In Defence of Untranslatability

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In defence of untranslatabilityHoward Sankey aba University of Melbourne, b Saint David's University College, Lampeter

To cite this Article Sankey, Howard(1990) 'In defence of untranslatability', Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 68: 1, 1 21

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Australasian Jou rna l o f PhilosophyVol. 68, No 1: March 1990

IN DEFENCE OF UNTRANSLATABILITY

Howard Sankey

1. IntroductionThis paper addresses criticisms of the concept of untranslatability whichDavidson [1984] and Putnam [1981] have raised against theincommensurability thesis. The main themes of the criticism are presentin the following extract from Putnam [1981 ]:

The incommensurability thesis is the thesis that terms used in anotherculture, say, the term 'temperature' as used by a seventeenth-centuryscientist, cannot be equated in meaning or reference with any terms orexpressions we possess. . . [I]f this thesis were really true then we couldnot translate other languages--or even past stages of our own language--at all. And if we cannot interpret organisms' noises at all, then we haveno grounds for regarding them as thinkers, speakers, or even persons.In short, if Feyerabend (and Kuhn at his most incommensurable) wereright, then members of other cultures, including seventeenth-centuryscientists, would be conceptualizable by us only as animals producingresponses to stimuli (including noises that curiously resemble English orItalian). To tell us that Galileo had 'incommensurable' notions and thento go on to describe them at length is totally incoherent.

[1981: 114-5]The central objection is that it is incoherent to talk about what isuntranslatable. Three lines of argument may be distinguished with regardto this alleged incoherence. One argument is direct: it is incoherent to expressthe content of an untranslatable language within the language into whichit is untranslatable. The other two are indirect arguments which assumetranslation is necessary for understanding. First: ideas expressed in anuntranslatable language are incomprehensible, so claiming to understandthem is incoherent. Second: it is incoherent to conceive the speaker of anuntranslatable language as having a language at all. The direct argumentwill be dealt with in Section 2, and the indirect arguments in Section 3.In addition, Davidson [1984] argues that languagehood is inextricablefrom translation. He claims that a 'dogma of a dualism of scheme and reality'which fallaciously separates language from translation underlies theincommensurability thesis. His attack on the dualism will be considered inSections 4 to 6.

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In D efence of Untranslatability2 . T h e D i r e c t I n c o h e r e n c e A r g u m e n t

P u t n a m d e f in e s ' i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i ty ' b y s a y i n g t h a t 't e r m s u s e d in a n o t h e rc u l t u r e . . , c a n n o t b e e q u a t e d i n m e a n i n g o r r e f e r e n c e w i t h a n y t e r m s o re x p r e s si o n s w e p o s se s s '. G i v e n t h is d e f i n it io n , t h e d i r e c t in c o h e r e n c e a r g u m e n tis e m b o d i e d i n t h e l as t s e n t e n c e o f t h e q u o te : ' T o t e ll u s t h a t G a l i le o h a d" i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e " n o t io n s a n d t h e n to g o o n t o d e s cr ib e t h e m a t l e n g thi s t o t a l l y i n c o h e re n t ' . F o r i f G a l i l e o ' s i d e a s a r e u n t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o o u rl a n g u a g e , th e n t h e y c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d u s i ng o u r l a n g u a g e , a n d i t c o n t r a d i c t st h e c l a i m o f u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y t o d o so .

D a v i d s o n p u t s th e p o i n t i n t h e f o r m o f a p a r a d o x [ 1 9 8 4 : 1 8 3 -4 ] . ' W ea r e e n c o u r a g e d ' , h e s a y s , t o ' i m a g i n e w e u n d e r s t a n d m a s s i v e c o n c e p t u a lc h a n g e ' b y t h e u s e o f e x a m p l e s , b u t 't h e c h a n g e s a n d t h e c o n t r a s t s c a nb e e x p l a i n e d a n d d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t o f a s i n g le l a n g u a g e ' [ 1 8 3] .'K u h n ' , h e a d d s , ' i s b r i l l i a n t a t s a y i n g w h a t t h i n g s w e re l i k e b e fo re t h er e v o lu t io n u s i n g - - w h a t e l s e ? - - o u r p o s t -r e v o l u ti o n a r y i d i o m ' [ 1 84 ] . T h ep a r a d o x i s t h a t t h e m e a n i n g e x p r e s s e d b y t h e t e r m s o f a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l el a n g u a g e s h o u l d b e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e v e r y l a n g u a g e i n t o w h i c h t r a n s l a t i o na l l ege d ly fa i ls .

P u t n a m a n d D a v i d s o n 's r e m a r k s s u g g e st th e f o ll o w i n g a r g u m e n t . S u p p o s ei t is a r g u e d i n l a n g u a g e L t h a t L * i s u n t r a n s l a t a b le i n t o L . S u p p o s e a s w e l lt h a t th e a r g u m e n t i n L e m p l o y s e x a m p l e s f r o m L * i n th e s e n s e t h a t it e x p r e s s e st h e m e a n i n g o f t e r m s t a k e n f r o m L * . I t f o l lo w s f r o m t h e l a t t e r t h a t L *i s t r a n s l a ta b l e i n t o L , f o r t h a t i s w h a t e x p r e ss in g t h e m e a n i n g o f te r m s f r o mL * i n L a m o u n t s to . B u t t h e n t h e a r g u m e n t i ts e l f t r a n s la t e s f r o m L * i n t oL i n t h e c o u r s e o f a r g u i n g t h a t L * i s n o t tr a n s l a t a b le i n t o L . I f t h e a r g u m e n ti s c o r r e c t , t h e n i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s l a t e f ro m L* i n t o L , so t h e c o n c l u s i o ni s fa l se . I f t h e c o n c l u s i o n i s c o r r e c t , t h e n i t i s i m p o ss i b l e t o t r a n s l a t e f ro mL * i n t o L , s o t h e a r g u m e n t i s i n c o r r e c t . S u c h a n a r g u m e n t i s i n c o h e r e n t .

T h i s a r g u m e n t i s s o u n d b u t i ts s c o p e is li m i te d . R a t h e r t h a n b e i n g a g e n e r a lo b j e c t io n t o u n t r a n s l a ta b i l it y , i t i s a m e t a - a r g u m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t o n ef o r m o f u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y a r g u m e n t i s s e l f - r e f u t i n g . N o t h i n g f o l l o w s f r o mt h a t a b o u t u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y i t s e l f . I t i s n o t e v e n a g e n e ra l o b j e c t i o n t o a l la r g u m e n t s f o r u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y . A t m o s t , i t i s a c r i t i c i s m o f a r g u m e n t s i nw h i c h u n t r a n s l a t a b il i ty is a r g u e d f o r in t h e l a n g u a g e i n to w h i c h t r a n s l a ti o nf ail s. I t d o e s n o t a p p l y i f t h e l a n g u a g e o f a r g u m e n t a n d t h e u n t r a n s l a t a b l el a n g u a g e s a r e d i st in c t. 1 I n f a c t , it o n l y a p p li es t o a r g u m e n t s w h i c h e m p l o ye x a m p l e s . A r g u m e n t s w h i c h d o n o t e x p r e s s t h e m e a n i n g o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l ee x p re s s i o n s a r e i m m u n e t o su c h c r i c it ism . A s i t i s n o t fu l l y g e n e ra l , t h ea r g u m e n t f a i l s t o s h o w u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y t o b e i n c o h e r e n t . S o i t c a n n o t b eb r o u g h t t o b e a r o n a n y p a r t i c u l a r u n t r a n s l a t a b i li t y c l a i m u n l e s s s p e c if i c a ll ysh o w n t o a p p l y t o it.

O f c ou r se , P u t n a m a n d D a v i d s o n e m p l o y th e o b je c ti o n b e c a u s e t h e y a s s u m ei n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y f a ll s w i t h i n th e a m b i t o f t h e a r g u m e n t . T h e y a s s u m e

E.g., it m igh t be argued in a m etalanguage that a p ai r of object-languages is n otintertranslatable withou texpressing untranslatableconten t in either object-language.

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Howard Sankey 3the language into which an untranslatable theory fails to be translatableis the language in which the argument for incommensurability is couched.Instead of translation failure between delimited theoretical terminologies,they identify the language into which translation fails with language as awhole.

This interpretation is explicit in Putnam's definition of 'theincommensurability thesis [as] the thesis that terms used in anotherculture ... cannot be equated in meaning or reference with any terms orexpressions we possess'. And it is evident in the inference he draws: 'if thisthesis were really true then we could not translate other languages.., atall'. When Davidson notes Kuhn's paradoxical use of 'our post-revolutionaryidiom' to discuss pre-revolutionary science he assumes that the modernlanguage into which out of date theory fails to translate is contemporaryEnglish. Davidson also takes the language into which translation fails tobe a total language because he discusses incommensurability in the contextof complete translation failure [1984: 190-1]. As Davidson and Putnaminterpret incommensurability, the language of argument and the languageinto which translation fails are one and the same.

Given such an interpretation, it remains only to note that Kuhn andFeyerabend use examples extensively. Since they use examples in arguingfor incommensurability, their argument for untranslatability is open to thecharge of incoherence. For if the language into which translation fails isthe very language in which they argue for untranslatability, then their .useof examples is indeed incoherent.2

This objection could be met by denying that Kuhn and Feyerabend expressthe meaning of the examples they discuss. One might claim that they giveonly approximate or partial translations. But this would be amisrepresentation. Kuhn and Feyerabend's exposition of the meaning ofexpressions is what shows them to be untranslatable in the first place.It must be denied instead that the language into which translation failsis the language of argument. So it must be denied that incommensurabilityentails untranslatability into a total language. This accords fully with thethesis of incommensurability, since the incommensurability of scientifictheories is not a relation between total languages. It is a relation betweenthe languages of theories, and the language specific to a theory is onlya part of a language. Incommensurability is due to semantical differencesin the terminology of theories: the terminology employed by a theory cannotbe translated into the terminology of a theory with which it isincommensurable. Instead of untranslatability into a total language, it isa case of translation failure between sub-languages within language as awhole.That the untranslatability is limited is evident from Kuhn and Feyerabend'sdiscussions of the theories they take to be incommensurable. They do not2 Even their use of examples independently of such arguments would be incoherent. Forif the examples cannot be expressed in our language, then they cannot be expressed inany discussion couched in our language.

