ReportNo. 3249b-IND Indonesia: Technical and Professional FIE CDIP Manpower in Agriculture (InTwo Volumes) Volume 1: Main Report August 20, 1981 ProjectsDepartment East Asia and Pacific Regional Office FOR OFFICIALUSEONLY Document of the World Bank Thisdocument hasa restricted distribution and may be usedby recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Fankauthorization. Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
Transcript
Report No. 3249b-IND
Indonesia: Technical and Professional FIE CDIPyManpower in Agriculture(In Two Volumes)
Volume 1: Main ReportAugust 20, 1981
Projects DepartmentEast Asia and Pacific Regional Office
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Document of the World Bank
This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Fank authorization.
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CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS
Currency Unit - Indonesian Rupiah
US$1.00 = Rp 625Rp 1.00 = US$0.0016
GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS /1
AAETE - Agency for Agricultural Education, Training andExtension
AARD - Agency for Agricultural Research and DevelopmentAAUCS - Australian-Asian Universities Cooperation SchemeADB - Asian Development Bank
ADC - Agricultural Development CouncilBAKN - Badan Administratif Kepegawaian Negara - National
Personnel AdministrationBAPPENAS - Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional - National
Development Planning BoardBIMAS - Bimbingan Masal Swa Sembada Bahan Makanan - Mass
Guidance for Self-Sufficiency in FoodstuffsBP3K - Badan Penelitian dan Pengambangan Pendidikan dan
Kebudayan - Office of Educational and CulturalResearch and Development
CAS - Consortium for Agricultural SciencesCHE - Consortium for Higher EducationDGHE - Directorate General of Higher EducationDTVE - Directorate of Technical and Vocational EducationDIPLOMA (SO) - Two to Three Year University GraduateFAO/CP - Food and Agriculture Organization/Cooperative ProgramGOI - Government of Indonesia
IIE - Institute for International EducationIKIP - Institut Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan - Teacher
Training InstitutionInsinjur - Engineer
KIP - Konsorsium Ilmu Ilmu Pertanian - Consortium forAgricultural Sciences
KKN - Kuliah Kerja Nyata (learning through real work) - a
national study-service schemeLAN - Lembaga Administrasi Negara - National Institute of
AdministrationMOA - Ministry of AgricultureMOE - Ministry of Education and CultureMPK - Memo Program Koordinatif - Coordinative Program MlemoMUCIA - Midwest Universities Consortium for International
Activities
/1 Acronyms for the universities with agricultural faculties can be foundin Table 6 of Annex 1.
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY-2 -
NATI - National Agricultural Training InstitutePasca Sarjana (S2) - Post Sarjana (equivalent to MSc degree)Pembina - FeederPPL - Penyuluh Pertanian Lapangan - Extension Field WorkerPPM - Penyuluh Pertanian Madia - Field Extension SupervisorPPS - Penyuluh Pertanian Specialis - Extension Subject
Matter SpecialistRepelita - Government Five Year Development Plan: Repelita I
covered 1968/69 to 1973/74; Repelita II covered1974/75 to 1978/79 and Repelita III covers 1979/80to 1983/84
Sarjana Muda - Junior scholar - Three to four year universitygraduate (being phased out)
Sarjana (SI) - Scholar - Four year university graduateSEARCA - South East Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study
and Research in AgricultureSkripsi - Written work/thesisSMA - Sekolah Menengah Atas-General Senior Secondary School
(Grades 10-12)SMTP - Sekolah Menengah Technologi Pertanian - Agricultural
Technology School (upper secondary level school -MOE)
SPMA - Sekolah Pertanian Menengah Atas-Agricultural HighSchool
SPP - Sekolah Pembangunan Pertanian-Agricultural DevelopmentSchool (upper secondary level school - MOA)
STM - Sekolah Teknik Menengah - Technical High SchoolUSAID - United States Agency for International Development
FISCAL YEAR
April 1 - March 31
This document hus a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performanceof their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.
INDONESIA
TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER IN AGRICULTURE
Utilization of Manpower .................. . 44Comparison Between Supply and Demand/Requirements ... . . . 44Numerical Gap . . ...... .. 44Implications for the Type of Manpower Required. 46Regional Distribution of Additional Manpower Requirements . 47
PART A: STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEM
1. Organization, Policies and Planning in Agricultural Education2. Definition of Educational Levels and Fields3. Structure of Secondary Vocational Education in Agriculture
PART B: OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER STOCKS, NEEDS AND SALARIES
4. Staff Levels in the Government and the Private Sector5. Trends and Projected Technical and Professional Manpower Needs6. Salaries and Other Payments to Government Employees
PART C: TECHNICAL MANPOWER
7. Supply and Demand for Technical Level Manpower8. In-service Training9. Diploma Training
PART D: PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER
10. The Projected Supply of University Graduates in Agriculture andRelated Fields
11. Quality of UJniversity Level Agricultural Education12. Overseas Education and Training13. The Demand and Supply of Veterinarians, Animal Production,
Specialists, and Animal Health Assistants
PART E- BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL ASSISTANCE
14. Summary of Education and Training Projects/Programs Financed byMultilateral and Bilateral Donors
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SUPPLEMENTARY DOCUMENTS /1
1. Supply of Managerial and Technical Manpower in the AgriculturalSciences in Indonesia
2. Stocks and Future Demand for Agricultural Manpower3. Training in Agricultural Economics in Indonesian Universities:
Proposals for Reform4. The Quality of Teaching and Research in Crop Agriculture and
Forestry in Indonesian Universities5. Supply/Demand for Technical and Managerial Manpower in Indonesian
Agriculture - Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and Veterinary Medicine6. Policy Paper on Higher Agricultural Education in Indonesia7. Training for Indonesian Agriculture: The Need for People8. Review of the Supply and Demand for Technical Manpower (Agricultural
Engineering) in Agriculture in Indonesia9. A Methodology of Estimating Agricultural Extension Personnel
Required over a 15-year Period, 1975-199010. Some Analysis of Theoretical Demand for Technical and Professional
Manpower in Agriculture
/1 Available on request from the World Bank.
I. SUMMARY
Introduction
1. The Indonesian technical and professional education systems havemade outstanding progress from very difficult circumstances which followedWorld War II. While technical training in agriculture started in the early1900s, the first College of Agriculture was not established until 1940;however, due to the hostilities in the Pacific, it was forced to close andtotal enrollment was only 53 students in 1948. In the following year aFaculty of Agriculture was established at Gadjah Mada University. TheCollege of Agriculture at Bogor joined the University of Indonesia as theFaculty of Agriculture in 1950 and was established as the independentInstitut Pertanian Bogor (Institute of Agriculture Bogor) in 1963. At presentthere are about 20,000 students enrolled in university agricultural sciencefaculties and a similar number in secondary schools for agriculturaltechnicians. Notwithstanding this progress, Indonesia faces an importantchallenge to provide trained manpower for the continued development ofagriculture which remains one of the most important sectors of the economy.
2. Despite the high agricultural growth rate, currently around 3.5%p.a., rural incomes are low compared with urban incomes; agriculturalexports have increased by less than 3% p.a. in recent years; and projectionsindicate a need for cereal (mainly rice and wheat) imports of between 3 and4 million tons p.a. over the next 5 to 10 years. Many factors influenceproduction growth in the agricultural sector. However, there is alreadyevidence that a shortage of technical, professional and managerial manpoweris an important constraint on this growth. In addition many future agri-cultural development programs are likely to fail, be substantiallycurtailed or delayed unless major improvements are achieved in the supply oftechnical and professional manpower. This report sketches the broaddimensions of the manpower situation, draws conclusions and makesrecommendations on policies and strategies for the development of manpowerto serve the agricultural sector.
3. For the purposes of this report technical manpower includes thosewith certificates or diplomas from Agricultural Development Schools,Agricultural Technology Schools, various academies and vocational schools oruniversity qualifications (Diploma or Sarjana Muda) below the Sarjana (firstdegree) level. Professional manpower is made up of Sarjana graduates fromuniversities as well as MSc and PhD graduates. Managerial manpower ismore difficult to define since managerial positions are based on the type ofjob held rather than qualifications; the report is therefore less precisewith respect to this group.
4. The major conclusions of the study (listed in detail in Chapter 6)are that, given Indonesia's agricultural development objectives:
(a) a substantial numerical deficiency will continue at least for thenext decade between the supply and demand for agriculturaltechnicians;
(b) supply and demand for professional-level agricultural manpowertrained to the Sarjana level will be in balance over the next tenyears; within this aggregate balance there may be deficiencies forspecific disciplines;
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(c) the present significant deficit in PhD and MSc-levelmanpower will remain over the next decade;
(d) the quality of technical and professional level agriculturaleducation varies considerably, but is generally lower than in mostcountries in the region; and
(e) policies and strategies can be, and in many cases have alreadybeen, evolved to rectify the problems of short supply and lowquality of technical and professional agricultural manpower.
5. The Government of Indonesia (GOI) is well aware of these issuesand is continually reviewing and evolving policies on education and training.Earlier education sector studies by the Bank and others have also reachedsimilar conclusions on the quality of education and training. This reporttakes the discussion of quality issues further than previous Bank reports;however its main purpose is to make quantitative estimates of supply anddemand for technical and professional manpower. The importance of thesubject derives from the key role of the agricultural sector in the economyand the urgency of hastening the adoption of improved technology in agricul-ture, upgrading a variety of services, and raising the standard of managementof development projects.
The Structure of Agricultural Education and Training
6. Technician-level education in agriculture is provided mainly byAgricultural Technology Schools (SMTP) and Agricultural Development Schools(SPP). Most of these schools are managed and financed by the Government.Higher agricultural education is predominantly at government universities.An intermediate type of diploma level education is offered, again mainly atgovernment institutions, namely, in universities, or schools managed by theMinistry of Agriculture (MOA). Enrollments in all these institutions haveincreased rapidly in recent years; for example a 24% increase in SPP enroll-ments to 14,400 between 1978 and 1979. Total enrollment in SMTPs and SPPswas close to 19,000 in 1979. The annual number of graduates from theseschools typically account for about 30% of the total student body (totalenrollment), which is commendable for a three-year program although it isinflated by additional entrants into the final year. Enrollment in agricul-tural faculties at universities increased by between 12% and 15% p.a. between1973 and 1978; it now stands at about 20,000, but the annual number of grad-uates from agricultural faculties is typically only about 6% to 7% of totalenrollments. This is low even for the traditional five to six year degreeprogram and results from high dropout rates and the slow progress ofstudents.
7. An analysis of GOI budgetary allocations to education is not amajor objective of this review. However, recent data show that publicexpenditure on education is currently 2.4% of GNP which is lower than inneighboring countries in South East Asia. Education accounts for about 9%of total public expenditure; of this about 20% is devoted to higher
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education. No information is available on private financing of education.The allocations to most universities appear to be inadequate in relation toneed, but in the absence of more specific data and analysis no recommenda-tions are made. Increased allocations to undergraduate scholarships atuniversities may be one important area of need which would have a positiveimpact on the output of students.
Education Policy
8. Public policy on education, which is an important component of theGovernment's development program, has been undergoing an intensive review inrecent years. In Repelita III the major objectives of the general educationsector are:
(a) improvement of the quality of education;
(b) expansion of educational opportunities;
(c) increase in the relevance of education to manpower needs;
(d) preparation of the young generation to assume futureresponsibilities in development; and
(e) increase in the efficiency and effectiveness of educationalmanagement.
9. Within this general framework the GOI has established the followinghigher education policy objectives:
(a) improvement in performance and enrollment capacity;
(b) formal establishment of the tripartite objectives of education,research and public service;
(c) formal phasing of university development which takesaccount of resources and national objectives;
(d) establishment of educational achievement into four degree levels,SO, Si, S2, S3 (equivalent to Diploma, Sarjana, MSc and PhD) andthe award of these degrees following the successful completion ofa specified number of credit units; and
(e) a move away from the designation of a few universities as centersof excellence to regional groupings of universities, with onechosen as the focal point for leadership and coordination ofregional educational programs.
10. The Bank endorses these policies although it is recognized thattheir complete implementation will be difficult and slow. The Ministry ofEducation and Culture (MOE) has the responsibility for the implementation of
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education policy, although the MOA has a heavy involvement in technical agri-cultural education through the Agency for Agricultural Education, Trainingand Extension (AAETE). The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS) [anadvisory body to the Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE)] has theresponsibility for designing guidelines for curricula and standards inhigher agricultural education. While the AAETE will command additionalresources as its role and staffing expands, the CAS should be strengthenedas soon as possible to enable it to cope with its task. A strengthening ofthe CAS should not, however, reduce the independence of universities inrespect of matters such as the details of curricula and fields of concentra-tion.
Major Issues in Higher Agricultural Education
11. The major issues in higher agricultural education are low produc-tivity and the quality of education. However, the demand for higher educationmay lead to an increase in student numbers with a detrimental effect onquality. This trade-off is a major concern for education policy.
12. Productivity in higher agricultural education institutions is low.This is due to many factors including high dropout rates in early years,inadequate staff time given to students, poor teaching methods, and unpre-pared students. Factors which affect the quality of student education arelow standards of instruction, inadequate curricula with much too high adegree of specialization, inadequate science training of students in second-ary schools, nonexistent or poor quality practical training, minimal housingfacilities for staff and students, inefficient libraries and library servi-ces, poor foreign language ability of staff and students, and often narrowand low level research activities.
Supply and Demand/Requirements for Manpower /1
13. The supply and demand/requirements for technical, professional andmanagerial manpower are impossible to state precisely, but in 1983/84 theshortfall of technician-level manpower is expected to be between 1,200 and2,000 (20% to 30% of projected demand/requirements). In 1988/89 theshortfall could be between 4,000 and 6,000 (45% to 55% of projected demand/requirements). As the productive efficiency of technician level traininginstitutions is, in general, satisfactory, increases in output will have tobe achieved mainly through expansion of facilities and higher enrollments.
14. For higher-level manpower, supply and demand/requirements projec-tions indicate that the current shortfalls at the PhD and MSc levels areexpected to continue until at least 1988/89. Unless there is a substantial
/1 Demand refers to effective demand (budget constrained). Requirementsrefers to needs if specific development objectives are to be met. Useof the word "manpower" does not imply that only males are covered.
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and unexpected upward shift in demand, general expansion of capacity forSarjana level education is not a high priority. There may, however, bejustifications for the expansion of specific Sarjana programs in some areas.On the other hand, the quality of curricula, teaching and physical facilitiesat many universities need to be upgraded.
In-service and Overseas Training
15. Strategies for improving the quality of technical and professionalagricultural manpower should include intensification of in-service andoverseas training. In-service training at all levels should be used toimprove the quality of existing manpower particularly for career developmentand management. The Government's in-service training programs shouldincreasingly emphasize these objectives. Overseas education and training isimportant in augmenting rapidly the supply of higher trained manpower forwhich there is an immediate and urgent demand. At present the mechanisms forplanning, managing and implementing overseas training are inadequate,although there are obviously exceptions. The GOI needs to formulate policieson the extent of overseas training, and develop institutions which will becapable of coordinating the total effort.
Major Recommendations
16. The major recommendations (see Chapter 6 for details) are summa-rized below. The report does not rank these recommendations; howeverit is suggested that actions to increase the number of technicians shouldhave the highest priority.
(a) Management and Administration of the Agricultural EducationSystem.
- The staffing and budget of the CAS should be increased,although overcentralization of its powers should be avoided.
- An organization should be established within the MOE or the CASto function as an advisory center for the identification andmanagement of all overseas education and training.
(b) The Education and Training System
- Education standards at primary and secondary levels need to beupgraded to improve the quality of entrants to technical voca-tional and university-level education./I
/1 Because this report does not cover primary and most secondary education,no specific recommendations are made on this matter. However, the issuesare discussed in Annex 11.
