u Did you .. In 1775, the rattlesnake was proposed as a symbol of America's 13 colonies. People who supported this idea thought the rattlesnake would be a good symbol for several reasons. For example, the snake's segmented tail was thought to be like the colonies: Each part is independent of the others, but part of the whole . .,., Cleopatra, a queen of ancient' Egypt, killed herself by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her. - Hannibal, a ruler in North Africa more than 2000 years ago, thought of a way to beat the Romans ina battle. His idea was to fill pots with snakes and throw the.m onto enemy ships. The idea workedl When the pots smashed (lnd the snakes crawled the Romans went into a panic and surrendered. People once thought the oddest things... .. According to Hindu legend, the world rests on the back of fmi-elephants that are \ standing on the back of a giant turtle. ) u People once thought that salamanders could crawl through fires without bei ng burned. Some people also thought that salamanders could put fires out as they crawled through then\. Legend claims that, long ago, 5a;nt Patrick drove all of the snakes out of Ireland. In parts of Europe, people once buried dead lizards under their houses to keep witches aWa!f. '\) . Marry people who lived in ancient Rome used frogs to try to cure toothaches. They'd do this by spitting in a frog's mouth and asking it to take the toothache away. In the middle ages, some people thought toads had a magic jewel in their head. If you wore a ri ng made from one of these jewels, you'd be protected from poison. Some of the Indians that lived along North America's West Coast worshiped a spiri . they called Frog Woman. According to their legends, Frog Woman created Earth. Burmese legend says that a frog causes eclipses by swallowing the moon. • This Information, and more can be found In. Ranger RIck'. Nature Scope by the National Wildlife Federation. . . .
Transcript
u Did you k~ow, .. In 1775, the rattlesnake was proposed as a symbol of America's 13 colonies. People who supported this idea thought the rattlesnake would be a good symbol for several reasons. For example, the snake's segmented tail was thought to be like the colonies: Each part is independent of the others, but part of the whole .
.,., Cleopatra, a queen of ancient' Egypt, killed herself by allowing a poisonous snake to bite her. -
Hannibal, a ruler in North Africa more than 2000 years ago, thought of a way to beat the Romans ina battle. His idea was to fill pots with snakes and throw the.m onto enemy ships. The idea workedl When the pots smashed (lnd the snakes crawled the Romans went into a panic and surrendered.
People once thought the oddest things... .. According to Hindu legend, the world rests on the back of fmi-elephants that are
\ standing on the back of a giant turtle. )
u People once thought that salamanders could crawl through fires without bei ng burned. Some people also thought that salamanders could put fires out as they crawled through then\.
Legend claims that, long ago, 5a;nt Patrick drove all of the snakes out of Ireland.
In parts of Europe, people once buried dead lizards under their houses to keep witches
aWa!f. '\) .
Marry people who lived in ancient Rome used frogs to try to cure toothaches. They'd do this by spitting in a frog's mouth and asking it to take the toothache away. ~
In the middle ages, some people thought toads had a magic jewel in their head. If you wore a ri ng made from one of these jewels, you'd be protected from poison.
~ Some of the Indians that lived along North America's West Coast worshiped a spiri . ~ they called Frog Woman. According to their legends, Frog Woman created Earth.
Burmese legend says that a frog causes eclipses by swallowing the moon. ~~ • This Information, and more can be found In. Ranger RIck'. Nature Scope ~ by the National Wildlife Federation. . . .
TURTLES IN TROUBLE: Ten Things You Can Do To Help
Did you know that 100 of the 240 known species of turtles and tortoises in the world are in need of serious conservation attention? Many of these are on the brink of extinction.
If you think there is nothing you can do about it, the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society would like to suggest ten things anyone can do to help. You will not only help save the turtles in your neighborhood park, but also turtles around the world.
1. LEAVE WILD TURTLES IN THE WILD.: Don't pick up a healthy wild turtle. If your child brings you one, put it back exactly where it was found. This is a good rule for all turtle species; many turtles caught in the wild are threatened or endangered.
2. HELP A TURTLE CROSS THE ROAD: Turtles "know· where they are going, so always place it on the side of the road in the direction It was headed, never on the side it was coming from. Otherwise, it will very likely return to cross the road again.
3. TAKE AN INJURED TURTLE TO A WILDLIFE REHABILITATOR.: Many injured turtles can recover --- even from rather devastating injuries. Keep the animal as quiet as possible. Transport the injured turtle in a dark container with a clean, mOistened towel. Collect any shell fragments you find in the area. Don't attempt any other first aid. Contact a local veterinarian, or in Austin call 472-WILD for Wildlife Rescue.
4. HELP ENFORCE LOCAL CONSERVATION LAWS.: Know the laws of your state. Obey them and report violations to the state fish and game office.
5. DON'T BUY BABY TURTLES.: Young turtles don't make suitable pets because they need special care and attention. Often pet turtles don't live the average life span of wild turtles. Pet turtles rarely contribute to the species by reproducing.
6. BE A RESPONSIBLE PET OWNER: Whether you already own an adult turtle or are planning to acquire one, you should leam as much as possible about that species and its specific needs. A commitment of time and money Is requlred-a proper set up may cost up to $100 and some turtles live long lives (longer than their owners at times).
7. DO NOT PURCHASE PRODUCTS MADE FROM TURTlES: All U.S. sea turties are endangered species, thus all sea turtte products are banned from U.S. markets.
8. PROMOTE HUMANE ENFORCEMENT IN THE COMMERCIAL HOUSING OF TURTLES.: Pet shop turt1es and turtles raised for human consumption are otten housed Inhumanely. Such abuses should be reported to the ASPCA.
9. WORK WITH ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS TO SAVE SPECIES AND TURTLE HABITATS.: Environmental groups with turtte conservation on their agendas: Center for
Marine Conservation, Earth Island Institute, Earthwatch, Greenpeace, the Intemational Union for the ConseNation of Nature, the Nature Conservancy, the National Audobon Society, World wildlife Fund, Uftoral Society and Sierra Club.