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4 In Defence o f Untranslatabilityc la im t rans la t ion fa i lu re in to a to ta l l anguage , s ince they a re concerned wi thse ma n t i c a n a ly s is o f t h e v o c a b u la ry t h e t h e o r ie s e m p lo y PKu h n ma k e s t h e p o in t e x p l i c i t l y i n r e sp o n d in g to t h e Da v id so n -P u tn a ma rg u me n t [ 1 9 8 3 :6 6 9 -7 1 ]. H e a d v o c a t e s ' l o c a l ' in c o m me n su ra b i l it y , w h ic hi s u n tr a n s la t a b il it y b e tw e e n su b - se t s o f th e t e rms u se d b y p a i r s o f th e o r ie s .Th is invo lves loca l i sed sem ant ic d i f fe rence wi th in the con tex t o f sha rede v e ry d a y a n d s c ie n t if ic l a n g u a g e :

M o s t o f t h e t e rm s c o m m o n t o . . . t w o [ i nc o m m e n s u ra b l e] t he o ri e s f u n c ti o nth e s a me w a y in b o th ; t h e ir m e a n in g s . . , a r e p r e se rv e d ; t h e ir tr a n s la t io ni s s imp ly h o m o p h o n ic . On ly fo r a sm a l l su b g ro u p o f (u su a l ly i n t e rd e f in e d )t e rms a n d fo r s e n t e n c e s c o n ta in in g th e m d o p ro b le ms o f t r a n s l a t a b i l i t yarise. [1 9 8 3 : 6 7 0 -1 ]

So he doe s no t even c la im fu l l t rans la tion fa i lu re be tw een the spec ia l l angua gesof theor ies: un t rans la tab i l i ty i s re s t r ic ted to a cen t ra l c om plex o f in te rde f inedte rms .The s i tua t ion is s imi la r wi th Fey erab end , w ho ho lds tha t the bas ic p r inc ip les

o f a t h e o ry p r e c lu d e th e c o n c e p t s o f a t h e o ry w i th wh ic h i t is i n c o m me n su ra b le :' th e c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n c e p t f o rm a t io n in o n e th e o ry fo rb id th e fo rm a t io n o fthe bas ic concep ts o f the o the r ' [1978 : 69] . The resu l tan t u n t rans la tab i l i tya f fec ts mor e than a ce n t ra l c om plex o f te rms . Y e t it i s s til l a re la tion be tw eenthe langu ages o f theor ies , ra the r than to ta l languages . 4

T h e p i c tu r e o f l a n g u a g e wh ic h e m e rg e s is o f n a tu ra l l a n g u a g e a s ac o n g lo m e ra t e o f t e rmin o lo g ie s o r lo c a l id io ms w i th sp e c i a l a r e a s o fapp l ica t ion . Unt rans la tab i l i ty be tween theore t ica l l anguages cons t i tu tes ar e l a t i o n b e twe e n su b - l a n g u a g e s w i th in a t o t a l l a n g u a g e . Ra th e r t h a nu n t r an s l a ta b i li ty i n to a t o t a l la n g u a g e a s a s su me d b y Da v id so n a n d P u tn a m ,wha t i s a t i s sue i s loca l i sed t rans la t ion fa i lu re be tween sub- languagesc o n ta in e d in an e n c o m p a ss in g l a n g u a g e .T h u s th e l a n g u a g e in to wh ic h th e v o c a b u la ry o f a t h e o ry f a i ls t o b et r a n s la t a b l e m a y b e d i st in c t fro m th e l a n g u a g e o f a rg u me n t . F o r t h e a rg u m e n tth a t a p a i r o f su b - l a n g u a g e s i s n o t i n t e rt r a n sl a ta b l e c a n b e c o u c h e d in apor t ion o f langu age d is t inc t f rom the langua ge in to w hich t rans la t ion fai ls .T h e o re t i c a l su b - l a n g u a g e s m a y th e mse lv e s b e t h e t o p ic o f a d is c u s s io n c a r r i e do u t w i th in s o m e o th e r p a r t o f th e l a n g u a g e .

T h u s c o n s id e r two l a n g u a g e s T L a n d T L * a s so c i a t e d w i th two th e o r i e s .S u p p o se th a t T L a n d T L * a r e su b - l a n g u a g e s o f a b ro a d e r n a tu ra l l a n g u a g eL . I t i s p o s s ib l e t o u se L a s a me ta l a n g u a g e to sp e a k a b o u t t h e s e ma n t i c3 See K uhn on N ew t on and E i ns t e i n [1970 : 101 -2 ] , ph l og i s t on ve r sus oxygen [1983 : 675 -6 ] ; Feye rab end on i m pe t us an d m om en t um l 1981 c: 62 -9 ] , and c l a s s ica l phys ic s ve r sus gen e ra lr e l a ti v i ty and qua n t um m e cha n i c s [ 1981 d ] .4 Feye rab end does no t r e s t r i c t i ncom m en su rab i l i t y t o s c i en ti f ic theo r i e s. L angu ages , w or l dv i ew s , f r am ew orks and fo rm s o f l i f e m ay a l so be i nco m m ensu r ab l e ( cf . [ 19 87 : 8 1 ], [ 198 l b :16] , [ 1975 : 269 ] ) . B u t such b r oad e r ap p l i ca t ion o f t he co ncep t o f incom m e nsu rab i l i ty doesn o t i m p l y t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e i n t o w h i c h t h e v o c a b u l a r y o f i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e t h e o r i e s i sun t r ans l a t ab l e i s a t o t a l na t u ra l l anguage .

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How ard Sankey 5r e l a t i o n s b e twe e n T L a n d T L * . In p a r t i c u l a r , i t ma y b e a rg u e d in L th a ta t erm t* o f T L * c a n n o t b e t ra n s l a te d in to T L . S u c h a n a rg u m e n t n e e dn o t b e fo rmu la t e d in T L , fo r i t c a n b e fo rmu la t e d in L . Us in g L a sme ta l a n g u a g e , t * c a n b e r e f e r r e d to a n d sh o wn to b e i n d e f in a b le i n T Lwi th o u t b e in g e x p re s se d in T L . N o r i s t h e r e a n y n e e d in t h e c o u r se o f t h ea rg u m e n t t o e x p re s s t h e me a n in g o f t* in T L . F o r t* m a y b e d e f in e d inL u se d a s a m e ta l a n g u a g e fo r T L wi th o u t e x p re s s in g th e me a n in g o f t*in TL . 5

In su m, t h e d ir e c t in c o h e re n c e a rg u m e n t d o e s n o t a p p ly to th e i n c o m m e n -surab i l i ty thes is . S ince the un t rans la tab i li ty in ques t ion i s a re la tion b e tw ee nth e o re t i c a l su b - l a n g u a g e s , a n d s in c e su c h su b - l a n g u a g e s ma y b e d i s c u s se dwi th in a me ta l a n g u a g e , n o in c o h e re n c e a t t a c h e s t o t h e u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t ya rg u me n t .

3 . T rans la t ion and In te rp re ta t ionT h e P u t n a m p a s s a g e s u g g es ts tw o a r g u m e n t s w h i c h d o n o t p r o c e e d s tr ic tl yin te rms o f t rans la t ion . Bo th invo lve the assum pt ion tha t t rans la tion i sn e c e s sa ry fo r i n t erp re ta t io n . T h i s a s su m p t io n i s imp l ic i t in P u tn a m ' s i n f e r e n c ef ro m ' we c o u ld n o t t r a n s l a t e . . . a t a l l ' t o ' we c a n n o t i n t e rp re t o rg a n i sms 'nois es a t a ll '.

D i s c u s s io n o f in c o m m e n su ra b i l i ty i s su p p o se d to b e i n c o h e re n t b e c a u seof such inab i l i ty to in te rp re t . The f i r s t a rgument i s tha t i f a language i su n t r a n s la t a b le , t h e n th e i d e a s e x p re s se d in t h e l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d ,so ' to desc r ibe [ incommensurab le no t ions] a t l eng th i s to ta l ly incoheren t ' .T h e s e c o n d is t h a t sp e a k e r s o f a n u n t r a n s la t a b l e l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e k n o wnto h a v e a l a n g u a g e , a n d ' wo u ld b e c o n c e p tu a l i z a b l e b y u s o n ly a s a n ima l sp rod uc ing respo nses to s timuli '.

I t m u s t b e a sk e d w h a t P u tn a m m e a n s b y 'i n te rp ret '. T o s a y th a t tr a n s la t io nfa i lu re en ta i l s inab i l i ty to ' in te rp re t o rgan isms ' no ises ' sugges ts tha t them e a n in g o f u n t r a n s la t a b l e e x p re s s io n s c a n n o t b e u n d e r s to o d . S o to i n t erp re ta n e x p re s s io n i s p r e su m a b ly to u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e m e a n in g o f t h e e x p re ss io nis. Bu t i t i s unc lea r h ow in te rp re ta tion i s re la ted to t rans la tion .

P u tn a m m a y a s su m e th a t in t e rp re t a ti o n o f a sp e a k e r w h o sh a re s o n e ' so w n l a n g u a g e c o n s t i tu t e s h o m o p h o n ic t r a n sl a ti o n f ro m th e sp e a k e r ' s id io l e c tin to o n e ' s o wn id io l e c t . I f su c h d o me s t i c i n t e rp re t a t i o n i s a s su me d to b ea fo rm of t rans la t ion , then i t i s na tu ra l to take in te rp re ta tion o f a fo re ignla n g u a g e a s a fo rm o f t ra n s la t io n a s we l l. I n t e rp ret a t io n o f a f o r e ig n l a n g u a g ewould then cons is t in t rans la t ing fo re ign express ions in to a home language5 Fo r an exam pl e o f a d i scuss i on o f un t r ans l a t ab i l it y w h i ch has t h i s fo rm , s ee Feye ra bend ' sd i s cu s s io n o f ' i m p e t u s ' [ 1 98 lc : 6 5 - 6 ] . H e m e n t i o n s ' i m p e t u s ' a n d g i v es i ts m e a n i n g a s d e f i n e di n t he i m pe t us t heo ry ; t hen he show s t ha t such a de f i n i t i on canno t be fo rm u l a t ed on t hebas i s o f t he p r i nc ip l e s o f N ew t on i an m echan i c s . T h i s is a po i n t a bou t t he s em an t i ca l l im i t a t i onso f t h e l a n g u a g e o f N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s , a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f ' i m p e t u s ' i s n o t e x p r e s s e di n t ha t l anguage anyw here i n t he a rgum en t . T he d i scuss i on i s couched i n E ng l i sh u seda s a m e t a l a n g u a g e , s o t h e l a n g u a g e o f a r g u m e n t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e i n t o w h i c h ' i m p e t u s 'fa i l s t o be t ra ns l a t ab le a re d i s t inc t .

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6 In De fence o f Untranslatabilitya n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r h o m e l a n g u a g e e q u i v al e n ts . T h u s c o n c e i v e d , f a i l u ret o t r a n s l a t e i m m e d i a t e l y e n t a i ls f a i l u r e o f i n t e r p r e t a ti o n .