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- The capacity for agricultural technician training needs to beincreased to deliver at least an additional 1,200 p.a. well-trained graduates during 1983/84 and about 4,000 p.a. by1988/89.
- The quality of agricultural technicians currently employed inthe Government needs to be raised by increasing and improvingstaff development through in-service training.
- The quality of university agricultural science education atthe Sarjana level should be improved; in particular moreattention should be paid to increasing and improving the sciencecontent of curricula and to reducing the extent of specializa-tion.
- Only small increases in Sarjana enrollment capacity for specificdisciplines are needed over the next five years even with modestimprovements in productivity.
- The capacity of universities to teach and supervise PhD and MSclevel programs in the agricultural sciences should be increasedby expanding and improving facilities and staff development.
- Overseas scholarships for students and staff should be increasedto supplement local education capacity and to provide broaderdimensions to professional growth.
- The training and professional career development of teachers atall education levels should receive increased support.
- Libraries and library services should be substantially improved.Funds should be provided for the preparation of Indonesianlanguage texts and teaching materials.
1. INTRODUCTION
Background
1.01 Although Indonesia's third Five-year Plan (Repelita III) projectsa declining share of agriculture in total GDP, 27.2% in 1983/84 comparedwith 31.4% in 1979/80, it still represents the largest single sector in theeconomy. Achieving the projected growth rate of 3.5% for agriculture willdepend heavily on private sector activity, but also requires considerablegovernment investment and improved support programs. The rice industry isalready achieving high levels of productivity by international standards andhence higher levels are becoming more difficult to attain. On the otherhand, the productivity of nonrice and most tree crops is lagging comparedwith other countries in the region. The Government-s Repelita III targetfor agriculture includes a growth rate of between 5% and 7% p.a. forsecondary food crops, and planting, replanting and rehabilitation of700,000 ha of rubber. These are formidable targets, whether they will beachieved depends to an important extent on the availability of technical andprofessional manpower.
1.02 There is at present a substantial margin between the availableproduction technology and the use of that technology by many farmers. Thismargin is in turn heavily influenced by the uncertain and restrictedavailability of the requisite inputs, services and extension advice, risk,inadequate incentives provided by current price levels and unreliablemarketing arrangements. Poor irrigation, road development and maintenanceare also major factors. Most of these constraints, generally most seriousin the islands outside Java, are matters which call for improved policyanalysis, management and administration of development and support programs.While Government is not, and probably should not, be responsible forovercoming all the production constraints which exist in agriculture, it isquestionable whether the GOI or the private sector have adequate numbers oftrained and experienced manpower to cope with the increasing demand forimprovements in the management and administration of agricultural policies,programs and support services.
1.03 Evidence regarding the shortage of trained manpower in many sectorshas become apparent on numerous occasions. For example, the appraisal reportfor the ninth Bank-assisted education project (Bank Report No. 3000a-IND,"Indonesia, Staff Appraisal Report, First Phase of a University DevelopmentProgram") reports that about one third of the technical positions in theDepartment of Public Works had to be filled by underqualified technicians whoneeded an extensive period of on-the-job training. Vacancies in the MOA in1978/79 were about 10% of total positions (see Annex 5, Table 8). Many bilat-eral and multilateral donors have devoted substantial funds to education and
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training programs./l The latest Basic Economic Report for Indonesia /2 alsoreferred to the scarcity of skilled managerial manpower in the civilservice, including central and regional planning bodies.
1.04 The shortage of technical and managerial skills appears frequentlyin connection with Bank-assisted projects. Recent internal Bank reviews ofproject implementation concluded that institutional and managerial problemscontinued to be the most pervasive and serious and that these difficultieswere likely to increase. Experienced project managers are hard to find andwhen, frequently on Bank insistence, appropriate staff are identified theyhave inevitably been taken from another task or project which is then likelyto suffer unless a replacement can be provided. Where local staff with therequired skills and experience are not available, the standard practice isto recruit expatriate consultants. This is useful but not a permanentsolution, since such arrangements do not usually provide for satisfactorytraining of indigenous personnel./3 Furthermore, much of the localmanagement cannot be provided by expatriate consultants.
1.05 The Government is well aware of these difficulties and is takingsteps to overcome the manpower shortages. While considerable progress hasbeen made in education and training, Repelita III refers to the need forupgrading manpower skills, vocational training and upgrading the businessand administrative skills of managers in cooperatives. The Government alsoplaces major emphasis on strengthening the size and quality of the nationaleducation system.
Objectives of the Study
1.06 The main objective of this report is to assess the future supplyand demand/requirements /4 for technical and professional manpower inIndonesian agriculture, and come to conclusions on possible policies, stra-tegies and programs in agricultural education and training. It is recog-nized that these are ambitious objectives; even the assessment of futuremanpower supply and demand/requirements is surrounded with uncertainty. Inaddition these are sensitive issues for planners associated with education
/1 Annex 14 to this report contains a summary of projects financed bymulti- or bilateral donors for education and training in Indonesia.
/2 Bank Report No. 2093-IND, "Indonesia - Growth Patterns, Social Progressand Development Prospects," February 20, 1979.
/3 Local and foreign technical assistance, training and educationrepresented about 12% of total costs of Indonesian agricultural andirrigation projects approved by the Bank in 1979 and 1980.
/4 These terms are defined in para. 1.08.
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and training. The objective is not to find fault with past or existingplanning, rather to suggest some guides for the future. In terms of itscoverage, the report attempts to assess the Government and private sectorsseparately. However the government sector is of overriding importance withrespect to the demand for most technical and professional skills inagriculture.
1.07 On the supply side the study discusses the main secondary andtertiary agricultural education institutions in Indonesia. University-levelcurricula, training standards, quality of education and their relevance todevelopment requirements of the agricultural sector are assessed. Thereport analyzes the relationship between student enrollment and graduates;comments on reasons for the low productivity of the higher education system;evaluates the extent and quality of government in-service trainingactivities; and there is a brief reference to managerial manpower.
1.08 The analysis makes a distinction between the manpower "demand" (tofill vacancies in an organizational structure within a given or expectedbudget) and manpower "requirements" (to achieve a specific objective asdefined by management or official development programs). The analysis ofdemand is based on trends in employment and the likely budgets available forstaffing. The estimates of requirements are based on first a survey ofstaff managers and second a calculation of the staff required to execute theagricultural development programs in Repelita III.
1.09 This study is not a review of the education sector in Indonesia./1Rather it is a limited review of agricultural education and training concen-trating mainly on the numerical and quality aspects of the supply and demand/requirements for technical and professional manpower in agriculture.
1.10 For the purposes of this report technical manpower includesgraduates from agricultural high schools, agricultural academies and thosewho have achieved the "Sarjana Muda" level (often referred to as "BSc") orhave been granted a diploma at a university. Professional manpower includesthose with a "Sarjana" level university degree, MSc or PhD. "Sarjana" is theIndonesian word for scholar. "Sarjana Muda" means junior scholar.
/1 There is a range of reviews already available. For example,Bank Report No. 443a-IND, "Indonesia - Education Sector Survey Report,February 5, 1975; Bank Report No. 1837a-IND, "Indonesia - HigherTechnical Education Subsector Survey, January 19, 1978. A Specialinternal staff report (No. 2364-IND) entitled "Indonesia - TheEducation Sector", November 1978; and British Council, "Indonesia -Education Profile, issued by the British Council, Jakarta, andEducation Liaison Unit, London, March 1979. Beeby, C.E.,"Assessment of Indonesian Education: A Guide to Planning", Wellington,New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1979.
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Structure of Report and Data
1.11 Chapter 2 reviews government policies for, and the structure of,the agricultural education system. This is followed by a discussion of themajor issues facing university agricultural education, an assessment of theprojected supply and demand/requirements for technical and professional man-power and the relationship between them. The strategies for staff develop-ment are then analyzed, finally with the conclusions and recommendations.Most of the data in the report are to 1978. Where possible more recentinformation was added before final printing.
Mission Work
1.12 This report is based on the findings of a mission composed ofMessrs. J.W. van Holst Pellekaan and S. Santos (Bank), D.W. Beal (FAO/CP),A.D. Tillman (Rockefeller Foundation), M.A. Smith (Ford Foundation), M.J.T.Norman, P. McCawley, and S. Miranda (consultants) which visited Indonesia inJanuary/February 1980. Preparatory work was done by Kusmat Tanudimadja,W.P.J. Brandon and Chaidir Adenil (consultants). In addition, H. Thias andS. O'Humay (Bank) assisted with drafting specific annexes in the reportand M. Zymelman (Bank) provided advice on a range of issues. A missioncomposed of J.W. van Holst Pellekaan (Bank), D.W. Beal (FAO/CP) and A.Strout (consultant) visited Indonesia during July 1980 to review apreliminary draft of this report. Mission members held discussions withofficials in the National Planning Agency, the Ministries of Agriculture,and Education and Culture, Rectors and staff of agricultural faculties at anumber of universities, and representatives of the private sector. Allthose contacted were generous with their time and advice, many also devotedconsiderable resources to preparing background data. The mission isgrateful for the assistance which it received. In April 1981, an advanceddraft of the report was discussed at a seminar in Indonesia arranged by theConsortium for Agricultural Sciences. This report takes account ofsuggestions and comments made at the seminar.
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2. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION - STRUCTURE, DIMENSIONS, AND POLICIES
Background
2.01 Any analysis of Indonesia's current education system must acknowl-edge the major achievements made over the short time the system has evolved.Not until 1907 did the Dutch East Indies government make "its firstbroad-scale elementary education provisions for the local population.Agricultural education dated from that year. The first trade schools wereset up in 1909."/1 In 1919 the number of pupils in native-language primaryschools was 623,000 and in 1930 the number was 1,482,000 (2.4% of theestimated population of 61 million at that time, when children of primaryschool age must have accounted for at least 20%). It was not until 1920that the first institution of higher education (Bandung Institute ofTechnology) was established. A College of Agriculture ("LandbouwkundigeFaculteit") was established in Bogor in 1940. At the start of Repelita I, atime which followed a period of widespread unrest, the education system wascharacterized as "out of balance." The system was described by the plan asone in which "(i) the number of schools falls short of the demand foreducation; (ii) vocational training has been treated in a stepmotherlyfashion; (iii) the preference in undergraduate studies still goes tohumanities while Indonesia's development primarily requires skilledagriculturists and technologists."/2 Over the last decade education hasmade great strides; the continuing challenge is to build on the achievementsof the past.
The Structure of Agricultural Education
(a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools)
2.02 Technician-level agricultural education is provided at the uppersecondary level (grades 10-12, see Chart 1), which is given at two types ofschools: the Agricultural Technology Schools called Sekolah MenengahTechnology Pertanian (SMTP) and the Agricultural Development Schools knownas Sekolah Pembangunan Pertanian (SPP). All of the SMTPs are financed bythe Government and administered by the Directorate of Vocational Educationof the Ministry of Education and Culture (MOE); they concentrate mainly onagricultural and fishery technology and processing. The SPPs, which receivemost attention in this review, provide a broad education in agricultural,animal and fisheries production. They are financed and administered inthree different ways:
/1 R. Murray Thomas, "A Chronicle of Indonesian Higher Education - TheFirst Half Century 1920-1970," Eurasia Press, Singapore, 1973, p. 15.
/2 "Development - Summary of Indonesia's First Five Year Development Plan,April 1, 1969 - March 31, 1974." Edited and published by Japenpa-Djakarta for the Department of Information, p. 58.
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(a) 17 National SPPs are financed by the Government andadministered by the Agency for Agricultural Education,Training and Extension (AAETE) of the MOA;
(b) 53 Provincial and District SPPs are financed by provincialgovernments under the aegis of their agricultural offices; and
(c) the remaining 25 are privately financed and administered,generally by foundations.
Standards for all types of SPPs are set by AAETE.
(b) Higher Education (Universities and Academies)
2.03 There are four main types of higher education institutions atpresent:
(a) universities, which have a number of semi-autonomous facultiesoffering the Sarjana degree (including the intermediate SarjanaMuda) and, where authorized by the Government, higher degrees suchas Masters and Doctorate degrees; some universities are alsostarting to develop diploma programs in a few fields includingagriculture.
(b) institutes, which comprise a number of faculties in a singleprofessional field, and which also offer the full Sarjana andpostgraduate degrees;
(c) academies, granting the Sarjana Muda degree (or diplomaqualifications) for technician-level courses; and
(d) a variety of other institutions granting diploma-levelqualifications.
Higher agricultural education and training is provided at all these types ofinstitutions, but overwhelmingly at the first two, which are predominantlygovernment-financed.
2.04 At the university level the principal degree program has tradi-tionally been a five-year course (Sarjana), often referred to in Indonesiaas equivalent to a Master's degree (see Annex 1, paras. 6 to 10 fordetails). There is an intermediate three-year qualification (Sarjana Muda,often referred to as "BSc") roughly corresponding to a western agriculturaldiploma. Recently the Government introduced a four-year Sarjana degree,which reflects a movement toward the Anglo-American model, broadlyequivalent to a western Bachelor's degree. Diploma-level courses, whichvary from two to three years in length, are offered at some universities andat a variety of public and private tertiary institutions (see Annex 9).
2.05 The Government of Indonesia (GOI) has begun a series of administra-tive reforms to promote greater comparability among courses, degrees/diplomas,and institutions (see Annex 1, para. 12, Annex 2 and para. 2.16 below). Thebasic rationalizing element will be a system of semester credits (e.g., theSarjana degree will require 144-160 credits), backed by a more rigorous systemof institutional classification/accreditation. These reforms have alreadybeen underway for some years, notably at the Institut Pertanian, Bogor (IPB)and were formalized by Ministerial Decree in 1979./l They reflect an increasedawareness among the leaders of the education profession that many reforms areoverdue. These and other policy issues are discussed in more detail below.
The Dimensions of the Agricultural Education System
(a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools) /2
2.06 There are 113 agricultural senior secondary schools in Indonesia.Eighteen are SMTPs, 95 are SPPs of which 17 are national, 53 are provincialand 25 are private. These schools are distributed among the major regionsroughly according to population distribution. Of the 18 SMTPs, however,only five are known to follow an improved curriculum; these are the onlyschools which the MOE believes to have satisfactory training programs./3Starting with the academic year of 1980/81, the 18 SMTPs will start toimplement an improved curriculum which comprises mainly increasing theamount of practical work. The total enrollment of SMTPs in 1978 was 4,600.About half of the graduates in recent years have found employment with theGovernment. On the other hand the enrollment in SPPs for the same year wasabout 12,000. The SPPs are of major importance for vocational education inagriculture. They provide most of the technical staff for the MOA. Informa-tion on the distribution of enrollments between different disciplines at SPPsis incomplete, but Annex 3, Table 3 shows that most students are enrolled incrop husbandry. This suggests a general education in all aspects of cropagriculture; which is probably the most useful at this level. Table 4 in thesame annex provides slightly different data, but confirms that enrollments areoverwhelmingly in schools concentrating on crop husbandry.
(b) Higher Education (Universities and Academies)
2.07 Higher agricultural education in government universities isavailable in 52 faculties distributed among 27 universities and institutes.
/1 Ministerial Decree No. 0124/U/1979.
/2 The coverage of vocational education institutions in agriculture in thisreport does not cover the junior level Rural Vocational Schools orSKK which are being developed to give young people in rural areas anopportunity for training as skilled workers to implement a technologyone step higher than traditional technology.
/3 Officially there are 23 SMTPs, but only 18 are being developed duringRepelita III.