10. JOIN IN LETTER-WRITING CAMPAIGNS TO PROMOTE TURTLE CONSERVATION: Be aware of who your congressional representatives are and how they vote. Let them know how you feel about conservation and turtie protection Issues. n
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REPTILES-Unique characteristics 1. Scaly skin Shared characteristics 1. Vertebrate 2. Cold blooded 3. Lay eggs with ~on, on land (not dependent on water for reproduction) Other information 1. Hibernate or estivate. 2. Types: I-snakes, IT- turtles, m-lizards, IV-alligators
OO~[F)lJO[b~® COLD BLOODED or ECI'01HERMIC
Most reptiles generate very little body heat. Their body temperature reflects the temperature of their surroundings. Therefore, they must depend on the environment to keep warm or cool. Before the reptile can move, hunt, or eat, it must be warm enough for the chemical reactions in its body to convert food to energy. When a reptile is too cool it will seek out a warm spot, usually in the sun or on a warm rock that has been warmed by the sun. If the reptile is too warm it will fmd a shady spot, go under ground, or get in cool water.
Reptiles can live. in environments where food supplies are sparse or sporadic. It takes less fuel to maintain a cold blooded animal than it does a warm blooded one of the same size. (Compare the energy use of a house with a furnace and AC to a solar heated and air cooled house.)
DORMANCY or HOW REPTILES AVOID TEMPERATURE EXTREMES 1· HIBERNATION - (BRUMATION or winter dormancy) When the
temperature besins to iet cooler reptiles move to placeS that will protect them . from extremely cold temperatures. Usually they find a spot underground, underwater, or deep in a cave or crevice. As a reptile's body temperature drops, its heart and breathing rates slow down, and it can survive a long time without food.
In the Austin area many reptiles spend wann winter days out in the sun. You might see turtles near Town Lake and lizards and snakes out on sunny rocks during a warm spell.
2- AESTIVATION - When it gets vel)' hot in the summer,reptiles find cool places to stay. Their body temperature drops and their metabolism slows down (they become torpid). When the outside temperature cools down they become active a2ain.
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Jacobson's Organ Snakes and many lizards use their tongues to transfer small chemical particles to the paired "smell-taste" organs in the roof of their mouths. Some mammals also have a Jacobson's organ. The animal generally curls its lips when stimulating the organ
Pit Vipers The heat sensitive organs or "pits" on each side of the head give the snake a stereoscopic view of thetemperature range of objects (to 1/5 of a degree C) near the head. These snakes(the rattler, copperhead, and the cottonmouth) are thus able to hunt warmblooded prey in the dark.
Snake Skull
Turtle Cross-SectiOD Note that the backbone is fused to the shell and that the ribs are wide and flat. The rigid chest prevents expansion during breathing. A set of muscles in the back of the viscera increases the space around the lungs so that air will come in. Then a set of muscles under the viscera contract the organs forward against the lungs forcing air out again.
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smooth scales
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SCALES - All reptiles have scales. which consist of keratin- a tough fibrous protein, covering their skin. Unlike the scales of fish which are separate, the scales of reptiles are parts of a continuous epidermal sheet. Scales provide protection, and may help in defense, concealment, and locomotion. Some examples of specialized scales are: 1) The eyes of all snakes are covered by a clear scale that protects them from dirt and sharp objects since they don't have eyelids. 2) Hognose snakes have horny scales on their snout to help them root in the dirt for toads. 3) The rattle of a rattlesnake is a series of specialized (modified) scales and a new segment is added to the rattle each time the skin is shed. It is used to warn large animals to stay away. 4) The shell of the turtle is a mobile home.- 5) The toe pads of geckos which enable them to climb smooth surfaces are modified scales. 6) Most snakes have enlars,ed underbody scales which assist in locomotion.
In many species of reptiles the scale patterns are unique and can be used to identify thl!m.
SKIN SHEDDING -In snakes and lizards.the tough, sealey skin can't expand very much. In order to grow, the old skin must be shed when a new skin has developed underneath it.
Snake skins are usually shed in one piece. As the time for the skin to shed gets close, the skin colors become dull and the scale over the eye looks cloudy. To remove the old skin, the snake rubs his head against something rough to start it peeling, and it rolls off the body like a sock rolling down your leg.
Lizards usually shed their skin in patches. The number of times a reptile sheds depends on how much food it is
getting and how fast it is growing. Around Austin snakes usually shed 3 or 4 times a year.
SCALE GROWTH As turtles and allilators grow, their scales split and new material is added around the outside, forming ridges. The original scale is in the center and new growth rings surround it.
REPRODUcnON - Most reptiles lay .IS that are hatched outside the body. (oviparous) The eggs may be covered with a tough leathery shell, as in many snakes, lizards and water turtles, or they may be covered with a hard calcified shell, as in tortoises, crocodilians and many geckos. Reptiles usually lay their eggs and leave them in dirt or under leaves, or some other place where they will be protected from weather and predators. Rat snakes, King snakes, and Hagnose snakes are common snakes that lay their eggs. (The females of two North American mud snakes coil around their eggs and remain with them until they hatch.) Not all reptiles lay their eggs.
Some snakes and a few lizards keeJ? the esgs inside their bodies until they are ready to hatch. (ovoviviparous) Water snakes, rattlesnakes, and most other members of the pit viper family are examples of reptiles that have live birth. The eggs are safer inside a snake than left buried somewhere, because many animals like to eat reptile eggs, especially raccoons and skunks. Most baby reptiles are able to take care of themselves when they hatch. One American reptile that takes care of its young is the alligator. The mother watches over her eggs and protects the young when they are little. Turtles and most lizards lay their eggs and leave them.
Note: There are several members of the reptile group that are viviporous, which means that the mother's body provides some of the nourishment for the developing embryos. In North America the Garter snake is the only reptile with this reproductive strategy. (There are also some lizards and snakes in other parts of the world that are viviparous. Many of these live in cold climates or high altitude
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,~ J8 ~ ~ ~ ® -are one of the most specialized of all reptiles. The body is a long tube with no legs. In order to be flexible there is a long backbone made up of many vertebrae (200 to 400) with a pair of ribs on each one. Their shape lets them get into very small places to hide and to hunt fqr food, but it doesn't leave much room for internal organs. Snakes have adapted by generally having only one long functional lung. Paired internal organs may have one reduced. or they may be offset from one another to fit more easily into the elongate shape of the body. The stomach is very long, and other organs are stretched out and staggered along the length of the body. They have no bladder, which helps them conserve water. The tail is the portion of a snake behind the vent (anus), and it is sometimes possible to tell which sex they are by its shape. The tail of the male is thicker and longer and tapers more gradually than the female whose tall is shorter and more defined.