T h i s t r a n s la t i o n a l s e n se o f i n t e r p re t a t io n c a n b e c o n s t r u e d i n t w o w a y s .I f t r a n s l a t i o n m u s t b e e x a c t , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a f o r e ig n e x p r e s s i o n w o u l dc o n s i st in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n e x a c t e q u i v a l e n t in a h o m e l a n g u a g e . I f tr a n s l a t io nm a y b e l o o se , i n t e r p r e ta t i o n m a y c o n s is t in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l o o s e r e n d e r i n go f a f o r e i g n e x p r e s s i o n .

I f ' i n t e r p r e t ' w e r e g i v e n t h e f i r s t r e a d i n g , P u t n a m ' s i n f e r e n c e w o u l d f a i l .I t d o e s n o t f o l lo w f r o m f a i lu r e o f e x a c t t r a n s l a t io n t h a t t h e c o n t e n t o f s p e a k e r s 'u t t e r a n c e s c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d . F o r t h a t t o f o l l o w , i t w o u l d h a v e t o b e

. t h e c a s e t h a t e x a c t t r a n s l a t i o n i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n gs u c h c o n t e n t . B u t t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a s s u m e f a i l u r e o f e x a c t t r a n s l a t i o nt o e n t a i l t h a t a l a n g u a g e c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d a t a l l . S u c h f a i l u r e n e i t h e rp r e c l u d e s t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a g l o s s o r l o o s e t ra n s l a ti o n , n o r d o e s i t p r e v e n tt h e l a n g u a g e f r o m b e i n g l e a r n e d d i r ec t ly .

To t a k e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d w a y a s l o o se t r a n s l a t i o n i s t oi m p l a u s i b l y e x a g g e r a t e i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y . U n t r a n s la t a b i li ty o f t h e o ri e s i nt h e s e n s e r e l e v a n t to i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y d o e s n o t e n t ai l a t o t a l l a c k o fc o m m o n s e m a n t i c fe a t u re s : e x p r e s si o n s o f u n t r a n s l a ta b l e l a n g u a g e s m a ys h a r e a s p e c ts o f re f e r e n c e a n d e v e n m e a n i n g . T h o u g h ' d e p h l o g i s t i c a te d a i r'c a n n o t b e t r a n s l a t e d i n to t h e o x y g e n t h e o r y , s o m e o f i ts t o k e n s c o - r e f e rw i t h ' o x y g e n ' . I f ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' i s t a k e n i n a l o o se s en se , P u t n a m ' s d e n i a lo f i n t e r p r e ta t i o n i s s tr o n g e r t h a n l ic e n s e d b y i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i ty .

I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a r g u m e n t i n t e r p r e ta t io n c a n n o t b e t a k e n t o c o n s i s ti n t r a n s l a t i o n . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n m u s t b e s e p a r a b l e f r o m t r a n s l a t i o n . Th o u g hi n s o m e c a s e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a y d e p e n d o n t r a n s l a t i o n , i t c a n n o t h a v et r a n s l a t i o n a s a c o n s t i t u t i v e c o m p o n e n t . T o i n t e r p r e t a n e x p r e s s i o n m u s tb e , q u i te s i m p l y , t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i t m e a n s . A n d t o u n d e r s t a n d a n e x p r e s s io ni s n o t t o t r a n s l a t e i t , n o r i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e s t r i c t e d t o w h a t i s e x p r e s se di n a h o m e l a n g u a g e . R a t h e r , t o u n d e r s t a n d c o n s i s t s s i m p l y i n k n o w i n g t h em e a n i n g o f a n e x p r e s s io n , w h a t e v e r l a n g u a g e i t b e l o n g s t o.

P u t n a m ' s i n f e r e n c e f r o m f a i l u r e t o t r a n s l a t e t o f a i l u r e t o i n t e r p r e t d o e sn o t r e q u i r e t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o n s i s t i n t r a n s l a t i o n . Th a t i n f e r e n c e c a n b em a d e i f t r a n s la t i o n is a s s u m e d t o b e a n e c e s s a r y p r e re q u i s it e o f in t e r p re t i n ga f o r e i g n e x p r e s s i o n . To s a y t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n i s n e c e s sa r y f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o ni s d i s t i n c t f r o m sa y i n g t h a t i t is a c o m p o n e n t o f in t e r p r e t a ti o n .

Th e a s su m p t i o n t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a re s t r ic t i v ea s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f u n d e r s ta n d i n g . A s d i s ti n c t f r o m t a k i n gi n t e r p r e t a t i o n t o b e i t s e l f a f o r m o f t r a n s la t i o n , it t a k e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t ob e l i m i t e d to e x p r e s si o n s c o u c h e d i n o n e ' s h o m e l a n g u a g e , f f t h e a s s u m p t i o nw e r e t r u e , w e w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o c o m e t o k n o w t h e m e a n i n g o f a n e x p r e s s io nn o t t r a n s l a ta b l e i n t o o u r l a n g u a g e .

L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r t h e f i r s t o f P u t n a m ' s t w o a r g u m e n t s . I t d e r i v e si m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t r a n s la t i o n is n e c e s s a r y f o ri n t e r p r e t a t i o n . S u p p o s e t h a t t h e r e i s a l a n g u a g e w h i c h w e a r e u n a b l e t ot ra n s l at e . T h e n , b y t h e a s s u m p t i o n , w e c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i s e x p r e s s e d

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Howard Sankey 7i n t h e l a n g u a g e . A n d i n th a t c a s e w e c a n n o t k n o w w h a t i d e as a r e e x p r e s se db y t h e s p e a k e r s o f s u c h a l an g u a g e . B u t a d v o c a t e s o f th e i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i tyt h es is d o c l a i m t o k n o w w h a t e x p r e ss i on s o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e s m e a n .T h u s t h e y s a y b o t h t h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n s c a n n o t b e t r a n s l a t e d a n d t h a t t h e yk n o w w h a t t h e e x p r e s s i o n s m e a n . B u t th i s i s i n c o h e r e n t : f o r i f t h e e x p r e s s i o n sc a n n o t b e t r a n s la t e d , th e i r m e a n i n g s c a n n o t b e k n o w n ; a n d i f t h e m e a n i n g sa r e k n o w n , t h e n t h e e x p r e s s io n s c a n b e t r a n s l a te d .

G i v e n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s i t y o f tr a n s l a t i o n , t h e c o n c l u s i o n o fi n c o h e r e n c e n o d o u b t f o l lo w s . H o w e v e r , t h e a s s u m p t i o n i s i t se l f i m p l a u s ib l e .F o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a f o r e i g n e x p r e s s i o n n e e d n o t c o n s i s t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n gi t s t r a n s l a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t w i t h i n o n e ' s h o m e l a n g u a g e . B i l i n g u a l s p e a k e r sd o n o t t r a n s l a t e ' i n t h e i r h e a d s ' w h i l e c o n v e r s i n g i n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e ,s o a b i l i n g u a l m a y u n d e r s t a n d a f o r e i g n e x p r e s s i o n n o t t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t oh is h o m e l a n g u a g e . M o r e o v e r , if a f o re i g n la n g u a g e m u s t b e t r a n sl a te d b e f o r ei t m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d , t h e n n o l a n g u a g e c o u l d e v e r h a v e b e e n t r a n s l a t e di n th e f i r st p l a c e . S t il l w o r s e , i f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n e w l a n g u a g e r e a l l y d i dr e q u i r e t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o a p r i o r l a n g u a g e , i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o l e a r no n e ' s o w n f i r st l a n g u a g e . I n a n y c a s e , i t i s a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t u n n e c e s s a r yt o t r a n s l a t e i n o r d e r t o l e a r n a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , s i n c e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o l e a r na n e w l a n g u a g e b y t h e m e t h o d o f d i r e c t i m m e r s io n . F o r t h e se r e a s o n s w em a y c o n c l u d e t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g a f o r e ig n l a n g u a g e is n o t c o n t i n g e n t u p o nt r a n s l a t io n a n d t h a t t h e f ir st a r g u m e n t m a y b e r e j e c t e d .

T h i s r e b u t ta l is p a t t e r n e d o n t h e r e s p on s e s o f K u h n [ 1 9 8 3 ] a n d F e y e r a b e n d[ 1 9 8 7 ] , w h o c l a i m t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f a t h e o r y i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e w i t ho n e ' s o w n c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d . F e y e r a b e n d r e b u t s P u t n a m b y p o i n t i n g o u tt h a t ' w e c a n l e a r n a l a n g u a g e o r a c u l t u r e f r o m s c r a t c h , a s a c h i l d l e a r n st h e m , w i t h o u t d e t o u r t h r o u g h o u r n a t i v e t o n g u e ' [ 1 9 8 7 : 7 6 ] . K u h nd i s ti n g u i sh e s b e t w e e n t r a n s l a ti o n o f a l a n g u a g e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a ni n i t i a l l y u n i n t e l l i g i b l e l a n g u a g e . H e c h a r a c t e r i s e s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a s f o l l o w s :

U n l i k e t h e t ra n s l a t o r , t h e in t e r p r e t e r m a y i n i t ia l l y c o m m a n d o n l y a s in g l el a n g u a g e . A t t h e s t a r t , t h e t e x t o n w h i c h h e o r s h e w o r k s c o n s i s t s i nw h o l e o r i n p a r t o f u n in t el li g ib l e n o is e s o r i n s c r i p t i o n s . . . I f t h e i n te r p r e t e rs u c c e e d s , w h a t h e o r s h e h a s i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e d o n e i s l e a r n a n e wl a n g u a g e . . , w h e t h e r th a t l a n g u a g e c a n b e t ra n s la t e d i nt o t he o n e w it hw h i c h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r b e g a n is a n o p e n q u e s t i o n . A c q u i r i n g a n e w l a n g u a g ei s n o t t h e s a m e a s t r a n s l a t i n g f r o m i t i n t o o n e ' s o w n . S u c c e s s w i t h t h ef ir st d o e s n o t i m p l y s u c c e s s w i t h t h e s e c o n d .

[ 1 9 8 3 : 6 7 2 - 3 ]T h i s d is t in c t io n e n a b l e s K u h n t o r e b u t P u t n a m a s F e y e r a b e n d d oe s : a nu n t r a n s la t a b l e t h e o r y m a y b e i n t e r p re t e d , so t h e r e i s n o t h in g i n c o h e r e n t a b o u tc l a i m i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l e e x p r e ss i o ns . 66 T his rebuttal may be further supported by noting th at the untranslatable language to beinterpreted in the case of an incomm ensurable the ory is not a tota l language. For wha tis at issue is untranslatability within a single language, and w ha t must be interpreted isan unknown are a o f tha t language. Interpretation of theoretical terminologyuntranslatableinto one 's own theo ry is therefore not the radical project of learning a com pletelyunknownlanguage w ithout the benefit of any com mo n language.