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Geographically the distribution is: Sumatera - 10; Java - 21; Kalimantan -6; Sulawesi - 7; Bali - 3 (see Annex 1, Table 6). The total enrollment wasabout 20,000 in 1978 (see Table 2.1). This distribution coincides approxi-mately with the distribution of population. The major degree programs areshown in Annex 1, Table 6. Three diploma programs in agriculture areoffered at present, namely at the University of Hasanuddin for AgriculturalExtension Workers since 1977 and at IPB for teachers at the SMTP sinceSeptember 1979, with 105 (1978) and 95 (1979) students respectively, and therecently established diploma course in seed technology at IPB. Graduateprograms leading to the MSc degree were initiated at IPB in 1976 and at theUniversity of Padjadjaran (UNPAD) in Bandung in 1979. Graduate programsleading to Doktor or PhD qualifications are offered in all fields inagricultural sciences at IPB, UNPAD and Gadjah Mada (TJGM) as assigned by theDirectorate General of Higher Education (DGHE) since 1978 under theGovernment's policy of phased development./l
2.08 Private universities offering a higher agricultural educationcurriculum leading to Sarjana Muda or Sarjana degrees are relatively unim-portant in terms of total agricultural enrollments despite their importantrole in particular locations. In 1978 enrollments in the agriculturalsciences in these universities was 2,400 from which there were 450 SarjanaMuda graduates. Private universities are usually established and controlledby a foundation, but some governmental support is given, for exampleinstructional staff, finance etc. through the Directorate of PrivateUniversities in the DGHE is provided. In some instances, the provincialgovernment has academies under its control, e.g., Forestry Academy inBandung and the Agricultural Academy in Tanjungsari, West Java.
2.09 Enrollments in agricultural faculties on Java account for about60% of total enrollments, almost the same as Java's share of the totalpopulation (see Table 2.1). The distribution of enrollments betweendisciplines is detailed in Annex 4, Tables 2 and 3; however the summary inTable 2.2 below shows the overwhelming importance of agriculture (agronomy,soil science, tree crops and similar disciplines). While the distributionof total enrollments is similar to the distribution of population, thedistribution between disciplines is skewed. For example, it is surprisingthat animal husbandry and veterinary medicine are of such importance (about21% of total enrollments in 1978) compared with fisheries and forestry (6.2%and 6.3% respectively of total enrollments). By way of comparison theproportion of agricultural GDP from livestock in 1978 was 6%, compared with
/1 This policy will be discussed in paragaphs 3.13 to 3.18. It appears,however, that at many universities MSc and PhD (or "Doktor" if stillmodelled on the former Dutch colonial system) programs are being offeredprematurely before adequate staff are available to supervise suchprograms.
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Table 2.1: DISTRIBUTION OF ENROLLMENTS AND SARJANA DEGREES IN PUBLIC HIGHERAGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BY REGION AND PROVINCE (1978)
Sarjana de-Sarjana grees awardeddegrees as proportion
Enrollment awarded of enrollmentRegion/province No. x (No.) (%)
KalimantanW. Kalimantan 216 1.1 1 0.5E. Kalimantan 420 2.1 21 5.0S. Kalimantan 504 2.5 8 1.6
Subtotal 1,140 5.7 30 2.6
SulawesiN. Sulawesi 603 3.0 8 1.3C. Sulawesi n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.S. Sulawesi 1,336 6.6 61 4.6
Subtotal 1,939 9.6 69 3.6
Nusa Tenggara and MalukuW. Nusa Tenggara 224 1.1 5 2.2E. Nusa Tenggara 165 0.8 n.a. n.a.Maluku 324 1.6 4 1.2
Subtotal 713 3.5 9 1.3
Bali 500 2.5 35 7.0
Irian Jaya 122 0.6 7 5.7
Total /a 20,193 100.0 1,404 7.0
/a Excludes C. Sulawesi.
n.a. - not available.
Source: See Annex 1, Table 6.
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5% £rom fisheries and 11% from forestry. While a strict relationshipbetween enrollment in university education and GDP is not expected, thelarge proportion of students enrolled in animal sciences is unusual./l
Agricultural Education Policy and Management /2
(a) Secondary Education (Vocational Schools)
2.10 It is GOI policy to develop vocational education and secondarylevel agricultural education and training has received significant atten-tion, particularly in recent years. Within the context of an integratedprogram to improve extension, research and training, the Government hastaken steps since 1970 to improve technician-level agricultural educationand training. Based on the findings and recommendations of an FAO surveymission (1971) on middle-level agricultural education and training, theGovernment developed a two-phased strategy for upgrading MOA staff(particularly extension personnel) and for agricultural training inIndonesia. The first phase was to concentrate on improving selectednational institutions to meet the country's most urgent technicianleveltraining and manpower needs. The second phase was focused on provincialinstitutions in the islands outside Java including marine fishery andforestry (pre-service) training which were not included in the first phase.
2.11 The first phase of the strategy was carried out by the Governmentwith assistance under the Bank-assisted Second Education Project which wasthe first Bank-assisted agricultural training project (Credit 288-IND,1972). Under this project, an institutional framework for coordination andadministration of middle-level agricultural education and training wasestablished in 1972 with the creation of the present AAETE within the MOA.In addition, the project upgraded 14 existing senior secondary agriculturalschools, and introduced curricular improvements in all of these schools.FAO and other donor groups have also provided assistance through upgradingof one senior secondary school in marine fisheries and related activities(see Annex 14).
/1 This matter will be examined in more detail in Annex 13. However, onecaveat should be noted, namely that a large proportion of cattle andbuffaloes are dual-purpose; they are used as a source of power and meatproduction. Only the latter would appear in an estimate of grossdomestic production.
/2 This section is not intended to be a complete review of all policyissues. Furthermore, many aspects of education policy in Indonesia areat present under intensive study. Among the matters being considered isthe Report of the Commission for Reform of National Education, 1980,which prepared a draft of a total, comprehensive and integrated systemof national education.
Table 2.2: ENROLLMENTS IN AGRICIJLTURAL SCIENCES AND BIOLOGY
BY MAJOR DISCIPLINE, 1973-78 /a
AnnualNumber of growth rate
faculties 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1974 to 1978
Major discipline (1978) ------ (Number) -------------------- (% p.a.)
Veterinary medicine 3 n.a. 874 897 900 971 1,093 5.4
Total 53 11,372 11,581 12,914 14,200 17,682 20,070/c 15.2
/a This table provides data on enrollments in agricultural sciences in public universities only.
Data for 1979 became available shortly prior to final printing and can be found in Annex 1,Table 7. The inclusion of 1979 data does not change the growth rate of enrollments.
/b In 1976 to 1978 Animal Husbandry and Fisheries Faculties were combined in most universities. For
the purposes of this table an arbitrary allocation of 50% to each discipline was made for theseyears.
/c This total does not match the total in Table 2.1 and Annex 1, Table 6 (20,199). There are also
small differences between figures in this table and those in Annex 10, Table 3. The reasons are
probably related to slightly different time of enumeration.
Source: Directorate General of Higher Education.
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2.12 A second Bank-assisted agricultural training project (Ln. 1692-IND) was approved on April 24, 1979. This project contributes to the secondphase of the Government's strategy to improve agricultural training. It hasa broader range of subjects (including fisheries, forestry, livestock andrural home improvement) than the first project and it extends assistance totraining institutions administered by provincial governments and to thoseparts of the Other Islands where few training facilities exist. However, asin the first project, it confines itself to the development of agriculturalmanpower below the university level.
2.13 The GOI has also embarked on a program to develop the SITfPs.Reference has already been made in para. 2.06 to planned improvements in thecurriculum for these schools; further proposals, such as the establishmentof a rural and agricultural vocational education development center arebeing considered. The proposal available to the mission suggested that acenter would be responsible for planning and programming agriculturalvocational development, staff and curriculum development and the assessmentof the relevance of teaching programs and employment opportunities forgraduates. /l
(b) Higher Education (Universities)
2.14 A summary of recent developments in higher education policy can befound in Annex 1. A number of reviews of the general and higher educationsystems have taken place over the last five years and have, after extensiveconsultation, resulted in specific policy and strategy statements which havebeen presented and discussed at meetings of university rectors./2 A taskforce is at present conducting an intensive review of the future developmentof higher agricultural education. The conclusions from that study were notavailable at the time this report was drafted.
2.15 The main objectives of higher education policy are: (a) improve-ment of the existing higher education system to achieve better performanceand increased enrollment capacity; and (b) development towards a guidednational higher education system./3 Each year the DTGHE prepares the
/1 See "A Proposal for Establishment of a Rural and Agricultural VocationalEducation Development Centre (RAVEDC)." Prepared by Agricultural Team,Directorate of Technical and Vocational Education, Ministry of Educationand Culture, October 1980.
/2 A review of past, present and future education policy is contained in,D.A. Tisna Amidjaja and S. Sapi*ie, "Higher Education in Indonesia,From Random Growth Towards a National System," Jakarta, December 1977.See also Supplementary Document No. 6," Policy Paper in Higher Agricul-tural Education in Indonesia".
/3 A third aspect is the Planning, Programming and Budgeting System toassist with administration.
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Coordinative Program Memo (MPK) which reflects the DGHE position on theeducational situation and problems, as well as plans necessary to overcomethe problems. A fundamental basis for the formulation and execution offuture policy is that universities should aim at three objectives: teaching,research and community service. This principle is intended to broaden theuniversities' contribution to their region, province and community. It isunderstood that consideration is being given to a system which would requirea university staff member to devote the major proportion of his time to oneof these objectives.
2.16 Another important development was the decision in 1979 to formallystratify the education program into four levels, SO, SI, S2 and S3 (equiva-alent to Diploma, Sarjana, MSc and PhD) which are dependent on completing aspecified number of credit units, with minimum and maximum periods of study.This system has passed through a successful pilot stage at IPB and has theeffect of streamlining higher agricultural education, reducing the number ofyears required to achieve a basic degree /1 and making it more relevant tothe needs of the market for professional manpower.
2.17 Finally, the system, introduced in 1971, in which specificuniversities (e.g. IPB and Gadjah Mada) were identified as centers ofexcellence in a particular field (including agriculture) is being phased outThis policy assumed that it was not possible to achieve simultaneousdevelopment of all universities to the same standards with limited human andcapital resources; it has been replaced by two other mechanisms to controlstandards. First, degree programs at specific levels (see Annex 1, Table 6)can only be initiated by universities on the authority of the DGHE./2Secondly universities have been grouped regionally with one universityproviding leadership for that group. Some, because of their location, havebeen given the responsibility for concentrating on particular disciplines.To an extent, therefore, the identification of certain universities withprograms of higher quality than others still exists.
The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences
2.18 An instrument of education policy is the Consortium for HigherEducation (CHE). A Ministerial Decree reorganized the structure of the CHEand at the same time made it an apparatus of the DGHE. The CHE now consistsof 11 separate Consortia, for Educational Sciences, Mathematics andSciences, Social Sciences, Psychology, Medical Sciences, Technology, Agri-cultural Sciences, Economics, Law, Art and Philosophy, and InterdisciplinaryStudies. Each consortium has the responsibility to provide advice on the
/1 The S1 degree is a four-year degree without the requirement to submita thesis (skripsi).
/2 Referred to as phase and sequence development (see Annex 1, para. 31).
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design, management and monitoring of national higher education developmentprograms in its own discipline. The consortia, therefore, have an importantadvisory role in shaping educational policy and curricula. For the Consor-tium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS), a peer group of Deans of all Agricul-ture and Related Faculties in Phase I of development fulfills the role of agoverning council, but in practice they meet infrequently. Most of the workin each Consortium is done by the Executive Secretary assisted by threeProgram Directors.
2.19 With this arrangement, the CAS Secretariat inevitably assumesconsiderable responsibility. Its close association with the DGHE makes itthe main policy advisory body for Higher Agricultural Education, subiectonly to minor checks and controls by the system itself, and few if any fromthe employers of its graduates./l It is recommended that more effectivecommunication mechanisms be established between employer groups andrepresentatives of the agricultural education and training community. Whilethe CAS would be the appropriate body to coordinate this at the higherlevels, the AAETE could probably adopt that role at the technician level.While the CAS is concerned about establishing guidelines for standards, theDGHE faces increasing social pressure to provide higher education forsecondary school leavers; this places additional pressures on the CAS toenlarge programs which may be at the cost of standards. The CAS reportsdirectly to the DGHE on program implementation, there are dangers that itsclose association with the central government will result in over-centralization of decisions on matters such as curricula and qualitystandards.
Financial Support for Education
2.20 An analysis of GOI budgetary allocations to education is not anobjective for this review. However, the most recent data show thatgovernment expenditure on education is about 2.4% of GNP and 9% of totalgovernment expenditure; these allocations are lower than for any othercountry in the region;/2 of this about 20% has typically been allocated tohigher education (this figure varies by years, but has been rising rapidly,see Table 8 in Annex 1). In 1980/81 agricultural education captured about18% of the development budget allocated to universities and institutes(see Table 9 in Annex 1). Nearly 60% of the DGIIE Repelita III developmentbudget goes to construction and equipment with about 10% to libraries,books, teaching materials, curricula and course development.
/1 It is understood that consultation between CAS and employers does takeplace on an informal basis at times.
/2 World Bank, "Comparative Education Indicators:, October 1980.See also Bank Staff Working Paper No. 246, "Patterns of EducationalExpenditures," by Manuel Zymelman, November 1976. Note that there is noinformation available on expenditures going to private education.
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Management of Agricultural and Related Faculties
2.21 With the exception of the IPB which is entirely agricultural, allother agriculture faculties are part of a multi-faculty State university, orin a limited number of cases, of a private university. The administrationof public universities is the responsibility of the DGHE; for privateuniversities, the DGHE acts as a coordinator and supervisor over some 340institutions besides controlling government assistance to them in the formof staff (about 900 paid by Government) and material, determined by a set ofcriteria related to educational efficiency. GOI policy is to encourageprivate universities to increase their enrollment to assist with absorptionof qualified school leavers. The Repelita III budget calls for a 15-20%annual increase for this purpose.
2.22 Faculties are the basic administrative and budgetary units withinany multi-faculty university. Departments have functional but not admin-istrative roles. The lack of centralised university-wide organization isincreasingly felt by universities, reducing flexibility for change andpreventing the maximum use of human and physical resources. However, arecent Government Regulation (No. 5 of 1980) /1 which spells out the basicorganization and structure of universities and institutes provides forchanges toward centralization to be implemented during 1981.
2.23 Another matter which results in frequent changes in universitymanagement is the elective nature of Rectors and Faculty Deans, and theirrelatively short tenure (2 years), which can create instability and lack ofcontinuity of policy. As a result the introduction of changes in responseto changing circumstances, and measures to improve the internal efficiencyas well as the external productivity of the faculty or university, may bepostponed until they become inevitable. Either longer periods of tenure, ora system of having career appointees, as deputies appear necessary toovercome this. The recognized low productivity of state universities(typically well below 10% of total enrolled undergraduates complete theirbasic degrees each year) is influenced by this, as well as other factors.In agriculture and related faculties low productivity is the more seriousbecause of the inherently high cost of such training.
/1 Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia. Nomor: 5, Tahun 1980, tentangPokok-Pokok Organisasi Universitas/Institut Negeri.
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3. MAJOR ISSUES IN IJNIVERSITY-LEVEL AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION /1
3.01 Many issues affect the productivity and quality of theagricultural education system at the technical and university level despitethe acknowledged progress which has been made. The number of graduates isdependent on: (a) enrollment policies; (b) internal productivity of thesystem; and (c) financial support for students. Quality is affected by (a)the quality of students; (b) staff; (c) the curriculum; (d) the standard ofpractical training; (e) housing facilities; (f) learning resources (books,libraries, etc.); (g) research activities; and (h) language ability ofstudents.