SENSES in most snakes are designed for detecting objects that are close. Eyes- The eyes are covered by a clear scale. A snake can focus a little by
moving the entire lens further from or closer to the retina. (Lizards, mammals and birds can change the shape of the lens to focus clearly.) Their vision (like our peripheral vision) is quick to pick up movement but lacks sharp definition of static detail. In other words, they don't see things that are still as well as they see things that move. The iris opens wide to let in light when the light is dim, and narrows to keep out bright light during the day.
Vibration detection - Snakes don't have ears. However, they can feel ground vibrations through their bodies. The same nerve that is connected to our ear (auditory nerve) is connected to the snake's lower jaw.
Smell - Snakes have a nose. They also smell by using special organs located in the roof of the mouth. They stick their tongue out to pick up smells (small chemical particles) and examine them by bringing the tongue to the Jacobson's Organs. This method of smelling is very good for detecting things that are close to the snake. The tongue of a snake or lizard can't hurt you, and only tickles if it touches you.
Heat sensors- Some snakes have special heat sensors on their head and body to detect warm blooded animals. Pit vipers (rattlesnakes, copperheads and water moccasins) have a special pit under each nostril which is lined with a thin membrane where heat sensors are concentrated. It is, to quote Alan Tennant, a "stereoscopic infrared scanner". A pit viper can "see" warm blooded animals in total darkness and often hunts at night, especially in the summer when it is very hot during the day. Pit vipers also use the pit to find the warmest places to hibernate during the colder months. Some boas and pythons have heat sensors on their lips.
EA TING- Snakes eat animals. No snakes eat vegetables. They can't ct!t up their food, and they don't chew their food, so they must swallow their food whole. Some snakes just grab an animal such as a fish or amphibian n and swallow it without killing it first. The Hognose snake eats toads and injects a mild poison with its rear fangs that slows the toads reactions.
Reptiles, birds and mammal~ will fight back when grabbed, so many snakes have ways of killing their prey before swallowing it. Some snakes wrap their body around their prey and hold it very tightly so it can't breathe . The prey soon dies from lack of oxygen. This method of killing is called cons triction.
Another way to subdue prey is to poisOn it. The~oison of some snakes even pre-digests their food. Poisonous snakes have special teeth called fangs to deliver the poison. Snakes have undifferentiated teeth, other than fangs in poisonous snakes .
The prey is often larger in diameter than the snake, so the snake pulls itself over its food like a stretchy sock. Swallowing an animal can take a long time. A snake's lower jaw can unhinge from its upper jaw and the mouth can open as wide as the neck skin will stretch. The windpipe, or trachea, is reinforced with rings of cartilage so the snake can breathe while swallowing. Snakes can move each half of the lower jaw independently. The teeth slant backwards towards the throat, and by moving first one half of their jaw forward on the prey , then moving the other half, the snake "walks" food down its throat. Broken teeth and fan" are quickly replaced.
LOCOMOTION - On the ground there are four ways that snakes move.
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Ser.pentine motion is a way of moving on rough terrain. The snake pushes its body sideways against rocks, sticks, or irregularities on the ground to slide it along. In concertina motion the snake moves its body like an accordion. First the snake bunches up its body. Next, it holds the back part of its tail in n place and pushes the front part of its body forward. Finally, the snake pulls the back part of its body forward. Cate1J?illar motion is used by heavy bodied snakes when they're not in a hurry, such as when hunting. The snake moves in a straight line by pushing forward on the large scutes (belly scales) on the bottom of the body. The wave of motion that moves along the body of the snake that is moving this way looks almost like a caterpillar walking. Sidewindins can be used to move in loose sand, and is only used regularly by some desert snakes, including the Sidewinder rattlesnake. The snake makes-an arc with its body and transfers the rest of its body across that are, meanwhile laying out another arc with its head.
SNAKES IN THE BALANCE OF NATURE - As predators, snakes play a very important role in the balance of nature. A111ife is connected through a series of interdependent relationships, one of them being the food chain, or who eats who. ("Food web" is more a realistic but more complex concept). If one link of a food chain is taken out, then the whole food chain is altered. This can drastically change the makeup of plant and animal communities. As predators, snakes are important links in many food chains. Without predators, prey animals can become so numerous that they can't all survive on the amount of food available. Predators help keep things in balance. On the other hand, the availability of prey animals determines the number of predators in an area. Before killing or removing an animal, one must carefully consider the overall effect it will have on the entire community.
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SNAKE ADAPT ATIONS- Snakes live in many different habitats and have some special adaptations to help them survive. Water snakes have sensitive areas along the sides of their body to help them find prey in water. Arboreal (tree) snakes are adapted for climbing. They have long slender bodies and sharp edges on their belly scales to help them climb. Burrowing snakes, like the brown and earth snakes, are short, cylindrical, and have a pointed snout covered by horny scales to help them dig.
LONGEVITY - Small snakes may live around 12 years and large snakes may live to 40 years in captivity. Uttle is known about longevity in the wild.
LOCAL SNAKES - In Travis county there are 18 species of nonpoisonous snakes that are listed as "common." There are 9 more that are listed as "uncommon". Some of the more commonly seen non-poisonous snakes in our area are: Texas Rat Snake, Great-plains Rilt Snake, Hog-nosed Snake, Rough Green Snake, Bull Snake, Redstripe Ribbon Snake, Checkered Garter Snake, Flathead Snake, Western Coachwhip, Diamondback Water Snake and Blotched Water Snake .
Three species of poisonous snakes are listed as "common" in Travis county - Western Diamondback Rattlesnake, Copperhead and Coral snake. One, the Western Cottonmouth is listed as "uncommon."
v.-.z..~"I_1I Once understood, snakes become a source of wonder and amazement. Therefore, a program which points out the marvelous adaptations of snakes, their behavior and habits, and their place in the balance of nature, will instill in the children a feeling of intrigue and an appreciation for these amazing animals. There is no other animal in our programs that attracts as much attention and interest as a live snake.
u (!D 00 if 11 ~ ® have existed ess~tially unchanged for over 275 million years, which makes them the oldest ITOYP of air breathins vertebrates alive todar· Turtles live on all continents except Antarctica. They swim the seas, survIve arid deserts, live in ponds and rivers, and inhabit almost every te~estrial environment. They range in size from a few inches to 6 feet, and weIgh from a few ounces to 1500 pounds.