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8 In De fence o f UntranslatabililyL e t u s t u r n t o P u t n a m ' s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t , w h i c h i s t h a t u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y

p r e v e n t s l a n g u a g e a t t r i b u t i o n . I t t o o a s s u m e s t r a n s l a t i o n t o b e n e c e s s a r yf o r i n te r p r e ta t io n . F r o m t h is i t f o l l o w s t h a t if a s p e a k e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s c a n n o tb e t r a n s l a t e d , t h e n i t c a n n o t b e k n o w n w h a t t h e u t t e r a n c e s m e a n . A n d i fn o m e a n i n g c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e u t t e ra n c e s o f a s p e a k e r , t h e n t h e r ei s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s p e a k e r h a s a l a n g u a g e . B u t a d v o c a t e s o fi n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y d e s c r i b e s p e a k e r s a s h a v i n g u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e sa n d t h e y a t t r i b u t e m e a n i n g s t o t h e s p e a k e r s o f s u c h l a n g u a g e s . B u t t h a tis i n c o h e re n t : f o r i f u t t e r a n c e s c a n n o t b e t r a n s l a te d t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c et h e s p e a k e r h a s a l a n g u a g e ; a n d i f m e a n i n g i s a t t ri b u t e d t o th e u t t e r a n c e s ,t h a t p r e s u p p o s e s t h e s p e a k e r d o e s h a v e a l a n g u a g e .

O u r d i s c u s s io n o f t h e f i r st a r g u m e n t d i s p o s e s o f th i s a r g u m e n t ' s i n it ia lp r e m i s e . F o r i f tr a n s l a t io n i s u n n e c e s s a r y t h e n t h e m e a n i n g o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l eu t t e r a n c e s c a n b e k n o w n . H o w e v e r , w e m a y a l s o q u e s t i o n t h e i n f e r e n c ef r o m i n a b i l i t y t o i n t e r p r e t a s p e a k e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s t o l a c k o f e v i d e n c e f o rl a n g u a g e a t t r i b u t i o n . T h i s i n f e r e n c e i s a p p a r e n t i n P u t n a m ' s r e m a r k t h a t :

i f w e c a n n o t i n t e r p re t o r g a n i s m s ' n o i s e s at a ll, t h e n w e h a v e n o g r o u n d sf o r r e g a r d i n g t h e m a s t h in k e r s , s p e ak e r s, o r e ve n p e r s o ns . . . m e m b e r so f o t h e r c u l tu r e s . . . w o u l d b e c o n c e p t u a l i z a b l e b y u s o n l y a s a n i m a l sp ro d u c i n g r e sp o n se s t o s t i m u l i .

[ 1 9 8 1 : 1 1 4 -5 ]T h a t a r g u m e n t w o u l d s u c c e e d i f i t w e r e t ru e t h a t a n u n t r a n sl a ta b l e l a n g u a g ec a n n o t b e r e c o g n i s e d a s a l a n g u a g e . F o r i t i s i n d e e d i n c o h e r e n t t o d e n yp o s s e s si o n o f a l a n g u a g e t o a n o r g a n i s m w h i l e s a y i n g o f th a t o r g a n i s mt h a t i t p o s s e s s e s c o n c e p t s w h i c h i t e x p r e s s e s i n l a n g u a g e . W h a t s h o u l d b eq u e s t i o n e d i s w h e t h e r a s p e a k e r w h o s e l a n g u a g e w e a r e u n a b l e t o t r a n s l a t ec a n n o t b e k n o w n t o p o s s es s a la n g u a g e .

P u t n a m a p p a r e n t l y a s s u m e s t h a t i f t h e m e a n i n g o f s o u n d s o r i n sc r i p ti o n sc a n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d t h e n t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o t a k e t h e o r g a n i s m w h i c hp r o d u c e s t h e m t o h a v e a l a n g u a g e . D a v i d s o n t a k e s a s i m i l a r v i e w w h e nh e a s k s u s t o r e f l e c t ' o n t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d t h ea t t r i b u t io n o f a t t it u d e s ' :

O n t h e o n e h a n d , i t is c l e a r t h a t s p e e c h r e q u ir e s a m u l t i t u d e o f f in e l yd i s c ri m i n a t ed in t en t io n s a n d b e l i e f s . . . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it s ee m s u n l i k e l yt h a t w e c a n i n t e l l i g ib l y a t t r i b u t e a t t i t u d e s a s c o m p l e x a s t h e se t o a sp e a k e ru n l e s s w e c a n t r a n s l a t e h i s w o r d s i n t o o u r s . T h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t t h a tt h e re l a t io n b e t w e e n b e i n g a b l e t o tr a n s l a t e s o m e o n e ' s l a n g u a g e a n d b e i n ga b l e t o d e sc r i b e h i s a t t i tu d e s i s v e ry c lo se . [1984 : 186]

W i th b o t h P u t n a m a n d D a v i d so n , t h e s u g ge s ti o n ap p e a r s t o be t h a t k n o w l e d g eo f s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t o r p r o p o s i t io n a l a t t it u d e is r e q u i re d t o j u s t i f y l a n g u a g ea t t r ibu t ion .T h i s s u g g e s t i o n i s s u r e l y m i s t a k e n . W h y s h o u l d k n o w l e d g e o f s e m a n t i cc o n t e n t b e n e c e s s a r y f o r l a n g u a g e r e c o g n i t i o n ? S u re l y, f o r m a l a n d c o n t e x t u a lf e a t u r e s c o u n t f o r s o m e t h i n g . C o d e s m a y b e r e c o g n i s e d a s c o d e s w i t h o u t

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Howard Sankey 9being broken. Fragments of dead languages may be recognised as such priorto translation. Travellers recognise native speech as the local tongue withoutunderstanding it.Why must psychological content be determined to identify behaviour aslinguistic? In many social and physical settings the observed behaviour ofhumans is identifiable as linguistic without access to attitude or meaning.In any case, mental state need not be entirely inscrutable in the absenceof knowledge of a language. The rough character of attitude or meaningcan be known from observation of non-linguistic aspects of behaviour.

Even if there were no way to determine the presence of language withoutaccess to attitude or meaning, it would still not follow that an untranslatablelanguage could not be identified as a language. The presumed necessityof content ascription by means of translation presupposes the necessity oftranslation for interpretation. To say that a speaker's meanings or attitudescan only be known if the speaker's language can be translated is to assumethe only way to understand is via translation. But the possibility of directunderstanding or acquisition of a language means that meaning and beliefare interpretable without translation. A bilingual may determine psychologicaland semantical content for speakers of an untranslatable language withouttranslating back into a home language.

In any case, the problem of recognising language is largely irrelevantto incommensurability. A rival theorist is not an organism whose possessionof language is in question. Scientists with untranslatable theories may sharea natural language. So the problem of whether a rival theorist possessesa language is resolved prior to discussion of theory. Nor is it as if the discoveryof semantic variance between theories throws into question the status ofa scientist as a speaker o f language. For shared use of a background languageis a precondition of narrowing a linguistic difference down to differenceof theory.

This completes criticism of Putnam's two arguments. We will now brieflyconsider a related argument which derives from Davidson's discussion ofinterpretative charity [ 1984:195-7]. 7 Davidson applies the principle of charityto the problem of radical interpretation.

The problem is how to interpret meaning without independent access tobelief: 'a man's speech cannot be interpreted except by someone who knowsa good deal about what the speaker believes.., and.., fine distinctionsbetween beliefs are impossible without understood speech' [1984:195]. Heassumes that 'the basic evidence for a theory of radical interpret at ion. .. [is]the attitude of accepting as true, directed to sentences'. But such evidencedoes not determine meaning: 'if we merely know that someone holds acertain sentence to be true, we know neither what he means by the sentence7 I say ' der ives ' advi sedly , Davidson put s the pr inc ip le of char i ty to a d i f fe ren t use . However ,t he a rgum en t d i scussed i n t he t ex t fo l l ow s i m m ed i a t e l y f rom D av i d , son ' s ana l y s i s o fi n t e rp re t a t i ve cha r i t y . H e u se s t he p r i nc i p le aga i n s t pa r t i a l t r ans l a t i on f a i l u re and conc l udest ha t no sh a rp d i s t i nc t ion be t w een d i f f e r ence o f langu age and o f be l i e f c an b e d raw n [ 1984 :197].

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10 In De fence o f Untranslatabilityn o r w h a t b e l i e f h i s h o l d i n g i t t r u e r e p r e s e n t s ' [ 1 9 6 ]. C h a r i t y i s i n v o k e d t oe x t r a c t m e a n i n g f r o m t h e t h i n e v i d e n c e o f s e n t e n c e s h e l d tr u e .

T o d e t e r m i n e m e a n i n g , a s s u m p t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e a b o u t b e l ie f : ' i f a llw e k n o w i s w h a t s e n t e n c e s a s p e a k e r h o l d s t r u e , a n d w e c a n n o t a s s u m et h a t h is la n g u a g e i s o u r o w n , t h e n w e c a n n o t t a k e e v e n a f i r st s te p t o w a r d si n t e rp r e t a t io n w i t h o u t k n o w i n g o r a s s u m i n g a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e s p e a k e r ' sb e l i e f s' [ 1 9 6 ]. B e l i e f a t t r i b u t i o n sh o u l d b e g o v e rn e d b y c h a r i t y . Th e ro u g hi d e a i s f o r t h e a g e n t t o c o m e o u t o n t h e w h o l e a s a b e l i e v e r o f t r u t h s :

W e g e t a f i r st a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o a f i n is h e d t h e o r y b y a s s i g n i n g to s e n t e n c e so f a s p e a k e r c o n d i t io n s o f t r u t h t h a t a c t u a l ly o b t a i n ( i n o u r o p i n io n ) j u s tw h e n t h e s p e a k e r h o l d s t h o s e s e n t e n c e s t r u e . T h e g u i d i n g p o l i c y i s t od o t h i s a s f a r a s p o s s i b le , su b j e c t t o c o n s i d e ra t i o n s o f s i m p l i c i t y , h u n c h e sa b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f s o c ia l c o n d i t io n i n g , a n d o f c o u r s e o u r c o m m o n - s e n s e ,o r s c ie n t if ic , k n o w l e d g e o f e x p l i c a b l e e r ro r .

[1984 : 196]T h e p r i n ci p le o f c h a r i t y is j u s t i f ie d b e c a u s e t h e a g r e e m e n t i t p r o v i d e s i sa p r e c o n d i t i o n o f i n t e rp re t a t io n :

S i n ce c h a r i t y is n o t a n o p t i o n , b u t a c o n d i t io n o f h a v i n g a w o r k a b l et h e o r y , i t is m e a n i n g l e s s t o s u g g e s t t h a t w e m i g h t f a ll in t o m a s s i v e e r r o rb y e n d o r s i n g it. U n t i l w e h a v e su c c e s s fu l l y e s t a b l i sh e d a sy s t e m a t i cc o r r e l a t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s h e l d t r u e w i t h s e n t e n c e s h e l d t r u e , t h e r e a r e n om i s t a k e s t o m a k e . C h a r i t y i s f o r c e d o n u s ; w h e t h e r w e l i k e i t o r n o t ,i f w e w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d o t h e r s, w e m u s t c o u n t t h e m r i g h t in m o s t m a t t e r s .