Issues Affecting the Output of Graduates
(a) Enrollment Policies
3.02 There are no published enrollment targets for agriculture, how-ever, GOI policy for Repelita III is to limit the increase of all universityenrollments to 38.5% for the plan period (equivalent to 6.7% p.a.)./2 Thisis a substantial reduction from the trend rate of growth during the previousfive years, about 13% p.a. (see Annex 10, Table 3). Enrollments at univer-sity Faculties of Agriculture have been increasing at about 14.7% p.a. (seeTable 2.2). The growth rate would have been even higher but for strictselection procedures at the largest universities (see paras. 3.09 to 3.11and Annex 11). For all agriculturpl facu'Lies, applications in 1978 num-bered 26,OC00 ot which only 5,300 (20%) were accepted./3 To some extent thenumber of applications is inflated as students may apply for tip to threeuniversities. While the pressure for places at agricultural faculties canbe expected to continue, however the relatively high cost of education inagriculture requires authorities to match graduate numbers as closely aspossible to realistic manpower demand, or risk a waste of human and materialresources. In view of the increasing social pressure for higher educationtogether with the relatively small number of enrollments at vocational
/1 While the general issues facing the Indonesian education system aresimilar irrespective of the level and field of education, there aredifferences. The discussion of issues in this chapter will concentrateto a large extent on university-level education in agriculture.
/2 Ministry of Education and Culture, DGHE Coordinative Program Memo, May1978, page 16 (derived from Table 2). The 1980 memo refers to plannedincreases in tertiary student numbers of 5-6% p.a. in national schoolsand 4-5% p.a. in private schools (page 12).
/3 It is understood that throughout Indonesia about 126,000 students tookthe standard university entrance exam (PP I) in 1980. At that time itwas anticipated that only about 20,000 students could be accepted.
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education institutions compared with universities,/l the solution may lie inincreasing the capacity of diploma programs at the universities andvocational schools. This would not only go some way to responding to theincreasing social demand for higher education, it would also more directlyaddress the supply/demand balance discussed in the next chapter.
(b) Productivity of the Education System
3.03 While impossible to state precisely because of the unavailabilityof data, the numerical productivity of the higher agricultural educationsystem is very low. There are no published data on dropouts each year andwhen these dropouts occur, but annual dropout rates as high as 40-50% arereported in most public and private universities. These high dropout ratesare attributed to the financial situation of students, poor studentselection, poor pre-university schooling (see paras. 3.08 et seq.),inadequate contact time between students and staff, and lengthy courseswhich until recently required a final written thesis or "skripsi" and tookstudents a long time to complete.
3.04 Given the limited data available and uncertainties regarding thecompletion times for degrees, the only way to obtain any measure ofproductivity is to calculate the number of graduates in one year as apercentage of the total enrollments at the beginning of that year (perhapsbest referred to as a "graduating ratio"). It is inadequate and misleadingas a measure of productivity because dropouts raise the index instead oflowering it. An index which measures productivity in terms of the students'annual performance could monitor progress each year and give weightings todifferent levels of success. Irrespective of the measure chosen, parti-cularly in view of the Government's investment in education and its ownemphasis on improving internal efficiency, it is of paramount importancethat adequate productivity indicators be agreed and data collected tocalculate them. The improvement of education statistics would be animportant requirement for analyzing the productivity of the education systemand is therefore supported as a priority activity.
3.05 The graduating ratio of Indonesia's university system (Sarjanagraduates as a percentage of total enrollment) is only about 5.5%;/2 in aperfectly efficient five-year program of study, productivity is 20%7 when
/1 In 1978 there were about 16,600 students enrolled at government-financedSMTPs and SPPs compared with 20,000 at agricultural faculties in govern-ment-financed universities. If private institutions were included thenthe enrollments at vocational schools would be somewhat higher than infaculties because there are few agricultural faculties at private uni-versities. However, the general validity of the argument would notchange.
/2 See Coordinative Memo, op. cit., 1978, p. 8.
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intake is constant, 18% when intake is annually increased by 5%, and 16%when the annual increase in intake is 10%. Table 6 of Annex 1 shows thegraduating ratio in university faculties of agriculture in 1978 ranging from1% to 12% with an average of 7%. Table 3.1 shows that on average there hasbeen no improvement in the graduating ratio over the last five years./lFor some disciplines, however, the growth rate of graduate output is higherthan the growth rate of enrollments, suggesting an improvement inproductivity in these disciplines. The only other information available onproductivity at the time of preparing this report was from a study preparedin connection with the Bank-assisted University Development Project (Ln.1904-IND). That study showed that the proportion of students entering theUniversity of Andalas in 1969 and graduating by 1979 was 11% in economics,17% in science and 35% in agriculture. High failure and dropout rates aretherefore a major and costly problem in the education system. Improvementsin productivity alone could significantly increase the annual supply ofgraduates. /2
(c) Financial Support for Students
3.06 One of the factors contributing to dropouts is the inability ofstudents to maintain their studies for financial reasons./3 The importanceof financial stress varies between universities and faculties. Some havesubstantial reserves from which rectors and deans can provide financialsupport to deserving students. Nevertheless an effective scholarshipprogram to support students from lower income groups is perceived to beincreasingly important, given that some gifted agriculture students comefrom economically deprived homes and areas remote from the university city.Scholarships would be required to cover fees and in some cases a large partof the stlidents malnLenance, varying according to need. Tuition fees vary;at one university in West Java it was about Rp 100,000 for fees in the firstyear and Rp 50,000 p.a. thereafter. Accommodation costs, including meals,vary from Rp 15,000 to Rp 30,000 per month. Scholarships and other forms ofsupport also vary. For example, living allowances may range from Rp 15,000/month (MOE) to Rp 25,000/month (private companies). The proportion ofstudents with scholarships is not known, but given that financial stringency
/1 Table 3.1 indicates an average productivity of 6.3%. The discrepancybetween this and 7% in Table 6 of Annex 1 is probably due to differentsources and timing of data collection.
/2 The discussion here has been confined to the relationship between thenumber of students enrolled and the number who finally graduate. Thisis an incomplete measure of efficiency not only on theoretical grounds,but also because of difficulties of data interpretation. See WorldBank, Education Sector Policy Paper, April 1980, for a discussion ofinternal efficiency.
/3 For example, see C.L. Beeby, op. cit., p. 167.
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is the major cause of dropout in the first year, an expanded scholarshipprogram awarded on the basis of need should improve the productivity of theuniversities as well as retain able yet poor students. An expandedundergraduate scholarship program is likely to provide many benefits.However any recommendations on this matter should await the outcome ofcurrent studies of the internal efficiency of Indonesian universities. AStudy of Internal Efficiency of Indonesian Universities is being financedunder the Bank-assisted Polytechnic Project (Cr. 869-IND).
3.07 Provision of utniversity-managed residential accommodation for ahigher proportion of students would also be a major benefit for moststudents, but the high capital and recurrent costs make this less justifiedthan other options for capital investment (see para. 3.29). Howeveragriculture students, who are required to obtain practical experience atirregular hours on faculty/university farms, would of course benefit mostfrom residential accommodation. Such arrangements would make practicaltraining more fruitful, and students are more likely to participate in awider range of extra-curricular activities, thus broadening their education.
Issues Affecting the Quality of Graduates
(a) Quality of Students
3.08 The educational qualification necessary for admission to auniversity/institute is the completion of upper secondary education (naturalscience stream) in general secondary (SMA) - as opposed to technical (STM)or other secondary schools. Not all such students can proceed to highereducation; selection mechanisms are necessary to identify the bestqualified, some 8-10% of the cohort continue to universities/institutes.
3.09 The university selection mechanism was traditionally an entranceexamination organized according to each university's standards and norms.As rejection of applications became more common, students lost opportunitiesto apply to other universities due to synchronized examinations, or the needto travel long distances to take other entrance examinations. To overcomethese disadvantages, in 1975 five universities in Java (UI, IPB, ITB, UGMand UNAIR) /1 organized a centralized entrance examination for SMA graduatesto overcome these disadvantages. Before that, in the early 1970s, IPBrecruited the top 10% of high school graduating students nationwide (andeven overseas in embassy schools) without entrance examination (calledtalent scouting"), evaluation being based on performance over three years
at SMA. These students (35% from outside Java) now account for about 80% offirst year enrollment plus 20% from entrance examination procedures. Thisachieved two objectives, increased enrollment and a reduced dropout rate.
/1 See Annex 1, Table 6 for an explanation of these acronyms.
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Table 3.1: GRADUATING RATIOS OF INDONESIAN AGRICULTURAL FACULTIESBY MAJOR DISCIPLINE (1974-78)
Annualgrowthrate
Major discipline Item 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 (% p.a.)
/a Enrollment data is the same as in Table 2.2./b Includes biology.
Source: Directorate General of Higher Education.
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3.10 In the longer term progression to a national entrance examinationsystem for public universities is recommended. However, existing discrepan-cies between high school standards in different provinces and betweenurban-rural areas, and different standards and norms between universities,makes this impracticable at present. A national system should also awaitthe result of current pilot projects.
3.11 Starting with academic year 1979/80 four pilot projects (PPs) inenrollment policy were established by DGHE, PP I to PP IV. At present theyapply to 16 universities and 8 IKIPs only. PP I is the standard, thecentralized examination is designed and standardized nationally. Ten of theolder universities participate in PP I, of which seven have agriculture orrelated faculties. This is the forerunner of the ultimate nationalexamination. PP II is utilized partially by two universities - UGM and ITB,and fully by one, IPB: it is a formalization of the talent scoutingintroduced earlier by IPB. PP III, is used by six universities. Its commonexamination includes 20% of national-level subjects and 80% designed by theindividual universities, thus allowing for a different level of backgroundand achievement. All six universities have agriculture or relatedfaculties. PP IV relates only to the eight IKIPs (teacher trainingcolleges), and the examination is designed nationally. Universities orIKIPs not participating in any of the above pilot projects still organizeentrance examinations according to their own standards and norms.
3.12 As regional universities improve their staff and standards, it islikely that they will attract an increasing number of more talentedstudents. In the past there has been a tendency for the major universitieson Java to attract a large proportion of students from the Other Islands.After graduation many were induced to stay on Java, particularly in theJakartabased bureaucracy. The effect has been to reduce the availability ofindigenous trained professional manpower in the Other Islands./1
3.13 This is a dilemma where trained manpower is in short supply.Dispersion to the provinces could accelerate and improve the quality ofregional development, but the allocation of resources to regionaldevelopment is to a large extent dependent on the skilled analysis ofprofessional manpower in the Central Government. In the presentcircumstances it would probably be counterproductive to administrativelycontrol the movement of students, rather it is suggested that incentivesshould be provided for graduates to work in unattractive remote locations.
(b) Quality of Instruction
3.14 The quality of agricultural education should be considered in thecontext of the historical development of the education system (see para.
/1 In general the older staff members return to the Other Islands, whereasthe younger staff often prefer to find work on Java.
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2.01) and the capacity of the graduates. The point has already been madethat the Indonesian education system has made outstanding progress fromdifficult circumstances which followed World War II. In addition it is alsorecognized that the experience and quality of educational institutions varyconsiderably. However the quality of instruction received by students atagricultural faculties is generally inadequate in relation to needs.Evidence supporting this includes the fact that major employers such as theMOA are required to mount substantial in-service training programs for newrecruits, students rarely complete undergraduate programs in the minimumtime, and many Indonesian graduates studying abroad need at least a year toprepare for post-graduate programs, irrespective of their language skills.
3.15 The major reasons for inadequate quality are:
(a) low financial rewards or recognition for high quality teaching andthe need for staff to seek supplementary income leading todilution of their intellectual input into teaching and contactwith students;
(b) low academic qualifications of many staff; a small proportion havehigher degrees;
(c) low inter-university mobility and hence a lack of invigoratingintellectual exchange; and
(d) acute shortage of appropriate teaching materials, such as text-books, and inadequate study facilities for students.
3.16 These issues are discussed in Annex 11, but a few comments on themain issues are appropriate here. While most university staff are highlydedicated and productive, they are government employees whose salaries aregoverned by the official rates. Most government employees supplement theirsalaries in a number of ways (see Annex 6) and university staff are noexception; their most important supplement being another paid position,either in the public or the private sector. Some of these additional jobsare unrelated to a staff member's qualifications and university responsibil-ities and may include a variety of contracts. These additional activitiesmay of course enhance a staff member's experience and abilities, but oftenthey detract from the time devoted to teaching and student-relatedactivities. Lectures may be cancelled with little or no warning, and staffare not available to advise students on lecture material or thesis work withthe result that the number of teacher/student contact hours is extremelylimited. Policies and guidelines for extracurrictular activities by staffare in force at a few universities; it is recommended that they should beintroduced at all universities. Arrangements which would provide
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substantial rewards for high quality teaching would also be of considerablevalue in improving standards and it is recommended that the implementationof such incentives be investigated./_
3.17 Despite the improvements in staff quality, most Indonesian stu-dents are taught by staff with qualifications no higher than those to whichthe students are aspiring. In general, 80% of teaching staff have only firstdegrees, the remainder having higher degrees such as MSc and PhD (see Table3.2)./2 While the qualifications of teachers is not the only criterion ofteaching quality, it is significant that the proportion of staff with higherdegrees is almost the reverse of that at most western universities. Thissituation is exacerbated by the fact that typically teachers depend heavilyon lecture notes from their own undergraduate years. As a result, a widerand up-to-date perspective on the subject matter being taught is usuallymissing. Also, because staff typically graduated from the university wherethey are currently teaching, there is inevitably a high degree of academicinbreeding. It is recommended that the staff development program beexpanded, with a large component of overseas education and, to the extentthat staff and facilities will allow, a parallel program of expanding andupgrading postgraduate education at IPB, UGM and other more developeduniversities.
3.18 Two other matters are of particular concern in respect to theirinfluence on the quality of instruction. The first is the apparent absenceof any strong demand for excellence on the part of some employers. A majorquestion in relation to higher agricultural education therefore is how toensure that the quality of graduates produced matches the demand and how toencourage a more acute awareness on the part of employers of the benefitsfrom better quality graduates. A second issue, which in a subtle way isrelated to the first, is that many government agencies and "outsiders"(including donors)/3 who seek to retain the services of university staff forextracurricular contracts of various kinds (see also discussion below under"Research") seem oblivious to the effect outside contracts have on teachingquality. This matter is particularly serious since it is in many casesapparent that, regardless of the financial inducements, staff are oftenunable to refuse government contract offers without jeopardizing theirprofessional future. As a result university staff often scatter theirenergies amongst a number of different, often unrelated, activities.
/1 These would be incentives above those which exist already and aredescribed in Annex 6. They would require methods for the measurementof teaching quality as well as efficient administration.
/2 The situation at mature universities such as Gadjah Mada and IPBis obviously better.
/3 For example the Bank has, directly and indirectly, made major demands onuniversity staff. These demands have frequently been made withoutrecognizing the implications for the quality of university education.
Table 3.2: ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHING STAFF IN AGRICIULTURAL SCIENCE FACULTIES BY PROVINCE (1980)
Master's degree PhD or Doktor degree TotalFirst Indonesian Overseas Indonesian Overseas Total teaching
Region/province degree /a university university Total university university Total degrees staff
Nusa Tenggara and MalukuW. Nusa Tenggara 52 - I I - 1 1 54 53E. Nusa Tenggara 27 - I I - - - 28 24Maluku 34 - 3 3 - - - 37 34
Subtotal 113 - 5 5 - 1 1 119 111
Bali 117 1 5 6 - 1 1 124 117
Irian Jaya 16 - - _ _ _ _ 16 16
Total 2,535 31 301 332 47 118 165 3,032 2,486
/a Includes 12 university staff members without degrees. First degrees are Sarjana equivalent or below. Some staff are recordedas having more than one first degree. While some do not have a formal first Indonesian degree, they may have a Master's degree.