SHELL- The most distinguishing feature of a turtle is its shell. The top shell is called the carapace and the bottom is the plastron. They are joined together by bridges. The shell is made of two parts: an inner structure of fused bone and a horny (keratin) outer covering called scutes or la~nae. Except in the leatherback sea turtle, the ribs and backbone are fused to the carapace. Obviously, a turtle cannot crawl out of its shell. The joints or sutures of the bones of a turtle's shell do not harden but continue to grow. When the turtle grows, new keratin is ~dded around the outside of each scute. During seasons that turtle growth is slow, such as winter or a very dry season, a depression forms on the growing edges of the scute, and when there is plenty of food and growth is fast a ridge forms on the growing edge of the scute. The growth rings formed by these seasonal changes allow us to approximately figure the age of the turtle. Land turtles txPically have high vaulted shells as a defense against their predators' crushing jaws. Aguatic turtles have lower. more streamlined shells that offer less water resistance during swimming.
BREATHING - Being completely encased in an immovable shell makes breathing difficult, and to inhale a turtle must expand its whole body cavity. not just the lungs. Some aquatic turtles are able to take oxygen from water through their skin and gill-like membranes in their mouth and anus. The amount of time that a turtle can spend under water varies with the species and the conditions. Species that overwinter underwater in a torpid state (slow metabolism with slow heart rate) can survive for weeks without n surfacing.
SENSES_- Turtles have good eyesight. A turtle swming on a log will slip into the water before you .get close. The ears are covered to protect them from water, dirt and bacteria, especially when a turtle is underwater or underground. They can't hear airborne sounds very well, but can hear well underwater. Turtles have a nose and probably a good sense of smell.
, -4 JJ REPRODUcnON - Turtles lay their eggs in sand or soft soil, where the ~..& r(~ female digs a hole with her rear legs. Some turtle eggs are !=Overed with a ~. ~ leathery shell and others with a hard shell Warmed by the sun, the eggs
.. d~ hatch in several months. Females often lay two clutches of eggs a year, and Q1,it{.~~~kJ~" may require fertilization only every two or three years. Females travel in .::.u--- t5I search of a good place to lay their eggs. Males often have a concave shaped ~ I~ plastron to make mounting the female easier. The size of males and females
eye':J ... is different in some species of turtles, and in many there is a difference in length and size of the tall. In a few species there are slight color differences; for example, usually the male box turtle has red eyes. and the female. brown. Turtles dontt take care of their young and they must care for themselves.
FEEDING BEBA VIOR - Because of their slow speed most land turtles eat vegetation, insects, and insect larva. Aquatic turtles eat plants and swim fast enough to catch small aquatic animals. The alligator snapping turtle has a worm-like projection on its tongue to lure fish within striking range. Turtles have no teeth. but their horny beak and strong jaws are very effective for tearing their food into bite size pieces.
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PROTECTION - The shell provides excellent protection from predators and the environment. Box turtles have a hinged plastron which doses so tight that when it pulls in its head, legs, and tail, no part of the turtle is exposed except the hard shell. This not only offers excellent protection from predators but protects the turtle from loss of moisture. Not all turtles have a shell that shuts up completely. Some large and aggressive turtles have less shell, and some have a leathery shell. But all turtles have their portable home, and it has been a successful way to live, according to the .fossil record.
LIFE SPAN - Turtles live for a long time. The Ornateoox turtle, common around Austin, lives to be 50 years old with a record age of 123 years in captivity. Aquatic turtles probably don't live as long
BALANCE OF NATURE - Land turtles eat berries, flowers, and plants. Water turtles eat small fish, tadpoles, frogs, and insects as well as water plants. Eggs and young turtles are prey to many animals, including mammals, birds, crayfish, and snakes. Of the many young that turtles produce, only a few reach maturity.
COMMON TURTLES - Around the Austin area the Ornate and Eastern Box turtles may be found. The most common aquatic turtles are the Red-eared Slider and the Texas Slider.
TURTLES AS PETS - Since turtles are so easily captured they are often kept as pets. However, it is not easy to give the turtle the wide variety of food it needs to remain healthy and many captive turtles become ill and die. If caught they should be observed and enjoyed briefly, then returned to the area where you found them.
~ 0 ~ IA 00 ID} ~ - Lizards are a diverse group of reptiles with wide ~~i}~~~- distribution. Most are tropical, but many occur in temperate climates. In the
New World they are found from Canada to the tip of Argentina. Most lizards are active during the day and live on land. They are
found in the fossil record from the Triassic period to the present, and represent the largest living group of reptiles. . SIZE -They range in size from a tiny gecko less than 3 inches to the giant Komodo Dragon Lizard that may be 10 feet long.
SKIN - One of the most distinctive features of lizards is their horny skin folded into scales. Scales vary greatly in appearance from small and granular to large and plate-like. They may be smooth or have ridges (keels). The scaled skin is thick and tough; it provides protection, prevents water loss, and helps in taking up heat from the sun. When the skin is shed it usually comes off in sections. The alligator lizard is one of the exceptions, where the skin is shed in one piece. Sometimes scales are modified into sharp spines. The spiny skin usually found on desert species helps in defense and also prevents moisture loss and overheating.
TONGUE - The tongue is well developed ~ all lizards and attached at the back of the oral cavity. The tongue may be long and forked, short and broad, or very long and sticky. Many lizards have a Iacobson's organ for sensing chemical information collected by the tongue. ~
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JAW - The bones of the lower jaw are united. so food items must be less than the width of the head. Most lizards have teeth and these are usuallv ~~~U~ J
EARS - The external ear opening is usually visible and hearing is good. EYES - There is a movable eyelid in most species. Most have good
eyesight. LEGS - Most lizards have four legs. with five toes on each foot. The
legs may be short or long, slender or stout, depending on ttte life style of the animal. In a few the legs are tiny or absent. Lizards may crawl, run, leap, glide, dig, or slither. There is even a desert skink that swims through the sand. Some have a prehensile tail to help them hang onto rocks and branches.