[1984 : 197]T h e c o n n e c t i o n s D a v i d s o n d r a w s b e t w e e n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t r a n s l a t i o n a n d

c h a r i t y s e e m t o l ic e n se t h e fo l l o w i n g i n f e r e n c e s . S i n c e c h a r i t y i n v o l v e s t a k i n gs e n t e n c e s o f o u r l a n g u a g e w h i c h w e h o l d t r u e a s t h e c o n t e n t o f a l ie nu t t e r a n c e s , c h a r i t y i m p l i e s t r a n s l a t i o n . S i n c e c h a r i t y i s n e c e s sa ry fo ri n t e rp re t a t i o n , su c c e s s fu l i n t e rp re t a t i o n e n t a i l s t r a n s l a t i o n . Th e re fo re ,i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f a n a g e n t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n f a i l u r e . Th u s t oi n t e rp re t a s c i e n t i s t a s h a v i n g a t h e o ry u n t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o o n e ' s o w n i si n c o h e re n t .

I n e f f e ct , D a v i d s o n ' s u s e o f th e p r i n c ip l e o f c h a r i t y c o m b i n e s P u t n a m ' st w o a r g u m e n t s . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f i r s t a r g u m e n t , c h a r i t y m a k e st r a n s la t i o n , n e c e s s a r y f o r i n t e r p re t a t io n . I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e s e c o n d , i tm a k e s t r a n s l a t i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g a n a g e n t a s a s p e a k e r . T w oo b j e c t io n s m a y b e r a i s e d a g a i n s t t h is u s e o f th e p r i n c ip l e o f c h a r it y .I n t h e f ir s t p l a c e , t h e li n k b e t w e e n c h a r i t y a n d t r a n s l a t i o n m u s t b e s e v e r ed .Ju s t a s i n t e rp re t a t i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t r a n s l a t i o n , i n t e rp re t a t i v e c h a r i t y d o e sn o t r e q u i r e t r a n s l a t i o n . D a v i d s o n a s s u m e s t h a t c h a r i t a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o fa n a g e n t a s s i g n s t r u t h c o n d i t i o n s i n a h o m e l a n g u a g e t o s e n t e n c e s o f a na l i e n l a n g u a g e . B u t w h i l e s u c h c h a r i t y m i g h t b e g e n e r a l l y a d v i s a b l e , i t i sn o t n e c e s s a r y . C h a r i t y m a y b e a p p l i e d d i r e c t l y w i t h i n t h e a l i e n l a n g u a g e .C h a r i t y m a y b e i n c o r p o r a te d i n to t h e d i r e c t m e t h o d o f l a n g u a g e a c q ui si ti o n.I n l e a r n i n g a l a n g u a g e d i r e c t l y w i t h o u t t r a n s l a t i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t e r c a n , a n d

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Howard Sankey 11p e r h a p s s h o u l d , a s s i g n m a x i m u m p l a u s i b l e t r u t h c o n d i t i o n s a s w e l l a sr e a so n a b l e b e l i e f . I n t e rp re t a t i o n s e e k s c o h e re n c e a n d a s s i g n s p l a u s i b l e t r u t h -v a l u e s w h e t h e r o r n o t i t r e su lt s in a t r a n s l a t i o n .

In t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , c h a r i t y i s u n su i t a b l e fo r t h e o re t i c a l d i s c o u r se . Th ep r i n c ip l e o f c h a r i t y c a n b e r e f i n e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s t o a l l o w f o r v a r y i n gd e g r e e s o f e r ro r . B u t t h e g e n e r a l p r in c i p le o f a s s i g n i n g m a x i m a l t r u t h i su n a c c e p t a b l e a s a p r i n c ip l e o f i n te r p r e t a ti o n w h e n a p p l ie d t o t h e o r e t i c a ll a n g u a g e s . M a x i m a l a s s i g n m e n t o f tr u t h to t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f a s c ie n t if ict h e o ry o v e r l o o k s t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f l a rg e - s c a l e e r ro r . B u t t h e h i s t o ry o f s c i e n c ea b o u n d s w i t h th e o r i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n p r o f o u n d l y m i s t a k e n . M o r e o v e r , t h e r ea r e c o m p e l l i n g e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s t o t a k e a f a l l i b i l i s t s t a n c e t o w a r d sa l l t h e o r i e s , p a s t a n d p re se n t. S u re l y , i n t h e i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f s c i e n t i fi c l a n g u a g en o a s s u m p t i o n a b o u t t h e t r u th o f t h e o r e t ic a l a s s e r t io n s s h o u l d b e m a d e . 8

N o w , a g a i n s t t h i s s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n , i t m i g h t b e a r g u e d t h a t a t t r i b u t i o no f m a s s i v e e r r o r m a k e s b e h a v i o u r u n i n te l li g ib l e . T h a t i s, t o d e n y o f a n a g e n tt h a t a n y o f i t s b e l i e f s a r e t r u e i s t o m a k e i t i n e x p l i c a b l e h o w i t m a n a g e st o e n g a g e i n su c c e s s fu l a c t i o n . B u t t o s a y t h a t a t h e o ry i s t o t a l l y o r m o s t l yf a l s e i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e e n t i r e t y o f a n a g e n t ' s b e l i e f s a r e f a l s e . M o re o v e r ,a f a l s e t h e o r y c a n h a v e t r u e c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d b e p u t t o p r a c t i c a l u s e . A n da t h e o r y w h i c h i s s t r i c t l y f a l s e b u t n e a r l y o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y t r u e m a y s e r v ea s a g u i d e fo r a c t io n .T h e g e n e r a l p o l i c y o f o v e r a ll in t e r p r e ta t iv e c h a r i t y t o w a r d s s p e a k e r s s h o u l dn o t b e e n j o i n e d u p o n t h e i n t e r p r e te r o f t h e o r e t i c a l d is c o u r s e. F o r t h e p u r p o s eo f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c o u r s e , w e a r e n o t t h e r e f o r e o b l i g e d b y t h ep r i n c i p l e o f c h a r i t y t o i m p o se t r a n s l a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n c e s u p o n s c i e n t i f i ct h e o r i e s . S o t h e fo rc i n g m o v e f ro m c h a r i t y t o i n t e r t h e o re t i c t r a n s l a t a b i l i t ym a y b e r e j ec t e d . T h e p o s s ib i li ty o f i n t e rp r e t a t i o n d o e s n o t r u l e o u t t r a n s la t i o nf a i lu r e b e t w e e n t h e o ri e s.

4 . T h e S c h e m e - C o n t e n t D u a l i s mT h e r e i s a n o t h e r s i d e t o P u t n a m ' s c l a i m t h a t w e h a v e n o r e a s o n t o t a k eu n i n t e r p r e t a b l e o r g a n i s m s a s ' t h i n k e r s , s p e a k e r s , o r e v e n p e r s o n s ' . N a m e l y ,u n i n t e rp re t a b l e l i n g u i s ti c a c t i v i t y is e v i d e n t i a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i sh a b l e f ro m n o n -l i n g u i s t i c b e h a v i o u r . T h e p o i n t i s c l e a r e r w i t h D a v i d s o n , w h o s e a r g u m e n t si n it s f a v o u r w e w i ll c o n s i d e r i n t h e fo l l o w i n g t w o s e c ti o n s :

n o t h i n g . . , c o u l d c o u n t as e v id e n c e t h a t s o m e f o r m o f a c ti v it y c o u l dn o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n o u r l a n g u a g e t h a t w a s n o t a t th e s a m e t i m e e v i d e n c et h a t t h a t f o r m o f a c t i v it y w a s n o t s p e e c h b e h a v i o u r . [1984 : 185]

Th e p o i n t a g a i n s t u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y i s t hi s: f o r n e i t h e r a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l el a n g u a g e n o r f o r n o n - l i n g u i s t i c b e h a v i o u r c a n s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t b e g i v e ni n o u r l a n g u a g e ; s o i n a b i l i t y t o t r a n s l a t e i s i n d e t e r m i n a t e b e t w e e n b e i n g8 Davidson may intend to exempt theory from maximal assignment of truth, for he doessay we should assign truth 'subject to considerations o f . . . common sense, or scientific,knowledge of explicable error' [1984:196]. But he fails to elaborate the point.

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12 In D efenc e o f Untranslatabilityev idence tha t a language i s un t rans la tab le and tha t i t i s no t a languagea t all.

As Da v id so n h imse l f n o t e s , t o c o n c lu d e th a t n o e v id e n c e c o u ld sh o w a nu n t r a n s la t a b l e l a n g u a g e to b e a l a n g u a g e ' c o m e s to l it tl e m o re t h a n m a k in gt rans la tab i l i ty in to a fami l ia r tong ue a c r ite r ion o f lang uag eho od ' [ -1984 :186] . Ra the r than assuming t rans la tab i l i ty to be a necessa ry cond i t ion o fl a n g u a g e h o o d , Da v id so n a rg u e s t h a t l a n g u a g e i s n e i th e r c o n c e iv a b le n o rrecogn isab le as such independen t ly o f t rans la t ion .T h e c e n t r a l a rg u m e n t o f D a v id so n ' s [ 1 9 8 4 ] i s d i r e c t e d a g a in s t ' t h e d u a l i smo f c o n c e p tu a l s c h e m e a n d e m p i r i c a l c o n te n t ' wh ic h u n d e r li e s th e c o n c e p t io no f l a n g u a g e a s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t r an s l at io n . T h i s ' d u a l i sm ' p o s i ts a n o p p o s i t i o nb e twe e n l a n g u a g e , wh ic h e mb o d ie s a c o n c e p tu a l sy s t e m, a n d r e a l i t y , u p o nwh ic h th a t sy s t e m imp o se s o rd er . T h e o p p o s i t io n o f s c h e me v e r su s c o n te n tb y p a s se s tr a n sl a ti o n a n d c h a ra c t e r i s e s l a n g u a g e a s so me th in g b e a r in g th esc h e me -c o n te n t r e l a t i o n to r e a l i t y . Be c a u se t h i s s e v e r s l a n g u a g e f ro mt ra n s la t io n , Da v id so n m u s t d i sp o se o f t h e d u a l i sm in o rd e r t o sh o w th a tev idence fo r an un t rans la tab le language i s inde te rmina te .