Source: Konsorsium Ila r1mu Pertanian (Consortium for Agricultuiral Sciences).
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(c) Curriculum
3.19 Various aspects of the curricula in agricultural faculties arediscussed in Annex 11; however, no direct assessment of curriculum qualityat universities through attendance at lectures, study of lecture notes ortest papers, etc. was feasible in the brief fieldwork period associated withthe preparation of this report. HIowever, several mission members had taughtor were teaching at Indonesian universities and had first-hand experience ofcurricula. The evolution of the curriculum for higher agriculturaleducation is currently at a crossroads. With the notable exception of IPB,most students are assigned to individual faculties from the time they enteruniversity. There is wide variation between universities in the amount ofinstruction they receive from other faculties. For example some facultieshave their own basic science departments, which are often only service unitsteaching junior courses, and students receive little instruction fromoutside. On the other hand, at UGM the Faculties of Science and Biology(the latter a service faculty to others in the "agro-complex") teach basicscience in the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry. At other universitiesa proportion of basic science teaching in Agriculture faculties is given byother faculties.
3.20 At IPB, where the four-year degree program is well established,the pattern of student affiliation is different. Initially, IPB studentsare not assigned to a faculty, becoming members of a particular faculty inthe fourth semester. However the IPB started a program in 1979/80 underwhich students will join individual faculties in the third semester.
3.21 The almost universal complaint from western universities whichaccept Indonesian first-degree students for graduate training is that,irrespective of the students' competence in the applied field or a foreignlanguage, their progress is limited by a poor command of the basic sciencesthat form an essential foundation for more applied study. In recent yearsincreasing numbers of applicants for overseas postgraduate training arebeing rejected because of this. It may be argued that only a smallproportion of students proceed to higlher degrees and a research or academiccareer, and that for the majority proceeding to scientifically lessdemanding positions a firm grasp of basic science is not essential.However, whatever the end point of applied science teaching, the essentialstarting point is basic science. This leads directly to one of thefundamental problems of Indonesian first-degree curricula, both old and new.The Indonesian high-school student enters university with a poor command ofbasic science, yet the university aims to produce graduates with a strongpractical orientation. In comparison, the student entering a westernuniversity begins with a better command of basic science and his universitynormally does not aim to graduate him with such a narrow focus; at the firstdegree level it graduates general agricultural scientists, not entomologistsor foresters.
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3.22 Given the constraints on a student with a poor grasp of science,and the clear need to produce graduates of strong practical orientation,there is little room to maneuver within the existing curriculum. IPB hasmet this problem by creating, within the individual departmental majors,"streams" of differing orientation: Technology, Business and Science. The"technology" stream is the norm; the coursework for the "business" streamhas a socioeconomic bias; the science stream is designed for potentialgraduate students. Very few students enter the "science" stream; theyprobably doubt their ability to reach graduate school or may regard it astoo specialized, and see the other streams as a better preparation foremployment after graduation. Irrespective of student preferences, thereshould be much greater emphasis on basic sciences in agricultural sciencecurricula.
3.23 Another feature of the present arrangements is rigid separation,at the faculty level, of "Agriculture" (meaning crop agriculture) fromAnimal Husbandry and Animal Science. This separation, deeply rooted in thehistory of Indonesian faculty development (see Annex 11, para. 2), is rarelymitigated by any cross-faculty teaching of Animal Husbandry to Agriculturestudents or vice versa. Even where the two fields are represented bydepartments within the same faculty, as at UNHAS, courses in the one fieldare not regarded as part of the basic education of students whose optionsare centered on the other. Among the universities visited, only at IJNAND isAnimal Husbandry taught to crop agriculture students. It is recognized thatrestructuring of departments is not always easy, however it is recommendedthat the animal husbandry curriculum should be integrated into the agri-cultural curriculum where possible so as to emphasize the interdisciplinaryrelationships and make the training of agriculturists more in tune with thestructure and needs of Indonesian agriculture./l
3.24 One comparison between the old five-year and new four-year curri-culum that merits comment is the thesis project. lJnder the traditionalfive-year program each final-year student was required to carry out a"research project" under supervision and to write it up as a thesis. Theweaknesses of what is, in principle, a sound component of the curriculum arediscussed later, but at least the Insinjur (Ir) student had by graduationgained some experience of independent investigating and reporting. UJnderthe new four-year curriculum the research project is substantially reducedand involves less demanding data collection and analysis. It has beenargued by Indonesian academics that the thesis project is helpful only tothose destined for research organizations or universities. Under new curri-culum plans such students are expected to gain research experience later whenthey go on to master's degrees or doctorates;/2 and that it is of little
/1 It is understood that this matter is already under intensive study.
/2 It should be remembered that the old Insinjur was considered byIndonesians to be equivalent to MSc at a western university.
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relevance to students who will take up positions that do not involveresearch. This could be too narrow a view on the basis that the aim offinal-year thesis projects is not training for research, but training intechnical self-reliance, judgment and independent thought. As such, it isof importance to first-degree graduates in Agriculture irrespective offuture employment. The issue is whether a thesis project is the best way todevelop these skills. On balance this report concludes that an analyticalproject of some kind, not necessarily in the form of a thesis, is essential.The time and resources devoted to it, while much less than for thetraditional thesis, should be left to individual teachers.
3.25 Finally, the assessment of quality of the curriculum is difficultin the absence of any objective measurement. However, one criterion is theacceptability of graduates by employers. Following discussions with variousemployers the mission concluded that the university system would producegraduates with far greater "market" appeal if in the first instance thedegree programs placed a heavier emphasis on basic sciences. In additionthere is usually a high correlation between the extent to which junior staffare given more responsibility for curriculum development and the extent oftheir contribution to the education process and independent research.
(d) Practical Training
3.26 University-level education in agriculture is incomplete withoutpractical training and experience to complement lectures. The extent ofthis varies between universities and faculties, but in general the timeallocated to practical training is adequate. With notable exceptions labo-ratories have at least the essential equipment. Shortcomings are discussedin Annex 11, however, it is the manner in which the time and equipment areused which cause concern. One deficiency is the limited time allocated toclosely supervised field exercises and demonstrations. Also practical classteaching requires the support of trained technicians: their small numbersin agricultural faculties, the lack of recognition of their role and theabsence of salary incentives are important constraints. Another aspect ofpractical training comes under the general heading of rural orientation. Inthe education and training process itself prior familiarity with the prac-tice of farming and rural activities is of considerable benefit. Studentsthen appreciate the relevance of instruction to their own experience,adapting and enriching it. Universities in the islands other than Javainevitably recruit a high proportion of students from rural areas, but fewof them appear to have practical experience of farming/livestock, etc./l
/1 The mission was not able to obtain specific information on the familybackground of agricultural students. Ilowever a general impression wasthat many did not have farm backgrounds. Given the costs of universityagricultural education and the relatively low income of farmers comparedwith urban households, it is not surprising that a small proportion ofagricultural science students are farmers' sons and daughters.
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3.27 Indonesia has evolved a policy of "national study-service" (KKN,signifying Kuliah Kerja Nyata, or "Learning Through Real Work"). Thisstates among other principles that "institutions of higher education mustbuild bridges between the world of science and technology and the needs ofthe people." Essentially the program calls for a mandatory three- to six-month period of local community service by senior undergraduates in villagecommunities, the project to be planned and supervised by university staff incooperation with local government administrative services. If competentlysupervised and executed it should prove to be useful practical training.
(e) Housing Facilities
3.28 Hlousing (or housing allowance) is usually provided to seniorpermanent government employees including university staff. Indeedsubsidized housing is regarded as part of the total remuneration package forstaff (see Annex 6). While considerable progress has been made there isfrequently insufficient staff housing, particularly in the outlyingprovincial universities. Availability of staff housing is essential if newstaff are to be attracted to remote provincial universities, for examplefrom Java to Kalimantan. Unless accommodation can be offered a provincialuniversity is usually much less able to attract new staff, improve itsteaching standards, and reduce its inbreeding.
3.29 Student accommodation has already been mentioned in relation tofinancial assistance to students (paras. 3.06 and 3.07). Studentsfrequently live in badly lit, cramped, noisy quarters without privacy whereeffective private study is impossible. This situation would not be soserious were it not for the fact that alternative study environments such aslibraries, classrooms and study halls either do not exist or are notavailable for more than a very limited number of hours. It is recommendedthat, in the longer term, budget allocations for staff and student housingbe increased, particularly for universities in the Other Islands. In theshort term, however, improvement of study facilities within universitiesmight have the highest payoff.
(f) Libraries, Library Services and Teaching Materials
3.30 The quality of libraries and library services is reflected by thenumber and appropriateness of books and journals; ease of access to them bystaff and students; the buildings in which they are housed; the efficiencyof purchasing, cataloguing and loan systems; and the adequacy of study areasnear the book and journal stack. While it was difficult to reach conclu-sions on all these issues, library facilities and services in higher levelagricultural education are generally inadequate (see Annex 11). Collectionsare frequently outdated and often the result of a gift from donor agenciesor philanthropic organizations without regard to needs. For example it isnot unusual nor surprising to find a row of dusty, unused, books on asubject which is irrelevant to the requirements of most students or staff.
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3.31 The language of international science is predominantly English.Most of the useful texts are published in the US and Britain, with Hollandas a secondary, but valuable, contributor of English-language books in thesefields. It is from Britain, and to a lesser degree, Holland, that themajority of the better texts in tropical agriculture and forestry emanate, acontinuation of publishing activity that in the past served the technicalbranches of colonial administrations.
3.32 Journal collections at universities are also limited and erratic.With limited funds, subscriptions are often not maintained and journalseries are intermittent. The journals tend to be largely of American originand it is rare to see a continuous series of British or Dutch (English-language) journals specializing in tropical agriculture.
3.33 Students and staff naturally have a limited command of English andthere is an urgent need for Indonesian-language texts and teaching materi-als. The task of producing such texts was discussed with Indonesian academ-ics: the difficulties appear to be financial inducement as well ascompeting demands on,staff time (see para. 3.16). Adequate material canonly be written or translated by senior staff, but the income foregone by asenior academic while writing or translating a text could range between$1,000 and $2,000 per month. Perhaps an ideal combination would be anIndonesian and expatriate author working together on texts which are bothrelevant to the Indonesian situation and problems, and also include theoryand the results of fundamental research and experience overseas.
3.34 Library buildings and study areas vary in quality and usage. Themission saw many, including one excellent new building which was almostcompletely unused. Part of the problem stems from a desire on the part ofsome staff to retain libraries within faculty locations and others, mainlyuniversity administrators, who regard it as essential to institute centrallibraries and eliminate faculty libraries. While centralization has manyadvantages it is not essential. The important issue is that the systemadopted should be convenient to users (books and journals should be themajor tools of trade at a university), provide adequate study facilities andbe as economical as possible. Above all an effective book loan and recallsystem is essential to prevent extended retention.
3.35 Poor library administration is one limitation to ready access bystudents and staff to available books and journals. Librarianship is not arecognized profession in Indonesia and it is uncommon to find staff incharge of libraries with technical training (though some of the librariesare so small and simple that this is of minor importance).!I Indexing and
/1 Some libraries, for example the central library at UNHAS, do provide atraining program for librarians. Some students attending come fromoutside the university.
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shelf arrangement may not be in accordance with standard systems, andlibrary staff often seem quite unacquainted with the nature andclassification of the contents. Many libraries are not open at night andmany are unavailable for students outside normal lecture times. The mainreason appears to be limited funds to pay library staff. This reportrecommends that these issues be considered and that solutions, perhaps inthe context of special library projects, be incorporated into librarydevelopment programs for universities. Improved library and studyfacilities associated with improved library management should make a majorcontribution to improved student performance. As explained in para. 3.29,"home" study is usually difficult if not impossible.
3.36 Finally for various reasons there is a marked lack of interest inreading; these reasons include the paternalistic style of teaching, the lackof funds on the part of student and staff to purchase printed materials, thelimited opportunities students have to read and lastly a culture in whichtheatrical and verbal presentations are the predominant form of communica-tion. As a result the habit of regular reading has not developed amongstaff and students. This in turn undermines the efforts being made toimprove educational standards through the use of improved printed material.Reading interests and skills at universities would be improved by the stimu-lation of reading interests and skills could be fostered in children at anearly age.
(g) Research
3.37 An important factor contributing to the quality of education atuniversities is the quality of research work done by its staff. A dynamicand productive research environment will usually have repercussions throughimproved standards of teaching and practical work. Unfortunately mostresearch work in the agricultural sciences at Indonesian universities isnarrowly based. Most activities under the heading of research are contractsfor surveys or laboratory analyses; in very few instances is the title"research work" appropriate. In addition, research is often short termsince government contracts providing the major financial support are usuallyarranged on an annual basis.
3.38 There are other factors which influence the volume and standard ofresearch work. Funds for university research provided by the DGHE were onlyabout $347,000 for agriculture in 1979/80 (see Annex 1, Table 12)./1 Theselimited funds are awarded annually for projects. While the sums allocatedto each project are relatively small, they can be classified more
/1 The overall coordination of research and its funding comes under theMinister for Research and Technology.
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accurately as research than many of the contractual "research" activities./lThe DGHE research financing scheme was originally conceived as a stimulus toresearch activity, particularly among young university staff, and the rangeof projects funded was unselective. Recently, steps have been taken toaward grants in accordance with regional or national requirements forresearch and, although the DGHE allocation of research funds is stillessentially short term because budgets are annual, mechanisms are availablewhereby longer term research can be assured of funds. It is understood thatlonger term research projects receive preferential consideration. Whilegovernment contracts are not always a satisfactory vehicle for the financingof research at universities, there is considerable potential forcollaboration between agricultural science faculties and institutions suchas the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD). It isunderstood that arrangements for such collaboration are under study.
3.39 Another major constraint is an individual university staffmember's incentive to undertake useful, sustained research. The currentsalary structure invariably leads to a "piecework" approach to anyinvestigation. Possibly the most telling factor which mitigates againstgood research is that achievement of good research and teaching are only twoof the many criteria for professional advancement. If promotion is a staffmember's main objective, then membership of a university committee, publicservice and participation at seminars are just as likely to be paths tosuccess as research./2
(h) English Language Capabilities of Students /3
3.40 In principle entrants to universities are expected to have aworking knowledge of English. In practice, the English language capabilityof most students is poor, and although additional English training isprovided in all universities at the first-year level, few students cancomfortably handle English language texts. No quantitative data on readingspeeds in English are available, but there is general agreement on the needfor improvement.
/1 See Annex 1, para. 52 for a more detailed discussion of the types ofresearch considered by DGHE.
/2 There exists a formal evaluation procedure for determining promotion foruniversity staff. It depends on a score system which evaluates teaching,research, public service activity and participation in seminars.
/3 Emphasis is given here to English because of its importance in scien-tific agriculture. Clearly for other disciplines and the arts otherlanguages may have higher priority.
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3.41. The implications of this are far-reaching; even those universityteachers who are keen to move from traditional rote-learning methods find itdifficult to do so because a substantial proportion of students cannottackle more than relatively short reading assignments in English. Manylecturers try to find suitable teaching material in Indonesian, but in mostsubjects the amount available is small. Neither lecturers nor students arehappy with the reliance on rote-learning, but both groups are trappedwithin the system. It is recommended that steps be taken to support a majorimprovement in language training programs both at high school and universitylevels. At the same time much more emphasis and support needs to be givento the production of Indonesian language texts and teaching materials.