TAIL - Some species of lizards are able to lose their tail in order to escape a predator. There is a special "weaktt spot between certain vertebrae, . where the tail breaks off. The wiggling detached tail keeps the attention of the predator while the lizard escapes. When a lizard loses its tail a new one eventually grows in its place. The length of time it will take to grow depends on the season and the amount of food available. A new tail usually looks different from the original tail.
FEEDING - Only a few lizards eat plants. Most eat insects and small animals.
REPRODUcnON - Fertilization occurs inside the body. Most lizards lay their eggs. but a few retain the eggs until hatching. Most don't care for their young, but a few take care of their eggs and defend their young.
DEFENSE - The most effective way to avoid being eaten is not to be ~. Many lizards exhibit patterns and coloration that blend in with their backgr~und (camouflase). Some can even change their color to match the background. Many can run fast, or climb well or slip into narrow spaces to avoid predators. Some live underground, others move around at night, and a few play dead to discourage, or evade the notice of, a predator. Lizards with very spiny skin may be hard for a predator to bite.
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR - Many lizards use threat displays to indicate territorial ownership or aggressive intent. Color changes, body inflation and push-ups, jaw gaping, tail waving, and species-specific head movements are important signals. Combat sometimes occurs when defending a territory or mate. Courting behavior is an important part of the mating ritual. Young lizards sometimes remain together after hatching. Uzards often bask in the sun.
LONGEVITY - Life span is variable. Some species have lived more than SO years in captivity.
LOCAL LIZARDS - The most common.lizards around the Austin area are the Green Anole, Fence Lizard, and Alligator Lizard .. The greatest threat to lizards is the loss of habitat due to human activities. In some places dogs and cats are a problem for lizard populations.
-0 What is Herpetology? Herpetoculture? Herping?
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Herpetology is the study of amphibians, reptiles, turtles, and crocodilians. 'Herpetos' is a Greek word meaning 'creeping' - all of the creeping vertebrates apparently were lumped together in one field of study, even though a frog is as different from a snake as a monkey is from a hummingbird.
One can be gainfully employed as a herpetologist and work at a university or a museum, studying the taxonomy, physiology, ecology, and other aspects of creeping things. You can also go out to a vernal pool and watch frogs and salamanders reproduce and thereby study herpetology.
"The current definition of herpetoculture is the captive husbandry and propagation of amphibians and reptiles; in more popular terms, it is "the keeping and breeding of herps" ... Herpetoculture is an interdisciplinary field which can involve knowledge of herpetology, botany, small-scale opensystem design, nutrition, geography, climatology, physiology, veterinary medicine, landscaping, etc. By the same token, herpetoculturists are a diverse lot of people from all walks of life and from a wide range of professions. A small number of people are professional herpetoculturists, meaning that herpetoculture is their primary source of income."
Philippe de Vosjoli, Herpetoculture In A Changing World, Vivarium Magazine.
Herping, or Field Herping, is the act of putting on your hiking boots, dropping a sack lunch, a camera and a field guide in your knapsack, and heading outdoors to see herps (amphibians, reptiles, turtles, and crocodilians) where they live. Oftentimes it means getting wet, cold, muddy, exhausted, sunburned, or lost, but that's all part of the fun. The results can be enormously satisfying - seeing a rattler coiled on a ledge, watching a salamander crawl to a vernal pool, listening to the frog chorus on a rainy spring night. In doing so, you can also visit some of the most beautiful places on earth.
Field herping is growing in popularity, and field herpers are starting to organize and hang out together. You can meet fellow field herpers on the Field Herp Forum (www.fieldherpforum.com ).
I. DESCRIPTION: This unusual mid-sized stocky agamid lizard has prominent spines along its sides and a large, essentially triangle-shaped head. Forming a sort of shield around the snout is a spiney jaw pouch which, when swollen, looks like a beard and makes any predator think twice before attacking. This wide-ranging species shows considerable geographic variation; its basic color varies from shades of brown, gray, and reddish-brown to bright
U orange. The ventral surface ranges from pale to dark gray, with white elongated spots edged with black. Mature males have dark "beards" which become black during courtship and breeding. Adults can grow as large as ten inches in body length or two feet in tota1length, including the tail. Males are larger than females.
II. GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE AND HABITAT: These lizards are native to Central Australia. They prefer semi-arid to arid woodland habitats. Time is spent both on the ground and in trees. They may be found perched on bush branches and even on fence posts.
III. DIET: Bearded dragons are omnivorous and consume many types of insects, small vertebrates, and vegetation including fruits and flowers.
IV. LIFE CYCLE/SOCIAL STRUCTURE: Sexual maturity is reached at one to two years of age. Mature females typically lay clutches of eleven to sixteen oblong leathery eggs in early summer. The eggs are laid in nests dug in sandy soil and the unattended young hatch 3 months later.
V. SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS: A bulky body and the habit of basking allows them to store heat, making it possible to operate at lower temperatures than other lizards. They can also survive higher temperatures for several hours, since they can regulate body temperature by evaporation. .
VT T1\lTERPRETIVE INFORMATION: U When intimidated, they flatten their bodies and stand erect with mouth gaping. The light-colored mouth lining,
spines bordering the lower jaw and puffed-out blackish beard give a formidable appearance. This defensive display has earned these lizards the common name of "bearded dragon".
Aggressiveness to other members of the group is shown through "body language". The tip of the tail is slightly
curved at the end and the head is bobbed rapidly. Submission is signaled by rotating the arms in a full circular ~,,/ motion, which looks a bit like waving. Ritualistic sparring matches take place in which both animals are in flat . / postures, beards .and tails up and outward; they circle each other, biting at one another's iail; but Usually no . damage is done. .
Their ability to change shades of color, from light to dark, helps them to regulate body temperature. Color changes can also depend on emotional state, and may also be used for concealment. When injured, sick, or dying the back becomes black and the legs pale yellow.
Australian desert lizards often make their escape by rising on their hind legs and running bipedally. They cannot run as fast as when using four feet, but perhaps this behavior aids in temperature control. They lift their bodies from the hot ground to lose the heat they generate in running. This reduces the amount of heat they take in from the ground and increases the cooling airflow over their bodies.