Ac c o rd in g to Da v id so n , t h e s c h e me -c o n te n t d u a l i sm d i s c o n n e c t sl a n g u a g e h o o d f ro m t r a n s la t io n a s fo l lo ws :

so m e th in g i s a la n g u a g e , a n d a s so c i a t e d w i th a c o n c e p tu a l s c h e m e , wh e th e rw e can t rans la te i t o r no t , i f i t s tands in a ce r ta in re la t ion (p red ic t ing ,organiz ing, fac ing, or f i t t ing) to experience (nature , rea l i ty , sensoryp r o m p t i n g s ) . . . T h e i m a g e s a n d m e t a p h o r s f a l l i n t o t w o m a i n g r o u p s :c o n c e p tu a l s c h e me s ( l a n g u a g e s ) e i t h e r organize so me th in g , o r t h e y f i ti t ( a s in 'he warp s h is sc ien ti f ic he r i tage to f it h i s . . , sensory p rom pt ings ' ) .The f i r s t g roup con ta ins a l so sys tem at ize, divide up ( t h e s t r e a m o fe x p e r ie n c e ) ; fu r th er e x a m p le s o f t h e s e c o n d g ro u p a r e predict , accountf or , f ac e ( the t r ibuna l o f exper ien ce) . A s fo r the en t i t ie s tha t ge t o rgan ized ,o r wh ic h th e s c h e me mu s t f i t . . , e i t h e r i t i s r e a l i t y ( t h e u n iv e r se , t h ewor ld , na tu re ) , o r i t i s exper ience ( the pass ing show, su r face i r r i t a t ions ,sensory p rompt ings , sense -da ta , the g iven) .

[1 9 8 4 : 1 9 1 -2 ]S u c h a r e l a t i o n g iv e s su b s t a n c e to l a n g u a g e h o o d n o t c o n t in g e n t u p o n a nin te rl ingu is t ic re la t ion o f t rans la tab i l i ty . Iden t i f ica tion o f a lang uag e nee dn o t t h e r e fo re i n v o lv e t ra n s la t io n , b u t m a y b e b a se d o n e v id e n c e o f t h e r ig h tso r t o f r e la t io n b e tw e e n p u ta t i v e l i n g ui st ic b e h a v io u r a n d th e w o r ld . T h u sth e d u a l i sm a l lo ws a l a n g u a g e to b e r e c o g n i se d a s su c h wi th o u t t r a n s l a t i o nin to a h o m e l a n g u a g e .

Da v id so n g iv e s a d u a l a n a ly s i s o f th e s c h e m e -c o n te n t r e la t io n : e i t h e rschemes o rgan ise rea l i ty o r exper ience , o r they f i t r ea l i ty o r exper ience .T h e a c c e n t w i th t h e f i rs t p a i r o f r e l at io n s is o n th e t a x o n o m ic fu n c t io nof language ; wi th the se con d i t i s on i t s p red ic t ive o r exp lana to ry func t ion .D av idso n a rgue s aga ins t the o rgan is ing idea tha t i t does no t g ive t rans la t ion-in d e p e n d e n t c o n te n t t o t h e i d e a o f a l a n g u a g e . He a rg u e s a g a in s t t h e i d e aof langu age f i t t ing rea l i ty tha t i t separa tes t ru th f ro m t rans la t ion and lead si l leg i t ima te ly to the idea o f a t rue bu t un t rans la tab le language .

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Howard Sankey 135 . S c h e m e s O r g a n i s e t h e W o r l d

T h e o r g a n i s i n g i d e a i s t h a t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i s a l a n g u a g e i s r e c o g n i s a b l ea s s u c h b e c a u s e o f i t s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y f u n c t i o n . T r a n s l a t i o n f a i l s b e c a u s el a n g u a g e s a r r a n g e t h in g s d i f fe r e n tl y .

A g a i n s t t h i s v e r s i o n o f t h e d u a l i sm , D a v i d so n f i r s t n o t e s t h a t o n l y p l u ra li t ie sc a n b e o r g a n i se d :

W e c a n n o t a t t a c h a c l e a r m e a n i n g t o th e n o t i o n o f o r g a n i z i n g a s i n g leo b j e c t ( t h e w o r l d , n a t u re e t c . ) u n l e s s t h a t o b j e c t i s u n d e r s t o o d t o c o n t a i no r c o n s i s t i n o t h e r o b j e c t s . S o m e o n e w h o s e t s o u t t o o rg a n i z e a c l o se ta r r a n g e s t h e t h i n g s i n it.

[1984 : 192]H e t h e n a r g u e s t h a t i t c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t a l a n g u a g e o r g a n i s e st h in g s d i f f e r e n t l y i f t h e l a n g u a g e c a n o n t h e w h o l e b e t r a n sl a te d :

A l a n g u a g e m a y c o n t a in s i m p le p r e d ic a t es w h o s e e x t e n s io n s a re m a t c h e db y n o s i m p l e p r e d ic a t e s , o r e v e n b y a n y p r e d i c a t e s a t a l l, i n s o m e o t h e rl a n g u a g e . W h a t e n a b l e s u s t o m a k e t h i s p o i n t i n p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s i s a no n t o l o g y c o m m o n t o th e t w o l a n g u a g e s , w i t h c o n c e p t s t h a t i n d i v id u a t et h e s a m e o b j e c t s . W e c a n b e c l e a r a b o u t b r e a k d o w n s i n t r a n s l a t i o n w h e nt h e y a r e l o c a l e n o u g h , f o r a b a c k g r o u n d o f g e n e r a l l y s u c c e s sf u l t r a n s l a ti o np ro v i d e s w h a t i s n e e d e d t o m a k e t h e f a i l u r e s i n t e l l i g i b l e . B u t w e w e rea f t e r la r g e r g a m e : w e w a n t e d t o m a k e s e n se o f th e r e b e i ng a l a n g u a g ew e c o u l d n o t t r a n s l a t e a t a ll . O r , t o p u t t h e p o i n t d i f f e r e n t l y , w e w e rel o o k i n g f o r a c r i te r i o n o f l a n g u a g e h o o d t h a t d i d n o t d e p e n d o n , o r e n ta i l,t r a n s l a ta b i l it y i n to a f a m i l ia r id i o m . I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e i m a g e o f o r g a n i z i n gt h e c l o se t o f n a t u r e w i ll n o t su p p l y su c h a c r i t e ri o n .

[1984 : 192]S o , w h i l e a d m i t t in g e x t e n s io n a l v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e s , D a v i d s o n d e n i e st h a t ' o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l o s e t o f n a t u r e ' g i v e s t r a n s l a t i o n - i n d e p e n d e n t c o n t e n tt o la n g u a g e h o o d .

Ex t e n s i o n a l v a r i a n c e r a i se s t h e p o s s i b i li ty o f t r a n s l a t i o n f a i l u r e . D a v i d so n ' st a c ti c is to p l a y d o w n i ts s co p e . R a t h e r t h a n a r g u e a g a i n s t s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n l a n g u a g e s , h e a r g u e s t h a t t r a n s l a ti o n f a i l u re m u s t b e l i m i t e d i f i ti s t o b e i n t e l l i g i b l e : 'w e c a n b e c l e a r a b o u t b r e a k d o w n s i n t r a n s l a t i o n w h e nt h e y a r e l o c a l e n o u g h ' . B u t th i s p o i n t is n o o b j e c t i o n t o i n c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y ,w h i c h i s a t m o s t l o c a l t r a n s l a t i o n f a i l u r e . T h e o r e t i c a l s u b - l a n g u a g e s a r ee m b e d d e d i n l a r g e r l a n g u a g e s , s o t r a n s l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r i e s m a y w e l lf a il a g a i n s t ' a b a c k g r o u n d o f g e n e r a l ly s u c c e s s fu l [ a lb e i t h o m o p h o n i c ]t r a n s l a t i o n ' .

D a v i d s o n ' s c r u c i a l a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t i t is n e c e s s a r y t o t r a n s l a t e t o d e t e r m i n et h a t a l a n g u a g e d i v i d e s th e w o r l d u p d i f f e r e n t l y . Th i s su p p o r t s h i s c o n c l u s i o nt h a t t r a n s l a t i o n f a i l u r e i s i n t e l l i g i b l e o n l y i f i t i s l o c a l a n d o c c u r s i n t h ec o n t e x t o f b r o a d t r a n s l a ti o n a l s u c c es s . O f c o u r s e , i f e i t h e r t h e a s s u m p t i o no r t h e c o n c l u s i o n w e r e t ru e , th e n t h e i d e a o f o r g a n i s i n g r e a l i t y w o u l d n o to f f e r a m e a n s i n d e p e n d e n t o f tr a n s l a ti o n f o r r e c o g n i s i n g a l a n g u a g e .

B u t t h e a s s u m p t i o n b e g s j u s t t h e q u e s t io n a t is s ue . I t m a y b e t ru e t h a t

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14 In Defence o f Untranslatabilityt o f in d o u t t h a t t h e c l a s s i f ic a t o r y s y s te m s o f l a n g u a g e s d i ff e r, th e l a n g u a g e sm u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d . B u t D a v i d s o n s i m p l y a s s u m e s t h a t t r a n s l a t io n is n e c e s s a r yf o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e a n d t h e c l a s s if i c a to r y s y s t e m i t e m b o d i e s .

T o a s s u m e t h is is to l o s e s i g h t o f t h e p u rp o s e o f th e a r g u m e n t . D a v i d s o ni s a r g u i n g t h a t t h e i d e a o f o r g a n i s i n g r e a l it y g i v e s n o t r a n s l a t i o n - i n d e p e n d e n tc o n t e n t t o th e n o t i o n o f b e i n g a l a n g u a g e . T o s h o w t h i s h e h a s t o a r g u et h a t t h e re is n o w a y t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a l a n g u a g e o r g a n i s e s re a l i t y w i t h o u tt r a n s l a t i o n . B u t h e s i m p l y a s su m e s t h i s . S u r e l y , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a r g u i n gt h a t t r a n s l a t io n is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c l a s s i f i c a to r y d i ff e r e n c e ,i t b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n t o a s s u m e t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n i s t h e o n l y w a y t o f i n d o u ta b o u t su c h d i f f e r e n c e .

D a v i d s o n c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e ' i m a g e o f o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l o s e t o f n a t u r e 'd o e s n o t e n a b l e s e n se t o b e m a d e o f t o ta l tr a n s l a t io n f a il u re . T h i s c o n c l u s i o nb e sp e a k s a c e r t a i n v e r i f i c a t i o n i sm .9 F o r i t a s su m e s t h a t f a i l u r e t o sp e c i f ya t e s t f o r th e p r e s e n c e o f a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e e n t a il s th a t n o c o n t e n th a s b e e n g i v e n to t h e c o n c e p t o f s u c h a l a n g u a g e .