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4. THE FUTURE SUPPLY AND DEMAND/REQUIREMENTS FOR MANPOWER
4.01 The projections of manpower supply and demand/requirements areinfluenced not only by the methodology used, but also by the accuracy of thebase data. Information on enrollments in secondary and tertiary educationand stocks of technical and professional manpower in Indonesian agricultureare not complete; hence, supply and demand projections indicate broad ordersof magnitude only. In addition, substitution between different types ofeducation training and experience, trends in the economy, movements betweenprofessions and many other factors influence the supply and demand trends.Furthermore totals are likely to be more accurate than disaggregated datarelating to fields of specialization or level of qualification. The supplyand demand/requirements projections will be taken to the end points ofRepelita III and IV, 1983/84 and 1988/89; however the shorter projectionperiod receives the major emphasis because any assessment of manpower supplyor demand beyond Repelita III is necessarily speculative.
Supply
(a) Technical Manpower
4.02 Technical manpower in agriculture includes secondary vocationalschool graduates with diplomas (certificates) from SPPs and SMTPs, SarjanaMuda graduates from universities and Diploma graduates from universities oracademies. SPP graduates are most important numerically; Sarjana Mudaprograms are being phased out and their replacement, university diploma (SO)programs, have only recently started. The output of diploma graduates inagriculture from private academies is unknown, but it is not likely to bemore than 500 p.a. at present. For the purposes of this analysis it isassumed that the future supply of technical manpower will come predominantlyfrom the SPPs. Annex 3 records the development of the SPPs and thisanalysis assumes that the output of graduates in 1983/84 will be the same asat present. This is based on the assumption that there will be no change inenrollment and productivity /1 over the next five years. Productivity ofthe SPPs is already high (about 34%). For projection to 1988/89, it isassumed that provincial and private SPPs achieve a productivity equal tothat of the national SPPs at present. No increase in enrollment is assumedbecause it is unlikely that up to 1988/89 capacity can be expandedsignificantly./2
/1 Defined as the ratio of graduate output in a year to total enrollment(total student body) in that year. For the national SPPs this ratio isinflated by the influx of a signifiant, but unknown, number of studentsin the final year.
/2 Emergency measures to increase SPP capacity, such as reducing thelength of programs being considered by the Government as this reportwent to print, would increase the capacity of some schools.
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4.03 On this basis, which also implies assumptions about GOI policieson assistance for students, improvements in facilities and teaching (geeAnnex 3), the projected output of graduates from SPPs and forestry inservicetraining centers is shown in Table 4.1./l It is possible that the additionof the other technical manpower categories (see para. 4.02) could increasethe supply shown in Table 4.1 by about 20%. On the other hand an unknownproportion of those shown in Table 4.1 may enter a Sarjana program or notseek employment as technicians in the agricultural sector. The net effectcould be an addition to the supply of 10%.
Table 4.1: PROJECTED ANNUAL SUPPLY OF TECHNICAL MANPOWER(1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a
Average growth rates1978/79 1983/84 1978/79
Projected supply to to toField of 1983/84/b 1988/89 1983/84/b 1988/89 1988/89
/a Based on graduates from national, provincial and private SPPs and sixgovernment forestry in-service training centers.
/b Output in 1983/84 assumed to be the same as in 1978/79.
Source: See Annex 7.
(b) Professional Manpower
4.04 Professional manpower in agriculture includes Sarjana, MSc and PhDgraduates. The overwhelming majority of these come from government-supported universities. However supply projections are based on Sarjana
/1 Confining projections of technical manpower to SPPs only, while under-estimating total supply, will cover most of the agricultural technician-level manpower. However, see also Annex 7, para. 11.
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graduates because they are the most important group; projections of PhDand MSc numbers would be subject to large errors. Long-term projections ofSarjana graduates from university faculties of agriculture are particularlydifficult at this time. There are only general data on productivity and pro-gression rates of students. There are also substantial developments takingplace in the curriculum and graduation requirements. Past trends in gradua-tion are not a reliable guide to future performance; any projections need tobe based on a combination of past performance and expected future changes inthe higher agricultural education system and its productivity. Three levelsof projected supply were derived, namely, low, expected and high for 1983/84and 1988/89. Details of the analyses are provided in Annex 10.
4.05 With respect to the 1983/84 projections, the low estimates assumethat graduate numbers would increase at 12.5% p.a. This implies that thescreening of undergraduates would be more rigorous than at present (giventhat graduate numbers between 1974 and 1978 increased at 16.3% p.a./1 andadmissions by more than 19%). Even so, the number of graduates would beabout 2,400 in 1984. The high supply projection was set by postulating thatthe output of graduates between 1980-84 would grow at the same rate as theadmissions four years earlier, i.e., between 1976 and 1980 (about 19% p.a.).This would imply a definite relaxation (in relative terms) of the screeningprocess. This approach assumed that 1978-81 intake growth was the same asfor 1974-78. The outcome of this projection was about 3,300 graduates in1984. The most likely growth path for the output of agricultural graduateswas based on available information on admissions, enrollments andgraduations of individual universities and faculties. The result was anannual output of about 2,620 in 1983/84, the implied average growth rate was17% p.a.
4.06 The approximate composition of the graduate output by field ofstudy for these projections would be as follows: veterinary medicine: 7.6%;animal husbandry: 22.9%; agricultural engineering: 13.3%; agriculture: 40%;forestry: 10.5%; and fisheries: 5.7%. The percentage share of Javaneseuniversities is expected to continue its decline, the Sumatran universitieswould maintain their share and the percentage of graduates from universitiesin the other three regions (Sulawesi, Kalimantan and the eastern Indonesianislands) would increase sharply (Annex 10, Table 2).
4.07 For the period 1985-89 a different approach has been used, makingallowance for the likely effect of the new curriculum and graduationrequirements. It was assumed that all graduations would take place in years4 to 6 after entry. Graduation rates and admission growth rates were
/1 Table 3.1 shows that this growth rate of 16.3% is heavily influencedby the sharp increase in graduates during 1977. Without this sharpincrease the growth rate would be 14.3% p.a.
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assumed to be linked to 1978 levels. This is in keeping with the policyexpressed in the 1978 Coordinative Program Memo which called for a slowdownin admission growth in universities and faculties whose productivity lagsbehind the national average. In this exercise the six fields of study weresplit into high and medium productivity groups. Veterinary medicine, animalhusbandry, agricultural engineering and forestry were in the high group andagriculture and fisheries in the medium. These groups were then arrangedfor projection purposes into high and low growth alternatives according tothe proportion of the entrance cohort graduating in years 4, 5 and 6 afterentry and to assumed annual growth rates of the entrance cohorts.
4.08 This combination of assumptions yielded an expected output of3,440 Sarjana graduates in 1988/89. The results of these calculations arein Table 4.2. Even under the most conservative assumptions, including aslowdown of enrollment growth in the mid-1980s, the number of new agricul-tural graduates reaching the labor market during the 1980s would exceed2,400 p.a. The drop in growth rate of Sarjana graduates between 1983/84 and1988/89 is due to a number of factors. First, graduations during thoseyears will no longer be affected by the considerable growth in enrollmentsduring the late 1970s. Second, specific assumptions about slower enrollmentgrowth in the period 1978-81 have been made (see Annex 10, para. 12).
Table 4.2: PROJECTED ANNUAL SUPPLY OF PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER (SARJANAGRADUATES) FROM AGRICULTURAL FACULTIES (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a
Average growth ratesSarjana 1978/79 1983/84 1978/79graduates Projected supply to to to
Field of in 1983/84 1988/89 1983/84 1988/89 1988/89specialization 1978/79/b -- (no. p.a.) -------- (% p.a.) -------
/a These are the expected numbers. The lower and upper ranges can beobtained from Annex 10.
/b From Table 3.1 in Chapter 3. Does not include Biology. Some totals donot add because of rounding.
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Demand/Requirements
(a) Current Stock of Manpower
4.09 A survey done for this study resulted in a comprehensive set ofdata on the current stock of manpower./l A condensed summary of thedistribution of technical and professional agricultural manpower by majoremployer group and level of major qualification in 1978/79 is shown inTable 4.3. That
Table 4.3: CURRENT STOCK OF TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWERBY MAJOR EMPLOYER GROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1978/79)
MSc &PhD Sarjana /a BSc /b Diploma /c Total
Employer group ----------------- (no.) ------------------ Percent
/a It has been a tradition in Indonesia to equate the old Sarjana orInsinjur (Ir) degree with an MSc; it was not possible to separate staffwith modern MSc degrees from those with the old Sarjana or Ir degree;stocks are therefore classified in this way. However, the proportion ofstaff in this column with modern MSc degrees is very small. Forexample, it was ascertained that in 1979 only 9% of Ministry ofAgriculture staff had modern MSc degrees.
/b Equivalent to Sarjana Muda level. This would in future include staffwith various diplomas from universities (SO).
/c Equivalent to certificate-level qualifications from agriculturalvocational schools such as SPPs and SMTPs.
Source: See Table 1, Annex 4.
/1 See Annex 4 and Supplementary Document No. 2.
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table shows the heavy concentration of employment of agricultural staff inthe Government (94%), the high proportion of staff with diploma (certifi-cate) qualifications (70%), the dominance of provincial government staff interms of numbers (57%), and finally, the importance of university degreesamong staff in the central offices of the Government.
(b) Future Demand/Requirements for Manpower
4.10 Given that the Government employs about 95% of the total technicaland professional manpower in agriculture, the future manpower needs willdepend heavily on government employment requirements, policies and staffbudgets. The future growth in the value of agricultural production is notregarded as a reliable indicator of demand for agricultural technologistsand scientists since that growth is to a large extent dependent on the pri-vate sector (small farmers and private estates) and as agricultural growthproceeds over time technologists and scientists are required in differentproportions to the value of production. Projections of future needs havebeen based on three methods: extrapolation of historical trends in employ-ment (effective demand), a survey of manpower requirements by employers andan analysis of the theoretical requirements for manpower given theGovernment's agricultural development objectives in Repelita III. Detailsregarding these three methods are given in Annex 7 and summarized below.
(i) Extrapolation of Historical Trends (Effective Demand)
4.11 Data on employment trends are not available for each employergroup; however, trend data were available for the Central Office of theMOA staff by salary levels./I The total budget for routine expenditures(predominantly salaries) was also available. Although the tables inAnnex 5 show considerable fluctuations in staffing, the average growth ratein stocks during the past ten years (Repelita I and II) has been 6.7% p.a.;this compares with about 8.4% p.a. during Repelita II. Over the same periodthe routine budget, of which about two thirds is salaries, increasedstrongly by 13% p.a. in real terms during Repelita I and II, although itwas close to 21% p.a. during Repelita II./2 In view of the Government'scontinuing commitment to agriculture and its intention to strengthen itssupporting role it was considered not unreasonable to project futuremanpower demand on the basis of annual growth rates of 8%, 10% and 12%p.a./3 These growth rates include an allowance for replacement at
/1 Salary levels could be used as a rough approximation of qualificationlevels (see Annex 6).
/2 Part of this growth would be due to improvements in real wages paid togovernment employees during Repelita I and II.
/3 A danger with long-term projections at a constant growth rate is thecompounding effect. Therefore the 1988/89 projection is likely to bean overestimate. On the other hand, data available at the time thisreport went to press indicate growth rates in staff numbers about25% p.a.
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3% p.a. In the absence of trend data for major employer groups outside theCentral Office of the MOA these growth rates have been applied to all of them.The results of the projections, based on a 10% p.a. growth rate, aresummarized in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: PROJECTED ANNUAL EFFECTIVE MANPOWER DEMAND, BY MAJOR EMPLOYERGROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a
/a These are the projections of the flows during 1983/84 and 1988/89 assumingan annual growth rate of 10% p.a.
/b Most of these are Sarjana graduates because of the definition of the base(see Table 4.3, footnote /a).
/c Includes Sarjana Muda and university diploma gradutes.74 Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools./e Net of requirements for other provincial services.
Source: Table 7 in Annex 5. (Figures in this table are converted to an annualflow using a growth rate of 10% p.a.)
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(ii) Stated Requirements
4.12 A survey of staff managers in the Government and the privatesector was used to derive stated manpower requirements for activities undertheir control. These managers and personnel officers were asked to statetheir total technical and professional manpower requirements by the finalyear of Repelita III, 1983/84. It is recognized that a manager's assessmentof required staff numbers may not be sufficiently constrained by theavailable budget and their estimated future requirements are likely to begreater than actual demand.
4.13 The results of the survey of requirements are given in detailin Annex 5, Table 10 and summarized on an annual basis in the Part A ofTable 4.5. They reveal annual growth rates in total requirements which varybetween 14% and 30% p.a. for the major government groups. These are aboutdouble the rate of growth of staffing observed for the MOA. It is possiblethat managers interviewed will turn out to be correct in their assessment,however it is difficult to conceive of a real annual growth rate in staffbudgets which will reach 30%./1 It is the mission's view that the statedrequirements are closer to the demand for 1988/89 (end of Repelita IV) than1983/84 (end of Repelita III). If this were the case the growth ofrequirements would be between 7% and 15% p.a. Parts B and C of Table 4.5show the projections for 1983/84 and 1988/89 on the assumption that thestated requirements would not be met until 1988/89./2
(iii) Theoretical Requirements
4.14 The third basis for determining future manpower needs was anestimate by the mission of the implied manpower requirements for agricul-tural development programs in Repelita III; for example, smallholder rubberand coconut development, extension and agricultural research. In the timeavailable it was not possible to verify that all future development activi-ties in all sectors and subsectors were covered. However, most importantpublic sector agricultural development programs were included. The results(see Annex 5, Table 12 and Table 4.6) were close to the manpower require-ments derived from a survey of employers./3 Overall the theoretical man-power requirements showed a growth rate of about 23% p.a. for those
/1 Experience in other countries confirms that stated requirements are muchhigher than the budget constrained demand.
/2 Additional replacements have been computed to allow for the longer timeperiod.
/3 Differences may be accounted for by the absence of data on someprovincial services and the private sector (see Table 4.6).
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Table 4.5: PROJECTED ANNUAL STATED MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS BY
MAJOR FMPLOYER GROlJP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89)
/a Most of these would be Sarjana graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote (a).
/b Includes Sarjana Muda and university diploma graduates.
/c Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools.
/d Derived directly from Annex 5, Table 10.
/e Net of requirements for other provincial services.
/f Based on survey of stated requirements, but adjusted by assuming increase in stated requirements wouldtake place over ten years rather than five (i.e., end point is 1988/89 rather than 1983/84). Extendingthe projection period resulted in a need for additional replacements, but a lower annual growth rate.The projections for 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the flows during that year calculated using the overallgrowth rates shown in the table.
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qualified to MSc, Sarjana, BSc, or Diploma level. No theoretical estimateswere made for PhD level manpower. The results show an annual growth ratemuch greater than the growth rate of supply. This analysis suggests that ifthe derived manpower requirements are correct and are a critical constraintto the achievement of the development plans may not be achieved withinRepelita III. However, as with the stated requirements discussed earlier,it is unlikely that staff budgets will increase in real terms by an averageof 23% p.a. These projections were therefore also extended up to 1988/89 (anextra five years). The results, shown in Parts B and C of Table 4.6,indicate adjusted manpower requirements and annual growth rates.
(c) The Quality of Manpower Demand/Requirements
4.15 The preceding paragraphs have concentrated on the numericalassessment of demand and requirements in technical and professional fields.It is difficult to be definitive regarding the quality of manpower needs,but discussions in Indonesia gave rise to the following broad conclusions.First, most employers appear concerned to get graduates with a general basictechnical/scientific training rather than graduates who have been exposed toa narrow and specialized education. Second, employers are desirous ofobtaining graduates with higher quality education. Many in-service trainingprograms are directed at upgrading the standards of new employees. Finally,because of the style of teaching and educational programs, some graduateslack the ability and confidence to think and act independently. As a resultthey need considerable supervision and take a long time before they becomeefficient managers. It is a major conclusion of this report that urgentefforts should be made by the Government and the private sector to emphasizethe importance of high quality graduates and that employment policies shouldreflect this. An emphasis on quality by major employers would have apowerful influence on the quality of the education system.
