 11,

S. 41/51

Material properties

DIN-Taschenbuch 218:

Wärmebehandlung metallischer Werkstoffe, Normen. 2. Auflage

Berlin und Köln: Beuth-Verlag 1989

Bibliography



DIN-Taschenbuch 401:

Stahl und Eisen; Gütenormen 1, Allgemeine Normen, Berlin, Wien,

Zürich: Beuth-Verlag 1993

Stahleisen-Liste (Hrsg. VDEh):

9. Auflage Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen 1994

Stahlschlüssel:

18. Auflage Düsseldorf: Verlag Stahleisen 1998

Bräuer, G.:

Die Qualität von Schmiedeteilen sichern. VDI-Z 132 (1990)

4, S. 125/128

Broszeit, E. und Steindorf, H.:

Mechanische Oberflächenbehandlung, Festwalzen, Kugelstrahlen,

Sonderverfahren.

Oberursel: DGM Informationsgesellschaft 1989

Grubisic, V. und Sonsino C.M.:

Einflußgrößen der Betriebsfestigkeit geschmiedeter Bauteile.

VDI-Z 134 (1992) 11, S. 105/112

Harms, w.:

Qualitätssicherung für den Schmiedebetrieb umfasst die ganze

Fertigung vom Entwurf bis zum Versand. Maschinenmarkt 97

(1991) 25 S. 32/35

Herbertz, R.:

Qualitätssicherung für den Schmiedeprozess. In: Ber. Aus Forsch.

und Entwicklung,

Hagen: Industrieverband Deutscher Schmieden e.V. (Hrsg.) 1992

Mäscher, G. und Schmidt, J.:

Schmiedeteile aus AFP-Stählen. Erfahrungen bei der Anwendung

in Kraftfahrzeugen. VDI-Z 133 (1991) 4, S. 124/131

Masing, W. (Hrsg.):

Handbuch Qualitätsmanagement. 3. Auflage

München: Carl Hanser Verlag 1994

Schüle, W. und Huchtemann, B:

Entwicklungsstand der ausscheidungshärtenden

ferritischperlitischen (AFP-)Stähle mit Vandium-Zusatz für eine

geregelte Abkühlung von der Warmformgebungs-Temperatur.

VDI-Ber. Nr. 774, Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag 1989

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Maschinenbaustähle-Entwicklungstendenzen und Normung.

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Einflüsse auf die Schwingfestigkeit von Gesenkschmiedeteilen.

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Bibliography



Winkler, H.:

Wirtschaftliches Spanen von Schmiedeteilen in der Praxis.

Hagen: Informationsstelle Schmiedestück Verwendung

1988

N.N.:

Moderne Methoden der Qualitätssicherung in der

Umformtechnik.

Umformtechnik 24 (1991) 4, S.69/76

N.N.:

Praktische Wärmebehandlung. 2. Auflage Hagen: Industrieverband

Deutscher Schmieden e.V. (Hrsg.) 1997

Examples of application of forgings

Adolf, W.W.:

Entwicklungen bei Getriebewellen für Fahrzeuge.

Schmiede-Journal (1995) März, S. 15/17

Adolf, W.W.:

Kurbelwellen für Straßenfahrzeug-Motoren.


Breuer, H.-W.:

Weiterentwicklung von Achsschenkel für Nutzfahrzeuge.


Jung, H.:

Gesenkschmiedestücke für Bergbaumaschinen.

Bergbau 32 (1981) 6, S. 312/318

Jung, H.:

Gesenkschmiedestücke für Getriebe und Kupplungen.

VDI-Z 123 (1981) 11, S. 584/588

Schmieder, F. und Kettner, P.:

Fertigung von Getriebe-Hohlwellen durch Massivumformung.

Konstruktion 48 (1996) S. 402/406

Westerkamper, Ch. und Weißmann, G:

Präzisionsumformung – eine Schlüsseltechnologie für die

Antriebstechnik. VDI-Z 9 (1997) S. 72/74

N.N.:

Schmiedestücke im Maschinen- und Anlagebau.

Hagen: Informationsstelle Schmiedestück Verwendung 1981

Bibliography



Annex

Manufactures of hot and cold forgings

The actual delivery facilities of the member companies within the Industrieverband Massivumformung e. V. you can find in our six different manufacturer lists (Drop-forged parts, upset forged parts, hot extruded parts, cold extruded parts, open-die forged parts,

rolled rings).

The manufacturer lists can be downloaded free of charge (pdf data) on the internet:

www.metalform.de



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