D a v i d s o n ' s v e r i f i c a t i o n i sm is e v i d e n t in h i s in f e r e n c e f r o m t h e i n t e l l i g ib i l it yo f o n l y l o c a l t r a n s l a t i o n f a i l u r e t o t h e u n i n t e l l ig i b i l it y o f t o t a l f a i l u r e . H ea l l o w s t h a t ' w e c a n b e c l e a r a b o u t b r e a k d o w n s i n t r a n s l a t i o n w h e n t h e ya r e l o c a l e n o u g h ' . A n d h e c l a i m s t h a t g e n e r a l s u c c e s s in t r a n s l a ti o n i s w h a tm a k e s s u c h b r e a k d o w n s ' in t e ll ig i b le ' . D a v i d s o n ' s p o i n t is t h a t u n t r a n s l a t a b l el in g u i st ic m a t e r ia l c a n o n l y b e k n o w n t o b e l a n g u a g e i f t r a n s l a ti o n f a i l u reo c c u r s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o v e ra l l t r a n s la t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e . O t h e r w i s e t h e r ew o u l d b e n o s e m a n t i c e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e u n t r a n s l a t a b l e m a t e r i a l i s l i n g u i s t i c .F r o m t h is D a v i d s o n i n f e r s t h a t s e n se h a s f a i le d to b e m a d e o f t o t a l fa i lu r e :' B u t w e w e r e a f t e r l a r g e r g a m e : w e w a n t e d t o m a k e s e n s e o f th e r e b e i n ga l a n g u a g e w e c o u l d n o t t r a n s l a te a t a l l. '

T h e i n f e re n c e a p p e a r s t o b e b a s e d o n t h e f o l lo w i n g r e a s o n i n g . T h e i d e at h a t l a n g u a g e o r g a n i s e s r e a l i ty c a n o n l y b e a p p l ie d t o t h e l o c a l c a s e g i v e nb a c k g r o u n d s u c c e s s i n t r a n s l a t i n g t h e l a n g u a g e . T h e r e f o r e t h e o r g a n i s i n gi d e a d o e s n o t y i e ld a t e s t f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r e se n c e o f a t o t a l l yu n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e . S o t h a t i d e a d o e s n o t g i v e m e a n i n g t o t h e c o n c e p to f s u c h a l a n g u a g e . T h i s f i n a l i n f e r e n c e a s s u m e s t h a t m e a n i n g i s o n l y b e s t o w e du p o n c o n c e p t s i f a m e a n s o f v e r i f i c a t i o n is sp e ci f ie d .

T h e p r o b l e m w i t h t h i s c a n b e s t b e s e e n f r o m D a v i d s o n ' s a l t e r n a t i v ef o r m u l a t i o n o f h i s c o n c l u s io n :

O r , t o p u t t h e p o i n t d i f f e r e n t l y , w e w e r e l o o k i n g f o r a c r i t e r i o n o fl a n g u a g e h o o d t h a t d i d n o t d e p e n d o n , o r e n t a i l , t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y i n t o af a m i l i a r id i o m . I s u g g e s t th a t t h e i m a g e o f o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l o s e t o f n a t u r ewi l l no t supp ly such a c r i t e r ion . [1984 : 192]

B y ' c r i t e r i o n ' D a v i d s o n s e e m s t o m e a n a t e s t f o r l a n g u a g e , n o t a n a c c o u n to f w h a t b e i n g a l a n g u a g e c o n s i st s in . H e c o n c l u d e s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e c r i te r io n9 A num ber of authors hav e noted Davidson's implicit verificationism here: am ong themRorty [1982: 5-6] and B lackburn [1984: 61].

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How ard Sankey 15i s i n a p p l ic a b l e w i t h o u t tr a n s l a ti o n n o s e n s e h a s b e e n m a d e o f f u llu n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y .

B u t t h e ' i m a g e o f o r g a n i z i n g t h e c l o s e t o f n a t u r e ' s p e c if ie s a f u n c t i o nw h i c h a l a n g u a g e m a y p e r f o r m . T h i s is a c r i te r i o n o f b e i n g a l a n g u a g e ,a s o p p o se d t o a c r i t e r i o n fo r r e c o g n i s i n g o n e . ~0 I t g i v e s c o n t e n t t o t h e n o t i o no f b e i n g a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e : v iz . s u c h a l a n g u a g e o r g a n i s e s th e w o r l dd i f fe r e n t ly . S u c h a c r i te r io n o f l a n g u a g e h o o d g i v e s c o n t e n t t o t h e n o t i o no f b e i n g a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e w h e t h e r o r n o t i t c a n v e r i f ia b l y b e f u l fi ll ed .

S u c h v e r i f i c a t io n i s m i m p o s e s a f a l la c i o u s c o n s t r a i n t o n m e a n i n g . T o i m p a r tm e a n i n g t o a c o n c e p t i s n o t c o n t i n g e n t u p o n c o m i n g u p w i t h a t e s t f o ra p p l y i n g i t. F o r i t i s p o s s i b l e t o sp e c i fy m i s t a k e n t e s ts fo r a p p l y i n g c o n c e p t s .W h a t e n a b l e s t h i s p o i n t t o b e m a d e w i t h r e s p e c t t o a g i v e n c o n c e p t i s ag r a s p o f it s c o n t e n t w h i c h is i n d e p e n d e n t o f s u c h t es ts .

E v e n i f t h is w e r e n o t t h e c a s e , D a v i d s o n ' s a t t a c k w o u l d s ti ll b e b e s i d et h e p o in t . T h a t w e d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e n o t i o n o f t o t a l u n t r a n s l a ta b i l it yi s n o o b j e c t i o n t o t h e i d e a o f a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e . E v e n i f w e h a v en o c o n c e p t i o n o f w h a t t o ta l u n t r a n s l a t a b i l it y i n v o lv e s , n o e x i st e n c e c l a i mf o l l o w s f r o m t h a t a b o u t s u c h l a n g u a g e s . N e i t h e r f r o m i n a b i l i t y t o v e r i f yt h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t o t a l l y u n t r a n s l a t a b l e l a n g u a g e , n o r f ro m i n a b i l i t y t o g i v ec o n t e n t t o t h e c o n c e p t o f s u c h a l a n g u a g e , d o e s it f o l l o w t h a t n o s u c h l a n g u a g eexis t s .

6 . S c h e m e s F i t E x p e r i e n c e o r R e a l i tyO n t h e s e c o n d v e r s io n o f t h e d u a l is m , a c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e o r a la n g u a g ee n a b l e s u s t o d e a l w i t h th e w o r l d b y e x p l a in i n g a n d p r e d i c t in g f a c ts . S c h e m e sa re a w a y o f ' c o p i n g w i t h (o r f i tt i n g o r f a c i n g ) e x p e r i e n c e ' [ 1 9 3 ]. S u c hm e t a p h o r s e m p h a s i s e p r e d i c t io n r a t h e r t h a n c l a s s if i c at io n , a n d t a k e u s ' f r o mt h e r e f er e n ti a l a p p a r a t u s o f l a n g u a g e . . , t o w h o l e s e n te n c e s' :

I t i s s e n t e n c e s t h a t p r e d i c t ( o r a r e u se d t o p r e d i c t ) , s e n t e n c e s t h a t c o p eo r d e a l w i th t h i n g s , t h a t f it o u r s e n s o r y p r o m p t i n g s , t h a t c a n b e c o m p a r e do r c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e e v id e n c e .

[1984 : 193]T h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o v e r s io n s o f t h e d u a l i s m a p p e a r s t o b e th is :s c h e m e s w h i c h o r g a n i s e t h e w o r l d d i f f e r e n tl y p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t iv e w a y s o fc o p i n g w i t h e x p e r i e n c e . S i n c e i t i s ' s e n t e n c e s t h a t c o p e ' a n d t h e ' r e f e r e n t i a la p p a r a t u s ' f r o m w h i c h s e n t e n c e s a r e b u i l t v a r i e s w i t h s c h e m e , s e n t e n c e sf r o m a l t e r n a t i v e s c h e m e s m a y b e u n t r a n s l a t a b l e a n d y e t d e a l a d e q u a t e l yw i t h t h e w o r l d .

D a v i d s o n f i r s t a r g u e s t h a t t h e i d e a o f f i t t i n g e x p e r i e n c e r e d u c e s t o t h a to f b e i n g t r u e. S c h e m e s a c c o u n t f o r a ll t h e e v i d e n ce :

a t h e o r y m a y b e b o r n e o u t b y t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e a n d y e t b e f a l s e .B u t w h a t i s i n v i e w h e re i s n o t j u s t a c t u a l l y a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e ; i t i st h e t o t a l i t y o f p o s s i b l e s e n so ry e v i d e n c e p a s t , p r e se n t , a n d fu t u re .

11984: 193]to C learly, t can not be a sufficientconditionof being a langua ge, but it is perhaps necessary.

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16 In Defence o f UntranslatabilityTo d e a l w i t h a l l su c h e v i d e n c e i s j u s t t o b e t ru e: ' f o r a t h e o ry t o f i t o rf a c e u p t o t h e t o t a l i t y o f p o s s i b l e s e n so ry e v i d e n c e i s f o r t h a t t h e o ry t ob e t r u e' . T h e r e is n o n e e d t o m a i n t a i n a d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n f i tt in g a ll th ee v i d e n c e a n d b e i n g t ru e :

t h e n o t i o n o f f i t t i n g t h e t o t a l i t y o f e x p e r i e n c e , l i k e t h e n o t i o n o f f i t t i n gt h e f a c t s , o r o f b e i n g t ru e t o t h e f a c t s , a d d s n o t h i n g i n t e l li g i b l e to t h es i m p l e c o n c e p t o f b e i n g t ru e .

[1 9 8 4 : 1 9 3 -4 ]I n s t e a d o f t w o v e r s i o n s o f w h a t s c h e m e s f i t w e h a v e t h i s : ' s o m e t h i n g i sa n a c c e p t a b l e c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e o r t h e o ry i f i t i s t r u e ' [ 1 9 4 ] . S i n c e f i t ti n ge x p e r i e n c e o r r e a l i t y t h u s r e d u c e s t o b e i n g t ru e , ' t h e c r i te r i o n o f a c o n c e p t u a ls c h e m e d i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r o w n n o w b e c o m e s : l a r g e ly tr u e b u t n o t t r a n s l a ta b l e ' .