VII. STATUS IN WILD: Not considered endangered or threatened.
Vlll. BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1--
1. Encyclopedia of Reptiles, Amphibians, and other Cold-Blooded Animals. Burton, Maurice. 1975.· Octopus Books Ltd, PP 160-161.. 2. "The ~nland Bearded Dragon" ,The Vivarium, Vol. 4, No.5., Mar/Apr 1993. 3. "The Social Life of Bearded Dragons". Zoonooz, June/July, 1995. San Diego Zoo.
The amphisbaenians or "worm lizards" are the third suborder of the squamata. A bit strange; amphisbaenians have features that link . them to both lizards and snakes: yet have enough of their ovvn derived features to leave them as a separate suborder.
The have 4 families comprising 18 genera and a total of about 160 species. Amphisbaenians have adapted themselves to both an above and below ground existence. Below is the family menu. As soon as I can get some good information on these squamatans, there will be more.
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I Family Menu
ITrogonophidae
ISipedidae
IRhineuridae
IAmphisbaenidael
FEATURE OF THE MONTH
Snakes and Qthe_t: R~ptU~s
How reptiles live
Types of reptiles
Amphisbaenian
L!:zar~
Related Web sites
Interesting facts
Amphisbaenian
Amphisbaenian (AM fihs BAY nee uhn), also known as worm lizard, is any of a group of wormlike, burrowing reptiles related to lizards and snakes. About 150 amphisbaenian species live in warm regions around the world, largely in Africa, South America, and southern North America.
Adult amphisbaenians range from about 3 to 30 inches (8 to 76 centimeters) long. All species have long bodies with tiny eyes. An amphisbaenian's thick, bony skull helps It dig tunnels through the soil. Its loose skin enables it to travel underground using rectilinear motion. In this motion, the reptile moves part of its skin forward and anchors it against the tunnel walls. It then uses muscles to move the rest of its body forward with the skin. Most amphisbaenians have no limbs. However, three Mexican species have well-developed front limbs with toes and claws for digging.
Amphisbaenians usually lay eggs, but a few kinds give birth to live young. All species are effective predators, using good hearing and strong jaws to find and capture prey. The reptiles feed primarily on such small animals as worms and insects.
Scientific classification. Amphisbaenians belong to the order Squamata in the class Reptilia. They make up the suborder Amphisbaenia.
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An amphisbaenian has a long, wormlike bOdyn and tiny eyes. It spends most of its life underground in tunnels that It digs through the soil. Amphisbaenians inhabit many warm regions.
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u 1'~/1 ~nimalS 0 The Florida Scrub
Florida worm lizard Rhineura floridana
Not a lizard, not a snake, and certainly not a worm, the peculiar Florida worm lizard is a burrower that occurs only in dry habitats in central Florida. (Taxonomically, it's a member of the Amphisbaenia, one of three suborders of squamate reptiles, the other two being lizards and snakes.) Highly adapted for a life underground, the worm lizard's eyes are covered over with scales and the snout is
wedge-shaped and very rigid for pushing through the sand. Worm lizards (they get up to 12" long) are actually not uncommon but they stay 11'1derground and are rarely seen. U The Florida worm lizard is the only amphisbanian native to the United States. Other, distantly related, species occur in Africa and Central and South America. Fossils tell us that the closest relative of the Florida worm lizard lived in the North American Great Plams 25 million years ago. They have since gone extinct everywhere except central Florida.
Amphisbaenia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Suborder Ampbisbaenia is a group of peculiar, usually legless squamates distantly related to lizards and snakes, in spite of their resemblance to wonns (many possessing a pink body color and scales arranged in rings). They are very poorly known, due to their burrowing lifestyle and general rarity. Only one species exists in the US, with most of them prevailing in Africa and South America. Little is known of them outside of their anatomy, and even that is difficult to study due to the mechanics of dissecting something so small (most species are less than 6 inches long).
The head is stout, not set off from the neck, and either rounded, sloped, or sloped with a ridge down the middle. Most of the skuI1 is solid bone, and they have a distinctive single median tooth in the upper jaw. They have no outer ears, and the eyes are deeply recessed and covered with skin and scales. The body is elongated, and the tail truncates in a manner that vaguely resembles the head. Their name is derived from Amphisbaena, a mythical serpent with a head at each end.
The skin of amphisbaenians is only loosely attached to the body, and they move using an accordion-like motion, in which the skin moves and the body seemingly just drags along behind it. Uniquely, they are also able to perform this motion in reverse, just as effectively.
References .
Worm lizards () Cretaceous - R~ .t
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class:
Order:
Sauropsida
Squamata
Suborder: Ampbisbaenia Gray, 1844
Amphisbaenidae Trogonophidae
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• Wu X.-c., D. B. Brinkman, A. P. Russell, Z.-m. Dong, P. J. Currie, L.-h. Hou, & G.-h. Cui (1993). "Oldest known \ '~.\ amphisbaenian from the Upper Cretaceous of Chinese Inner Mongolia." Nature 366: 57-59. I )
Retrieved from ''http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphisbaenia''
Category: Squamata
• This page was last modified 14:35, 14 August 2006 . • All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
(See Copyrights for details.) Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.
Dave's Mythical Creatures
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.HomePage ----,
d/P-Izabetical Index
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Description
Features
Also called
Described By:
Lilzks
Amphisbaena
A serpent with two heads, and eyes that glow. From the Greek "goes both ways. "
If cut in half, both halves will rejoin. If the heads hold each other, the amphisbaena can roll along like a hoop. Wearing a live amphisbaena is said to help in pregnancy, and wearing a dead one will help rheumatism. Might actually be an Indian Sand
Boa.
Amphista, Amphivena
Mother of ants (it feeds on ants.)
Pliny- "the amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail end as well, as though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth. "
Sir Thomas Browne- " a smaller kind of Serpent, which movethfonvard and backward, hath n1'O heads ... Which double formations do often happen Zlnto multiparous generations, more especia/(v that of Serpents; whose productions being numerous, and their Eggs in chains or links together (which sometime conjoyn and inoculate into each other) they may unite into various shapes and come out in mixed formations." (Pseudodoxia Epidemica)
There are 158 different species of worm lizards in the zoological suborder Amphisbaenia. One of these species is probably the origin of this legend. An excellent herpetological resource is the EMBL Reptile Database, which has all of the different species listed and pictures. http://www.embl-
Thanks to eAudrey for this space. For information about making your own soap. visit her site:
Amphisbaenian Diversity Notes by Dr. Carl Gans
\[ ?US authors place these animals in the middle of the Sauria close to the snakes or Scleromorpha or Dibamidae. I do n~etknow.