(d) Managerial Manpower
4.16 Managerial talent is probably one of the most important elementsin the total manpower demand, but also one of the most difficult toevaluate. Experience in the Bank with respect to Bank-assisted projectsunderlines the need for improved managerial capacity of staff in governmentagencies. Implementation schedules fall behind because the management ofsequential activities such as preparation of tender documents, evaluation ofbids, procurement of materials and management of subordinate staff arefrequently inadequate. However, training managers requires a great deal ofstudy and resources. Leadership qualities are difficult to find, but whenavailable the Indonesian cultural environment can make it extremely diffi-cult to use those qualities efficiently. While the MOA for example hasmanagement in-service training programs and there are many courses under thejurisdiction of the National Institute of Administration (LembagaAdministrasi Negara or LAN), these are predominantly arranged to meetpromotion requirements (usually after the event) and are not necessarilysuited to training potential managers. It is recommended that managementtraining at all levels be strengthened.
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Table 4.6: PROJECTED ANNUAL THEORETICAL MANPOWER REQUIREMENTSBY MAJOR EMPLOYER GROUP AND QUALIFICATION (1983/84 AND 1988/89)
/a Most of these would be Sarjana graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote (a)).
/b Includes Sariana Muda and university diploma graduates.
/c Includes certificate and diploma holders from vocational schools.
/d Derived directly from Annex 5, Table 12.
/e Net of requirements for other provincial services.
/f Based on survey of stated requirements, but adjusted by assuming that increases would take place overten years rather than five (i.e., end point is 1988/89 rather than 1983/84). Extending the projectionperiod resulted in a need for additional replacements, but a lower annual growth rate. The projectionsfor 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the flows during that year calculated using the overall growth rates shownin the table.
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Utilization of Manpower
4.17 While government offices often seem to have more staff thannecessary, there is a hard core of skilled people who work long hours. Itis difficult for outsiders to define accurately the precise requirements,however, there is a prima facie case for the proposition that theutilization of trained manpower is below optimum. Often senior managementis overworked and lower ranked staff, which include many new graduates, arerelegated to relatively low-grade support activities. Delegation ofresponsibility is very limited with the result that new graduates, almostregardless of their quality, are usually underutilized.
Comparison Between Supply and Demand/Requirements
(a) Numerical Gap
4.18 A detailed comparison between projected supply and demand require-ments by institution and qualification and hence an implicit conclusion onsurpluses or shortfalls by discipline and by qualification is not possiblewith the data available. Aggregate supply/demand comparisons with a broadbreakdown by qualification are derived. Table 4.7 provides a summary for1983/84 and 1988/89. It should be stressed that these aggregate surpluses ordeficits should be interpreted as indicating broad orders of magnitude only.
4.19 The projected annual supply of Sarjana graduates from the agricul-tural faculties is about 2,600 in 1983/84. Effective demand for Sarjana andMSc graduates is projected around 1,200. Requirements in the same year areat most 3,800 in 1983/84 (see Table 4.5) however for reasons already dis-cussed (para. 4.13) requirements are more likely to be between 1,100 and1,200. In 1988/89 supply is also projected to be in excess of demand andrequirements. It is apparent therefore that, without increases in the basiccapacity of universities, but with some increase in their productive effi-ciency, the supply of Sarjana graduates in the foreseeable future is numeri-cally in excess of demand. The main unknown factors on the supply side are"leakages" resulting from graduates entering professions other than agricul-ture or embarking on postgraduate degrees. On the demand side uncertaintyarises from the extent to which positions currently classified as requiringtechnical qualifications will in future require Sarjana degrees, therebyincreasing the demand for Sarjana graduates. However, even if the annualdemand were to double supply would still be adequate to meet demand.
4.20 The supply and demand situation at the PhD and MSc level cannot bedefined precisely. The trend analysis is affected by the small growth inthe employment of staff with PhD qualifications. At the MSc level the situ-ation is not absolutely clear because those older staff with an Insinjur(Ir) degree (forerunner of the Sarjana degree) have inevitably become mixedwith the Sarjana grouping because the Ir degree has traditionally beenregarded as equivalent to a Master's degree. However, Table 10 in Annex 5suggests at least a 60% increase in staff with a PhD degree during Repelita
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Table 4.7: SIMMARY OF PROJECTED MANPOWER SUJPPLY AND DEMAND/REQUIREMENTS(1983/84 AND 1988/89)/a
Annual AnnualBasis for demand/ demand/ surplus (+)
/a 1983/84 and 1988/89 are the last years of Repelita III and IV, respectively./b Based on Tables 4.1 and 4.2./c Based on projection at 10% p.a. (see Table 4.4)./d The supply includes only Sarjana graduates, however the demand includes some
unspecified, but small, number of MSc graduates (see Table 4.3, footnote/a).
/e These are estimated requirements based on a survey of managers adjusted forthe extended period [see Table 4.5, footnote /b)]. Note that figures shownhere are adjusted for the extended projection period (i.e., to 1988/89).
/f These are based on requirements for specified development projects inRepelita III. Projections of theoretical requirements do not include pro-vincial services outside the MOA or the private sector. The numbers usedhere are adjusted for the extended projection period [see Table 4.6,footnote /b)].
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III (from 170 to 270). This is likely to be a significant underestimate inview of the assessed requirements for PhD-level staff in areas such asagricultural research. For example, the number of additional PhD- and MSc-level scientists required for agricultural research alone over the nexteight years, according to a recent Bank appraisal report, is about 125 and500 respectively./l In addition the estimate of 90 additional PhD-levelstaff required at universities during Repelita III (Annex 5, Table 10) isunlikely to be adequate. Even without replacements and upgrading this wouldaverage only about four additional PhD-level staff per university with anagricultural faculty during Repelita III. Irrespective of the potentialavailability of Sarjana graduates for training (para. 4.19), the domesticcapacity to produce even these numbers is in considerable doubt. It istherefore recommended that urgent attention be given to the expansion ofpostgraduate programs (Appendix A to Annex 11 makes some suggestions in thisrespect).
4.21 On the basis of current data, the supply of agricultural techni-cians is projected to be about 4,200 in 1983/84. Against this the effectivedemand for additional technical staff is anticipated to be about 5,400 in1983/84 if the trend rate of growth (10% p.a.) is used, but as high as 6,200if requirements for executing projects and programs are taken into account.In 1988/89 supply is projected at about 4,800 while annual demand andrequirements range between 8,700 and 12,100. There is obviously room forerror in these estimates. In addition graduates from SMTPs are not included(see paras. 4.02 and 4.03); the supply of technicians may therefore beunderestimated. Upgrading the qualification requirements for technicalmanpower, for example, a change in requirements to Sarjana graduates, wouldof course reduce future demand for technicians. The extent of any errorsor changes, while speculative, are not likely to affect the overallconclusion that in the foreseeable future there will be a substantialshortage of technicians with qualifications in agriculture.
(b) Implications for the Type of Manpower Required
4.22 Agricultural technicians are in short supply and both long(expansion of facilities) and short-term (more intensive utilization ofexisting facilities) strategies by the GOI to increase the capacity oftechnician-level education and training institutions is recommended. Animportant question to be addressed is the type of technician education whichshould receive most support. For example there is a choice between SMTP,SPP and university diploma programs. At the other end of the scale, thereis little question of a deficit of graduates at the PhD and MSc-level.There is a rapidly increasing demand for research workers, well-qualified
/1 Bank Report No. 2805-IND, "Indonesia - National Agricultural ResearchProject", Staff Appraisal Report, April 4, 1980; see particularlyAnnex 1, Table 4).
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teaching staff and top-flight managers who also have a high level oftechnical competence. At the same time the training of teachers for alllevels of education is a high priority.
4.23 A second aspect which deserves urgent attention is the imbalancebetween the supply and demand in specific disciplines at the technical andhigher levels. For example veterinary and animal science enrollments appearto be greater than necessary. Tree crop technicians are in short supply.It is recommended that small, energetic units be established to undertakemanpower planning, possibly within AAETE /1 and the CAS to identify theneeds more precisely than was possible in the report. Part of this activityshould be tracer studies of past graduates. A useful start might be toreview the demand/requirement projections in this report for example bychecking the number of qualified technicians required per farm family orarea of production in different subsectors. Rough calculations along theselines made in connection with this analysis suggest that the manpowerdemand/requirements are already high in relation to the number of productionunits. These types of calculations may act as an additional guide to themanpower planning process.
(c) Regional Distribution of Additional Manpower Requirements
4.24 Most of the tree crop and forestry activities are located outsideJava and hence a large proportion of the technical-level manpower will berequired in the Other Islands. On the other hand it is understood that mostof the qualified foresters are at present working on Java. For food cropsthe situation is not as clear because the food crop subsector is stillconcentrated on Java. Nevertheless, survey results show that at presentabout 40% of technical-level manpower is located outside Java. However, agradual trend towards a greater concentration of technical staff in theOther Islands is consistent with GOI regional development policy. It istherefore logical that any expansion of technical training facilities bedirected mainly at these regions.
/1 The Bank-assisted Second Agricultural Training Project (Bank Report No.2274d-IND, April 9, 1979) provides for such activities; see para. 3.20of report.
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5. IN-SERVICE AND OVERSEAS TRAINING
5.01 The preceding chapters have drawn attention to the long-term needto improve the quality of education and training and to the shortage ofmanpower. This chapter discusses briefly two strategies designed to resolvethese problems; they are in-service training as a means of rapidly improvingthe quality of existing manpower and overseas postgraduate training as ameans of augmenting both the quality and the supply of highly trainedmanpower in the longer term.
In-service Training /1
5.02 The most important function of in-service training in the MOA isto provide remedial training for underqualified staff in relation to theirfunctions and responsibilities. This is mainly due to the shortage ofagricultural technicians, particularly at the middle level, and todeficiencies in the preservice training of some high-level staff entrants.The best examples of in-service training are: training in agriculturalproject management, upgrading courses, methods of agricultural extension,methods of teaching agriculture and practical field work.
5.03 The SPPs and the in-service training centers now being establishedor improved (e.g. under the Second Agricultural Training Project, Loan1692-IND) are expected to be in full operation by 1985 (see Annex 3). Whilethe supply is still expected to fall short of demand, the need for remedialin-service training should then be less as fewer underqualified middle-leveltechnicians will be recruited. In-service training centers would,therefore, be able to concentrate more on improvements in manpower qualitythrough ad hoc courses. All upgrading in-service training could be placedunder the management of the AAETE. At present, some ad hoc in-servicetraining programs are conducted by individual units of the MOA sinceexisting in-service training centers cannot meet all needs. As a result,some courses have been carried out with limited facilities, and standardsthroughout the MOA have not been uniform.
5.04 It is recommended that planning the transition from remedialtraining to "upgrading courses" and career development be initiated quickly.This should include establishing institutional responsibilities for trainingand the type and content of courses. Such an effort implies substantialimmediate activity in the training of future training staff, some of whichmight profitably be done overseas./2
/1 See Annex 8 for a detailed discussion of in-service training.
/2 A National Agricultural Training Institute (NATI) already exists withinthe MOA for local training.
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5.05 The leading university faculties of agriculture in Indonesia havefacilities and resources for in-service training of high-level agriculturestaff. As a part of their community service, these faculties already conductin-service training for some staff of the MOA. However, these activities havebeen limited due to lack of funds. Agricultural faculties could play animportant role in improving the quality of high-level staff of the MOA. It isrecommended that the Government explore such options and possibly encouragethe involvement of agricultural faculties in its training activities byproviding adequate budget support for these universities to mount relevantshort courses.
Overseas Education and Training /1
5.06 Although it is imperative that in future Indonesian highereducation institutions become the major source of postgraduate manpower,they are at present not able to do so adequately, in part because highlyqualified staff are often not available to teach and supervise students.Therefore, unless Indonesia is prepared to delay the improvement of itsteaching, research and management capacity for many years, which foragriculture would be a risky option, it must be accepted that for the timebe.ing a substantial proportion of the total postgraduate training will needto be overseas. W4hile this is accepted by most Indonesian policy-makers,the number of Indonesian students overseas in relation to population issmall compared to other countries./2 Problems include the choice of bestcandidate, language training and so on. However, the mechanism for themanagement of overseas training for eligible students is also a major issue.
(a) Mechanisms for Arranging Overseas Education and Training
5.07 An important obstacle to the movement of students overseas is theabsence of an efficient national mechanism for disseminating and administeringinformation on the type and number of overseas training opportunitiesavailable to Indonesian students. Information is circulated largely throughexisting multi- and bi-lateral support programs which provide a foreigntraining component loan or grant, and are typically directed at one or a smallgroup of universities. Staff at many of the smaller provincial universitieshave little or no access to information regarding the nature and extent ofassistance available for overseas training. The existing arrangements for themanagement of foreign education and training are as follows:
/1 See Annex 12 for a detailed discussion of the issues.
/2 For example at present there are about 16 students per million populationfrom Indonesia, studying in the United States, compared with 54 from thePhilippines, 137 from Thailand and 268 from Mlalaysia (see Annex 12,Table 2).
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(i) The Sister University
5.08 One of the best known forms of assistance to higher agriculturaleduction was the cooperation between the University of Kentucky and theIPB between 1957 and 1966, under which 204 IPB staff from went to study atAmerican land grant universities, 70% of them at the University of Kentucky.About 50% of the Indonesian participants received Master's degrees and 5%PhDs. At any one time about 12 American scholars were living in Bogor, eachstaying two years or more. Although none of the team were fluent inIndonesian and although the University of Kentucky made no claims toexpertise in tropical agriculture, it is inconceivable that IPB would be inits present pre-eminent position without this project. More recently, IPBis developing a joint program in tropical agriculture with ReadingUniversity in the United Kingdom under the British aid program, in additionto its long-standing links with Birmingham University.
5.09 In favor of this approach is the argument that one university isbest equipped to assist in the development of another; that the close insti-tutional linkage provides the continuity which a more general or nationalprogram may not; that selection of candidates for training takes place fol-lowing extensive working relations and a degree of personal involvementamongst the staff of the recipient university; and, not least, that a suc-cessful program is of mutual benefit and that there are incentives on bothsides.
5.10 The main dangers are that the foreign university may be paternal-istic or self-interested; that one foreign university may end up providingmost of. the assistance without adequate expertise in one field; that expertsmay not stay long enough to make an effective contribution or learn to workin Indonesian; and that restricting an assistance agreement to one orseveral universities may result in narrowness or bias.
(ii) The Foundation Approach
5.11 Private nonprofit foundations have been active in Indonesia formore than 25 years including the Rockefeller Foundation, the Ford Founda-tion, the Agricultural Development Council (ADC) and the Asia Foundation.They provide grants for technical assistance and training, supply day-to-dayadvice rather than capital grants or loans, and pride themselves on thequality of their assistance and their personal approach to institutionaldevelopment rather than quantity. The advantages of foundations include:.their long-term perspective; relative freedom from bureaucratic constraintswhich permits them to respond quickly to perceived needs; their high ratioof professional staff to candidates which means they can take a personalinterest in their selection and welfare; the subject matter expertise oftheir staff which implies more fruitful dialogue with professionalIndonesian counterparts and the capacity to assist directly with universityplacement.
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5.12 The most obvious shortcoming of the foundations is their limited
budgets. The number of multi- and bi-lateral aid agencies operating inIndonesia and the size of their commitments have increased over the past 20years; as a result the relative importance of foundation financialcontributions has declined greatly. To maximize their effectiveness theygenerally concentrate their resources in one subject area or location. Thishas already occurred (see Annex 14). A more difficult problem is that dueto inflationary pressures resources available to foundations have declinedin real terms.