T h i s r a is e s t h e q u e s t io n o f w h e t h e r ' w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e n o t i o n o f t r u th ,a s a p p l ie d t o l a n g u a g e , i n d e p e n d e n t o f th e n o t io n o f t r a n s la t i o n '. D a v i d s o nt a k e s T a r s k i ' s t h e o r y o f t r u th a s c o n s t i tu t i v e o f o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t ru t h .C o n v e n t i o n T r e q u i r e s t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m a n o b j e c t - l a n g u a g e i n t o t h em e t a l a n g u a g e i n w h i c h t h e t r u t h - p r e d i c a t e i s d e f i n e d , s o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n go f t r u t h d e p e n d s c r u c i a l ly o n t r an s l a ti o n . I t is w o r t h q u o t i n g D a v i d s o n ' sr e m a rk s i n fu ll :

W e r e c o g n i z e s e n t e n c e s li k e ' " S n o w i s w h i t e " is t r u e i f a n d o n l y if s n o wi s w h i t e ' t o b e t r i v i a l l y t r u e . Y e t t h e t o t a l i t y o f su c h En g l i sh s e n t e n c e su n i q u e l y d e t e r m i n e s t h e e x t e n s i o n o f th e c o n c e p t o f t r u t h f o r E n g l is h .T a r s k i g e n e r a l i z e d t h is o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m a d e i t a te s t o f th e o r i e s o f t ru t h :a c c o r d i n g t o T a r s k i ' s C o n v e n t i o n T , a s a t i s f a c to r y t h e o r y o f t ru t h f o ra l a n g u a g e L m u s t e n t a il , f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e s o f L , a t h e o r e m o f t h ef o r m ' s is tr u e if a n d o n l y if p ' w h e r e ' s ' is r e p l a ce d b y a d e s c ri p ti o no f s a n d ' p ' b y s i t s e l f i f L i s En g l i sh , a n d b y a t r a n s l a t i o n o f s i n toEn g l i sh i f L i s n o t En g l i sh . Th i s i sn ' t, o f c o u r se , a d e f i n i t i o n o f t r u t h ,a n d i t d o e sn ' t h i n t t h a t t h e re i s a s in g l e d e f i n i ti o n o r t h e o ry t h a t a p p l i e st o l a n g u a g e s g e n e r a l l y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , C o n v e n t i o n T s u g g e s t s , t h o u g h i tc a n n o t s t a te , a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e c o m m o n t o a l l t h e s p e c i a li z e d c o n c e p t so f t ru t h . I t s u c c e e d s i n d o i n g t h i s b y m a k i n g e s se n t i a l u se o f th e n o t i o no f tr a n s l a ti o n i n to a l a n g u a g e w e k n o w . S i n ce C o n v e n t i o n T e m b o d i e so u r b e s t i n t u i ti o n a s to h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f t r u t h is u s e d , t h e r e d o e s n o ts e e m t o b e m u c h h o p e f o r a t e s t t h a t a c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e i s r a d i c a l l yd i f f e r e n t f r o m o u r s i f t h a t t e s t d e p e n d s o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w e c a nd i v o rc e t h e n o t i o n o f t r u t h f ro m t h a t o f t ra n s l a t io n .

[1 9 8 4 : 1 9 4 -5 ]D a v i d s o n ' s a t t a c k o n t h e i d e a t h a t s c h e m e s f i t e x p e r i e n c e o r r e a l i t y h a s

t w o s te p s . Th e f i rs t s t e p is t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i d e a t o t h a t o f b e i n g t ru e .T h e s e c o n d i s t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t r u t h i s i n e x t r i c a b l e f r o m t r a n s l a t i o n . T h et w o s te p s a r e l i n k e d in t h a t t h e i d e a o f a n u n t r a n s l a t a b l e s c h e m e b e i n gt ru e d i v o rc e s t r u t h f ro m t r a n s l a t i o n .

Th e p ro b l e m w i t h t h e f i r s t s t e p i s t h a t f i t t i n g e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t r e d u c et o b e i n g t ru e a s f a r a s s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s a r e c o n c e rn e d . S c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s

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How ard Sankey 17m a y b e , a n d o f t e n a r e , m i s t a k e n . M o r e t o t h e p o i n t , t h e o r i e s w h i c h ' f i t t h ee v i d e n c e ' i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g e m p i r ic a l l y a d e q u a t e m a y b e f a ls e ; f o r af a l s e t h e o r y m a y e n t a i l t ru e p r e d i c t io n s .

D a v i d so n d o e s , i t i s t r u e , r e s t ri c t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o r i e s w h i c h f i t 't h e t o t a l i t yo f p o s s ib l e s e n so r y e v i d e n c e p a s t , p r e se n t, a n d f u t u r e ' . B u t t h is s i m p l y r e m o v e sa c t u a l s c ie n c e f r o m t h e a m b i t o f t h e a r g u m e n t . W h a t h e s a y s t a n n e i t h e rb e a b o u t a c t u a l s c i e n c e n o r i s h i s a r g u m e n t r e l e v a n t t o e x a m p l e s t h a t h a v eb e e n p u t f o r w a r d o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l e t h e o ri e s. F o r r a r e ly , i f e v e r, d o a c t u a lt h e o r i e s f i t a ll t h e e v i d e n c e , m u c h l e ss a l l t h e f u t u r e e v i d e n c e .

C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e i s n o n e e d t o a s s u m e p u r p o r t e d l y u n t r a n s l a ta b l e t h e o r i e st o b e t r u e . T o t a k e b u t o n e e x a m p l e , t h e p h l o g i s t o n t h e o r y a n d L a v o i s i e r ' so x y g e n t h e o r y w e r e b o t h t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s f a l s e . T o s a y t h a t a p a i r o ft h e o r i e s i s i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e c a r r i e s n o c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e i r t r u t h : i t i s n o tt o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e b o t h u n t r a n s l a ta b l e a n d t ru e .

I n a n y e v e n t , a t h e o r y w h i c h f i t s a l l ' p o s s i b l e s e n so r y e v i d e n c e ' i s n o tipso facto t r u e . P e r h a p s a t h e o r y w h i c h f i t s a l l t h e f a c t s , o b se r v a b l e a n do t h e r w i se , is t ru e ; b u t i f i t f it s o n l y t h e ' s e n s o r y e v i d e n c e ' , it d o e s n o t f o l l o wt h a t i t is t ru e . S o e v e n i f a p a i r o f u n t r a n s l a t a b l e t h e o r i e s w e r e t o f i t a llt h e e v i d e n c e , t h e r e w o u l d b e n o r e a so n t o su p p o se b o t h w e r e t r ue : t o d e sc r i b es u c h a p a i r a s i n c o m m e n s u r a b l e i s n o t t h e r e f o r e t o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e t r u ea n d u n t r a n s l a ta b l e .P a r t o f t h e t r o u b l e is t h e c h o i c e o f m e t a p h o r . ' F i t t i n g t h e e v i d e n c e ' su g g e s t se m p i r i c a l a d e q u a c y , w h i c h a m o u n t s t o t ru t h a t a n e m p i r ic a l l ev e l. B u t ina n y s e n s e i n w h i c h t h e o r i e s ' c o p e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e ' t h e y n e e d n o t s t r i c t l y' f it t h e e v i d e n c e ' . E v e n su c c e s s f u l t h e o r i e s i n a c t u a l s c i e n c e o n l y fi t t h ee v i d e n c e i m p e r f e c t l y . T h e o r i e s h a v e e m p i r ic a l d i f f ic u l ti e s f r o m t h e s t a r t a n dn e v e r f i t a l l t h e e v i d e n c e . Y e t t h e y m a y s t i l l ' c o p e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e ' i n t h es e n s e o f e x p la i n i n g a n d p r e d ic t in g p h e n o m e n a , s o l v in g p ro b l e m s , a n d g u i d i n gr e se a r c h . To s a y t h a t su c h t h e o r i e s ' f i t t h e e v i d e n c e ' i n a n y b u t a l o o sese n se is m i s t a k e n . T h e r e i s e v e n l e s s r e a so n t o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e t ru e .

S i n c e in c o m m e n s u r a b i l i t y n e e d n o t b e a r e l a t io n b e t w e e n t ru e t h e o r ie s ,t h is b r e a k s t h e l in k b e t w e e n t h e tw o s te p s o f D a v i d s o n ' s a r g u m e n t . H o w e v e r ,D a v i d s o n ' s T a r s k i a n a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e e v a d e d s o e a s i l y . F o ru n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y i m p l i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t r u e b u t u n t r a n s l a t a b l e s e n t e n c e s .I f a s e n t e n c e c a n b e f o r m u l a t e d in a l a n g u a g e , t h e n o r d i n a r il y e i th e r i t o ri ts n e g a t i o n i s tr u e. I f a s e n t e n c e c a n n o t b e t r a n s l a te d f r o m o n e l a n g u a g ei n t o a n o t h e r , t h e n n e i t h e r c a n i t s n e g a t i o n b e so t r a n s l a t e d . S i n c e e i t h e rt h e s e n t e n c e o r i t s n e g a t i o n i s t r u e , u n t r a n s l a t a b i l i t y r a i s e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t yo f a t ru e b u t u n t r a n s l a t a b l e s e n t e n c e . S o D a v i d s o n ' s a t t a c k o n t h e s e p a r a t i o no f t ru t h f r o m t r a n s l a t io n m u s t b e c o n f r o n te d .

D a v i d s o n a r g u e s t h a t o u r c o n c e p t o f t r u t h is d e f i n e d fo r E n g l i sh a n dl a n g u a g e s t r a n s l a t a b l e i n to E n g l i sh , s o o u r g r a s p o f t h e c o n c e p t d o e s n o te x t e n d b e y o n d l a n g u a g e s i n t e rt r a n s la t a b l e w i t h E n g li s h . C o n v e n t i o n T d o e sn o t d e f i n e a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f t r u t h f o r u n s p e c i f i e d l a n g u a g e s . R a t h e r , i td e f i n e s a t r u t h - p r e d i c a t e f o r a s p e c i fi c la n g u a g e a n d f o r s e n t e n c e s o f l a n g u a g e si n t e r t r a n s l a t a b l e w i t h it.

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18 In D efence o f UntranslatabilityA t h e o r y o f t r u t h f o r a l a n g u a g e w h i c h c o n f o r m s w i t h C o n v e n t i o n T

e n t a il s a s e t o f T - s e n t e n c e s f o r t h e s e n t e n c e s o f th e l a n g u a g e a n d t h e i rt r a n s l a t i o n a l e q u i v a le n t s . R e c u r r i n g t o th e p re v i o u s q u o t a t i o n :

a c c o r d i n g t o T a r s k i ' s C o n v e n t i o n T , a s a t i s f a c to r y t h e o r y o f t r u th f o ra l a n g u a g e L m u s t e n t a il , f o r e v e r y s e n t e n c e s o f L , a t h e o r e m o f t h ef o r m ' s is tr u e if a n d o n l y if p ' w h e r e ' s ' is r e p l ac e d b y a d e s c ri p ti o no f s a n d ' p ' b y s i t s e l f i f L i s En g l ish , a n d b y a t r a n s l a t i o n o f s in t oEn g l i sh i

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In Defence of Untranslatability

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