Skull forms head shape. Premax teeth azygous. Also egg-tooth. Tabulosphenoid. Annuli often continuous. Caudal autotomy, but no regeneration. Caudal tip Inay be modified. Hemipenes. Left lung only. Variously egg-laying and viviparous.
Four families:
U
1. Bipedidae. Three species.
o Baja California. Continental Mexico.
o No fossil record. Skulls, rounded, suggest primitive status. Dentition pleurodont. Annuli interrupted. Retain hypertrophied forelimbs
o Molecular study suggested three very distinct lines.
o Hemipenes, similar to Rhineuridae.
o Chromosomes, similar to Rhineuridae.
2. Rhineuridae
o One recent species in Florida. There are many American fossils, since Paleocene of western North America--several genera (families). The earliest are the closest to Amphisbaenids.
o Spade-snouted, caudal boss, no autotomy.
o Vertebrae with ossified tendons.
o Pleurodont.
o Vanzolini, 1951, erected subfamily Rhineurldae of Amphisbaenidae which included the spade-snouted members of the African and South American radiations. These are not included here.
3. Amphisbaenidae
o Includes approxinlately 140 species of fairly elongate animals. Two South American fossils, Pleistocene. Two Kenyan fossils, Miocene.
o South America, Panama to Patagonia, Greater Antilles, Africa from Senegal to Cape Region, from here to Somalia; not found in Uganda, Sudan, Sahara, Ethiopia.
·0 Africa U One major spade-snouted radiation.
One or two keel-headed radiations.
o South America One or two spade-snouted radiations.
One keel-headed radiation.
o Skulls with regular braincase but facial portion modified.
o Pleurodont.
o Autotomy or not.
o Skull modification correlates with density and depth of soils occupied
o One very primitive genus, Blat!~s, has six species in Spain, South Morocco-Algeria, Syria to Turkey, and Iraq. Jaw not recessed, 1: 1 dermal:vertebral ratio.
o Fossil record of this genus into Belgium, France, Switzerland, and Italy.
4. Trogonophidae
o Four genera: Trogonophis from Morocco to Algeria. Diplometopodon from Transjordan to Iran to Saudi Arabia. Pachycalaumun, Socotra. Agamodon. Arabia - Somalia.
o Sand specialists: these dig by nuchal oscillation.
o Trunk triangular or beam-shaped in cross-section.
o Dentition acrodont Body shortened, including nuchal vertebrae.
o Genus Trogonophis retains an epipterygoid strut. This is unique iIi the Amyphisbaenia. Same fossil elements? From Africa? n
Limbless Locomotion
-Use of friction.
-Burrowing - How?
-Ecology of burrowers. Depth. Length of animal. Moist soils - hardness.
References
Estes, R., and G. Pregill (eds.). 1988. Phylogenetic re'ationships of the lizard families. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Gans, C. 1974. Biomechanics: an approach to vertebrate biology. J. B. Lippincott Co.
Gans, C. 1978. The Characteristics and Affinities of the Amphisbaenia. Trans. Z601. Soc. London 34:347-416. (This summarizes the characteristics of the individual species and genera. It documents that most of the characteristics have only been determined for a few species.)
ll~c;.k to Herpetology Home Page
First online March 27, 1997.
Added 1 February 2003
Family Amphisbaenidae Uoduction
The family Amphisbaenidae contains by far the largest number of genera and species of the suborder Amphisbaena. The following is a list of the genera and their general characteristics and distribution.
Please note that due to the general paucity of readily available knowledge about these creatures, this list is an ongoing work and will probably take some time to complete. Links will be provided from genus names to a list of their species when such information is available.
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Common Name
Sharp-Snouted Worm Lizards
Pink Round-Headed Worm Lizards
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No. of Distribution Notes species
66 Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, Mainly South America (not Chile), Surinam, French Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, also Caribbean Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Trinidad, Ecuador, Argentina, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hispaniola, Virgin Islands
.., Tanzania, Somalia and Ethiopian E African genus .J
2 Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina
1 Brazil
1 Nigeria and Cameroon
4 Morocco, Portugal, Spain, W Turkey, Mostly Moroccan Greece (Rhodos, Kos, Cyprus), Lebanon, pOSSe Israel (but may be extinct), Syria, N Iraq
9 N.S America, Ecuador, Colombia, N Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Caribbean, Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana ?, Trinidad, Tobago ?, Paraguay, Argentinia
4 Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia
5 Tanzania, Republic of South Africa, Rounded head with extensive fusion of Zimbabwe, Mozambique head shields (usua))y the nasal, 1 st
upper labial and prefrontal, and sometimes other shields, are all fused behind the rostral into 1-2 large shields).
17 Congo, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia, Nigeria, Gabon, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Togo, Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Liberia, Cameroon, Senegal, probably in S Mali
Loveridgea Round-Snouted Tanzania Slender and small. Long conical heads,
Worm Liz.ards snout compressed and very bent.
Mesobaena 1 Venezuela, Colombia
Monopeltis Spade-Snouted 19 Angola, N Namibia, Botswana, Congo, Large species, found mainly in Congo.
Worm Lizards Republic of South Africa, S Broad horizontal-shaped snout covered Mozambique, SE Zimbabwe, Gabon, with 1-2 large horny shields. Nasals Cameroon, Congo, Rio Muni, Malawi are always separated by rostral.
Pectoral region usually has enlarged long smooth shields. Body is cylindrical with <300 annuli counted along the belly.
Rhineura 1 USA (Florida, Georgia) Sometimes counted as a separate family, the Rhineuridae
Zygaspis Purple Round- 6 Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola, Namibia, Small and stout species: distinct nasal,
Headed Worm Botswana, Congo, Mozambique, prefrontal and ocular scales.
Lizards Republic of South Africa
Bibliography
Amphibians and Reptiles of North Africa, W Kastle, H H Schleich and K Kabisch, Koeltz Scientific Books, German 1996. Outstanding review ofN African herpetofauna giving detailed account of each species. '
Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa by Stephen Spawls, Kim Howell, Robert Drewes and James Ashe. Detailed and invaluable review of all reptile species in the region.
Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa, Bill Branch, Struik. Very good overview of all reptiles in the region with identification details.
Links
Back to Anlphisbaenians I J3~ck to Re}Ltiles l.a~J~lt!Q._H~rp~J91Qgy I Back to HomePfl.g~
Added I February 2003. Last updated 30 December 2004: added link to Trogonophis.
Trogonophidae
uus Common Name No. of Distribution Notes species
Agamodon ., Somalia, Yemen :J
Diplometopon I W Iran, S Iraq, Kuwait, N Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates
Pachycalamus 1 Yemen
Trogonophis I Morocco, N Algeria, we Tunisia
Bibliography
Amphibians and Reptiles of North Africa, W Kastle, H H Schleich and K Kabisch, Koeltz Scientific Books, Germany 1996. Outstanding review ofN African herpetofauna giving detailed account of each species.
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Added 1 February 2003
Bipedidae Genus Common No. of Location Notes
Name species
Bipes 4 Mexico This is the only amphisbaenian genus to have legs, namely two short ones with hand-like appendages at the front.
This family consists of the single genus above. Remarkably for this group of animals, each species has two hands that actually seem larger than the limbs joining them to the body: the number of digits on each hand can be used as a guide to the species. Few details are available on the reproductive biology of the genus, but it is known that clutches of 1-4 eggs are laid.
Carl J Franklin has written a fascinating and useful article at wYiw.kings.nru~~ ... ~_Q!:n about his search for Bipes biporus, and on the biology and captive care of the Bipes species.
Species Common Distribution Size Notes Name
Bipes
B. alvarezi Mexico Not always considered a separate species.
B. biporus Mole Lizard, Mexico (Baja California) 9~" This species has five digits on each hand. Ajolote
.;,
[Mex.] -( "'IIi B. canaliculatus Mexico 4- This species has four digits on each hand.
4~1t
B. c. canaliculatus
B. c. multiannualatus
B. tridactylus Mexico This species has three digits on each hand.
Back to Amphisbaenians I Back to Reptiles I Back to Herpetolog): I Back to HomePage
~dded 1998? Last updated 1 February 2003: updated text and added links to Amphisbaenidae, Trogonophidae and Bipedidae pages.
THE KEEPING AND MAINTENANCE OF AMPIDSBAENIANS
Amphisbaenians are perhaps the least known of the reptiles, even more obscure than the tuatara. They are also known as "worm lizards", and constitute a suborder of their own within the Order Squamata (the lizards and snakes), but in appearance and structure are actually not closely related to the lizards. Amphisbaenians are normally two feet long at most and resemble giant earthworms, with the obvious difference that as vertebrates they have a bone structure. In this aspect they resemble the caecilians, their counterparts in the Class Amphibia. It is true that there are legless lizards, but the amphisbaenians also differ in having a reduced right lung, a much greater degree of bone in the skull as opposed to cartilage, which is more prevalent in lizard skulls, and scales which are arranged in rings known as annuli around the body (hence the earthworm appearance). As with many burrowing animals, the eyes have become reduced to vestigial status.
There are 130 species of amphisbaenians, divided among three families: the Bipedidae, Trogonophidae and Amphisbaenidae. A fourth family, the Rhineuridae, comprising one species, Rhineura, is now generally considered part of the Amphisbaenidae. The three Bipedidae species have a pair of reasonably well-developed hands on very short legs near the head, but otherwise amphisbaenians have no external limbs visible. The name amphisbaenian, roughly translated, means" going both ways", a reference to the fact that some of these creatures can in fact move backwards and also to the difficulty in visually ascertaining at fIrst glance which way round the creature is pointing.
~sbaenians are rarely seen in the pet trade, even among exotics: in fact I have never seen one offered for sale, either in a shop or at a fair. Come to think of it, I don't even recall seeing one at London Zoo or any other such institute. Part of this is probably due to their low display value: after all, a creature that spends all its time hidden in a substrate (literally burrowing, as opposed to the mere digging in of some lizards) is hardly likely to make a good talking point.
- .Amphisbaenians are also not exactly con1fl1on in nature: confined to tropical and sub-tropical parts of America and Africa, plus the south of Spain and Portugal, their lifestyle makes them hard to find, much less catch in nun1bers for the pet trade. But as in the case of caecilians, one might consider this a pity in some ways. The very lack of information we have on these strange reptiles will hopefully be a spur to some individuals to make further studies.
According to Mattison, care of captive amphisbaenians is actually fairly easy. The main requirement is a substrate several inches deep of sand, sandy soil or leaf-litter, depending on the creature's area of origin. A heat pad is placed under one end of the tank to allow limited thermoregulation. In some cases a flat rock with a moist area underneath is also provided. Food will be in the form of normal invertebrates - crickets, mealworms, waxworms and earthwormsdropped into the tank. These can be allowed to run about as the amphisbaenian will consume them from underneath the surface. For this reason, Mattison also warns that no other reptiles of any sort should be kept in a tank with an amphisbaenian, as the larger amphisbaenians are certainly carnivorous and will consume ~ead rodents or canned pet food. Rundquist recommends pinkie or furry mice offered every other week and once or tWice a n10nth supplement~d with a liquid multivitamin at a dosage of 0.1 cc vitamins per 440 g body weight of captive. Lean beef or horsen~eat IS also apparently acceptable. He also warns against feeding frozen fish to amphisbaenians, a tendency he has noticed.
Information on individual species is very thin. In an effort to redress the balance, and to .make ~l~e amphisbaenians ~ore accessible to herpetophiles and the general public, we offer what data w~ can o~ the .baslc famlhes and genera of thiS sul- ·der. However, this will take some time to complete. Apart fron1 USIng the InestImable EMBL datab~se to check th~ecies names and origins, all other data has come from field guides to certain areas (so far, only Afnca and
Europe).
For Iuore infonuation on the various amphisbaenian species, please click on one of the family links below.
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Short-Headed Worm Lizards
Two-Legged Worm Lizards n The Hej4.~lberg zoolQgy sit~ has some generic data on the order, its families and species. This is rather dry but useful taxonomic classification material, especially as it gives the place of origin for each species.
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