(iii) The University Consortium
5.13 MUCIA /1 and AAUCS /2 are both consortia. AAUCS is close to afoundation in scale and style of operation, while MUCIA seems to have beenmost valued for providing a large number of fellowships and visits byshort-term experts over a long period. The consortium has advantages over asingle university arrangement because of its wider scope, even if this meansan extra layer of bureaucracy. The breadth of activities conducted byuniversity consortia varies considerably and consequently requiresconsiderable full-time control and management. A feature of this type ofarrangement is that training opportunities are limited to one country; whichmay be a disadvantage depending on the discipline involved. One aspect ofthis type of assistance, namely visits by short-term experts, drawsparticular criticism. Visits by eminent scholars for periods such as threemonths are frequently not fully utilized. Usually these visitors areunfamiliar with Indonesian conditions, they inevitably communicate inEnglish to an audience which is diverse in terms of preparation andinterests. Despite these problems, some practically oriented sessions ledby foreign experts have apparently been successful. Another type ofconsortium headquartered at a university is the Southeast Asian Center forGraduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). Its activities aremainly in manpower development although fund availability is an importantconstraint on its activities (see Annex 12, para. 21).
(iv) Subcontracted Technical Assistance Loans
5.14 A fairly recent arrival on the scene is an arrangement whereby thehuman resource or the institutional development portion of a multi- orbi-lateral loan is contracted out to a development agency. This combinesthe advantages of the foundation and major loan funding. Depending upon thenature of the agency contracted, there may be national bias in theadministration of the project, if only because individuals involved knowbest the institutions of the country in which they were educated.
/1 Midwest Universities Consortium for International Activities.
5.15 Another variation is a clearing house unit attached to a governmentagency which develops unit selection and placement policies linked to officialdevelopment priorities. The unit could gather information on trainingprograms on an international basis, on their appropriateness for Indonesiancandidates, possible sources of funding, and the application procedures to theuniversities and agencies concerned. It aims also to assist in thedevelopment of a manpower policy, initially through the provision of selectionand placement advice and eventually through coordination of manpower studiesand assessments.
5.16 The advantages of this approach are that such a unit has specializedexperience and can provide placement advice without a foreign bias. Further-more its ability to provide information to provincial and outer islanduniversities and junior staff works in the interests of equity.
5.17 The main problem is that, because of the detailed knowledge offoreign programs necessary, it may be difficult to fully "Indonesianize"such activity. It would also have difficulty in being consistently effectivewithout a substantial and independent budget.
(b) The Type of Mechanism Indicated
5.18 Human resource development inevitably requires a labor-intensive,time-consuming and judgemental approach based upon human contact. Theproblem of improving manpower quality will not be solved by the investmentof large amounts of capital. A combination of carefully planned staff andlibrary development, funding for long-term research, provision of languagetraining, journals and workshops is necessary. The formation of a specialunit (perhaps the "Overseas Education and Training Advisory Center") tofunction as a clearing house for identifying and channelling all overseaseducation and training opportunities is recommended./1 There will need tobe first class subject area expertise amongst the staff and sufficientadministrative capacity to handle fellowships administration. Oneparticularly important component will be a small organization which providesselection and placement advice to individuals and groups. Expertassistance, at least in the early stages, might be enlisted through one ormore of the foundations. The proposed unit should also be in the forefrontof the effort to solve a number of constraints facing overseas training forIndonesian students, including fluency in foreign languages, selectionprocedures and attitudes towards overseas education.
/1 A small but dedicated unit already exists in the DGHE which makes somearrangements for overseas training of DGHE staff. The MOE hasestablished a prototype for the type of unit recommended here.
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(c) Foreign Language Fluency
5.19 In practice, language fluency decides on the feasibility offoreign training. However, a widely held opinion amongst people inassistance agencies dealing with Indonesian candidates over many years,is that foreign language fluency is declining. This may be because the thinlayer of fluent candidates is almost exhausted and the remainder require amuch longer, more effective period of language instruction, which is notpresently provided. It may also be due to the fact that many applying forfellowships now were in the educational system during the early andmid-1960s, a period of disruption for national education programs. It isrecommended that a national Foreign Language Training Center, with whichexisting language programs could become associated, be established.
(d) Selection Procedures
5.20 Candidates for foreign training outside the big universities andcentral government departments rarely know in time what overseas studyopportunities are available and still less how to apply for them. Selectionand placement is at present an arbitrary and highly centralized process,and tends to favor senior people who are fluent in English, live nearJakarta and have good contacts./1 However, if the system should favoranyone, it should be junior staff, irrespective of language fluency. Thisfollows from the fact that a candidate leaving for training in his latetwenties can use his education professionally on his return for two or threetimes as long as a person sent in his early forties.
(e) Other Factors Constraining Overseas Education
5.21 Another important factor appears to be an emerging attitude amongstsome scholarship managers that if the discipline nominated by an applicant isalready served by a graduate program in Indonesia there is no argument forsending that applicant overseas. Although in some circumstances this may betrue, there are numerous situations in which the Indonesian facilities areeither inadequately staffed and/or where overseas training would be a netbenefit from the national point of view./2
/1 See Appendix B to Annex 12 for a discussion of the current selectionprocedures.
/2 These net benefits are of various kinds, but they include more rigorouseducation than most Indonesian universities, better laboratories and anexposure to a wider range of experience.
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6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.01 This chapter will bring together the policy and operationalimplications of the report. Policies and projects for agriculturaleducation and training, as well as issues related to the supply and demandfor technical and professional manpower in agriculture, should be consideredin the context of the needs and policies in other sectors. While someconclusions and recommendations can be drawn and made quite safely for theagricultural sector there are others which require a more coordinatedapproach than is possible in this report. The following conclusions andrecommendations apply only to agricultural education, training and manpowerissues. Followup of these recommendations would probably lead to theidentification of a number of projects.
Management and Administration of the Agricultural Education System
(i) The Consortium for Agricultural Sciences (CAS)
6.02 Conclusion. The CAS, as an advisory body, has neither the budgetnor the manpower to adequately assume its responsibilities, namely todesign, guide and monitor university agricultural education. It has noformal governing council and inevitably the Executive Secretary and theprogram managers are placed under heavy pressure to fulfill the Consortium'srole (para. 2.18 and Annex 1).
6.03 Recommendation. The CAS should be strengthened, provided withan increased budget and more full-time and/or part-time staff. A formalgoverning council should be established with representation fromuniversities in all major regions. The consortium should be involved in allaspects of higher agricultural education standards and curriculum planning,although overcentralization of decisions on these matters should be avoided.It should be given authority and funds to undertake manpower planning inhigher agricultural education including tracer studies of past graduates(paras. 2.19 and 4.23).
(ii) Identification and Management of Overseas Education andTraining Opportunities
6.04 Conclusion. Arrangements for the efficient dissemination andadministration of information on programs for the overseas education andtraining of Indonesian agricultural graduate students are inadequate (para.6.07 and Annex 12).
6.05 Recommendation. A special unit within the Ministry of Educationand Culture, perhaps the "Overseas Education and Training Advisory Center"and associated with similar existing units (for example, the Bureau of
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Overseas Technical Cooperation in the MOE and various Project ImplementationUnits) elsewhere in the Government should be established. It would functionas an advisory center for identifying and disseminating information onoverseas education and training opportunities to government and privatesector institutions. Another important role would be selection andplacement advice. The proposed center should also be in the forefront ofthe effort to solve the constraints facing overseas education and trainingfor Indonesian students (para. 5.18).
(iii) Language Training
6.06 Conclusion. Lack of competence in foreign languages is one of themost serious constraints to using overseas education and training opportuni-ties, also a high proportion of agricultural science books and journals inIndonesian university libraries are in foreign languages, but students' lan-guage abilities are poor (paras. 5.19, 3.31, and 3.40).
6.07 Recommendation. A "National Foreign Language Training Center," withwhich existing language programs could become associated, should beestablished. Such a center should have the necessary capacity to financeand, where necessary, provide a range of language training and orientationprograms for students planning to study overseas (para. 5.19).
(iv) Communication Between Employer Groups and theAgricultural Education System
6.08 Conclusion. Existing mechanisms for communication betweenemployers of agricultural technicians and scientists and those responsiblefor their education are at best informal and sporadic (para. 2.19).
6.09 Recommendation. Efficient formal or informal mechanisms need tobe established to achieve more effective communication between employergroups and representatives of the agricultural education and trainingcommunity. For the technician level this might be coordinated through AAETEin collaboration with the DTVE and at the higher level through theConsortium for Agricultural Sciences (para. 2.19)
(v) Data on Education and Training
6.10 Conclusion. While statistical material on education and traininghas improved considerably, data on many aspects of the system are oftenincomplete. The data are particularly fragile when used for analysis ofinternal efficiency of the system (para. 3.04).
6.11 Recommendation. A mechanism should be established to improve thequality of the data related to internal efficiency of the education andtraining system (para. 3.04).
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Capacity of the Education and Training System
(i) Technician-level Training
6.12 Conclusion: The projected annual supply of technician-levelmanpower in agriculture, on the basis of known development plans, issubstantially below projected annual effective demand or requirements in1983/84 and 1988/89 (para. 4.21).
6.13 Recommendation. The Government should consider increasing thecapacity of agricultural technician-level education and training institu-tions. A careful study is needed to define precisely the type, (e.g.,whether for SMTP, SPP or university diploma programs) size and location ofinstitutions required; however a heavy emphasis on forestry, fisheries andtree crops in the Other Islands is indicated. Special attention should alsobe paid to more intensive use of existing institutions, curricula adjustmentand to the needs for teacher training (paras. 4.22 and 4.23).
(ii) In-service Training
6.14 Conclusion. The long-term requirements for in-service training ofgovernment staff are projected to be in the field of staff development andmanagement ability, rather than remedial or supplementary training intechnical or professional skills. The capacity of facilities and experienceof staff in this area of training is limited and needs to be developed(para. 6.03).
6.15 Recommendation. In-service training facilities and instructorsfor staff development and management skills should be strengthened.Planning for an expansion of this type of training should be started at theearliest opportunity, in particular programs for the training of teachersand instructors should be initiated (paras. 4.16 and 5.04).
(iii) Higher Agricultural Education
6.16 Conclusion. The projected supply of Sarjana-level agriculturalscience graduates is expected to be in balance or somewhat below theprojected demand in 1983/84 and 1988/89. The opposite is the case formanpower with higher degrees such as MSc and PhD (paras. 4.19 and 4.20).
6.17 Recommendation. Expansion of enrollment capacity for the Sarjana-level programs in agricultural faculties at universities should be monitoredclosely and planned to cover specific manpower gaps. There should be fullsupport for improving the quality of existing physical facilities for theSarjana program and for the facilities required to develop and improve MScand PhD programs.
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The Quality of the Education and Training System
(i) Productivity of Education System
6.18 Conclusion. Although inadequate information was available fordetailed assessment, the productivity of the higher education system is verylow (paras. 3.03 to 3.05).
6.19 Recommendation. The study of internal efficiency in Indonesianuniversities should be completed at the earliest opportunity./l It shouldinter alia consider the need for financial support to students throughscholarships (para. 3.06).
(ii) Composition of Curricula
6.20 Conclusion. First degree curricula in agricultural sciences arecharacterized by considerable specialization and inadequate basic science
content (paras. 3.21 and 3.22). There is also a neglect of practicaltraining, particularly field studies (para. 3.26).
6.21 Recommendation. Curricula should be reviewed and amended toimprove the science content of courses and to delay specialization until thethird or fourth year (para. 3.22). The role of practical training inlaboratories and workshops and at field centers should be reviewed andstandards established for quality of training and facilities required (para.3.26 and Annex 11).
(iii) Separation Between Faculties of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
6.22 Conclusion. There is at present considerable separation betweenthe faculties of agriculture and animal husbandry (para. 3.23).
6.23 Recommendation. There would be advantages in reducing this sepa-ration so as to make the training of agriculturists more in tune with the
structure and needs of Indonesian agriculture. It is therefore recommendedthat there should be a greater degree of integration between agriculturaland animal husbandry faculties. In the longer run it may be possible toachieve full integration of crop and animal sciences in one faculty (para.3.23).
(iv) Quality of Staff
6.24 Conclusion. Although degrees held by university staff are asuperficial measure of academic standard, judged on this criterion, qualityis low. Graduate programs are being introduced into agricultural faculties,
/1 Study of Internal Efficiency of Indonesian Universities financedunder the Bank-assisted Polytechnic Project (Cr. 869-IND).
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but many are deficient in terms of teaching staff. The report did notreview teaching staff at vocational schools, but it is likely that averagestaff quality there is also low (paras. 3.14 to 3.18).
6.25 Recommendation. Substantial staff development programs should beestablished. Major emphasis in PhD and MSc programs should be placed onimproving their quality, particularly course work content and the supervi-sion of research. Postgraduate programs should not be expanded beyond staffresources. Nevertheless, specific arrangements for enlarged domesticpostgraduate programs should be an integral part of longer term planning forthe sector, possibly with expatriate staff assistance in the early years.Some of the increased immediate demand for higher degrees should be relievedby expansion in overseas higher degree training (paras. 3.17 and 4.20).
(v) Libraries and Teaching Materials
6.26 Conclusion. The quality and extent of library facilities inagricultural education and training institutions is generally inadequate.At the same time there is a considerable shortage of Indonesian texts andreference books (paras. 3.30 to 3.36).
6.27 Recommendation. A nationwide program is required to improvelibrary facilities, staffing, management and use. It is also criticallyimportant to provide Indonesian texts and references. Improvements inlibrary services staffing and the preparation of Indonesian teachingmaterials should be funded as a priority (para. 3.34).
(vi) Staff and Student Housing
6.28 Conclusion. Although housing is an important element in the staffcompensation package, it is frequently not provided, particularly in theoutlying provincial universities. Also students are frequently forced tolive in inadequate quarters (paras. 3.07, 3.28 and 3.29).
6.29 Recommendation. Budget allocations to staff housing should beincreased. Housing for students, while important, should be consideredafter adequate library and study facilities have been provided (paras. 3.07and 3.29).
(vii) Staff Salaries and Other Rewards
6.30 Conclusion. Staff salaries and other benefits are generallyinadequate and teachers devote much time to various outside jobs. This hasa detrimental effect on the quality of education (paras. 3.15 and 3.18).
6.31 Recommendation. Salaries and other staff benefits should bereviewed with the aim of establishing specific incentives for teaching,research and community service. Policies and guidelines on the extent ofadditional paid employment permitted for teachers while holding a permanentposition should be established (para. 3.16).
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(viii) Research Activities
6.32 Conclusion. The role of universities in national agriculturalresearch is still to be defined completely. Also regular funding for long-term research still needs to be established (para. 3.38).
6.33 Recommendation. There is a need to define the role ofuniversities in agricultural research and their relationship with theGovernment's research establishment and programs. It is also suggested thatregular and long-term funding arrangements be evolved which will encouragethe planning and execution of long-term research programs to replace theshort-term exercises that are typically contracted to university staff.While paragraph 6.33 has recommended that extracurricular contracts becontrolled, the World Bank and other donors should be more sensitive to theconsiderable disturbance to regular university activities caused byincluding research or investigation components in projects without anadequate assessment of the availability of the manpower required to executethe tasks (paras. 3.18 and 3.38).
(ix) Overseas Education and Training
6.34 Conclusion. Overseas education and training should be animportant strategy for improving the quality of university staff, seniorprofessional, technical and management staff in government departments andthe private sector. The report identifies a substantial future shortage ofagriculturists trained to the PhD and MSc level. Opportunities for thistype of training within Indonesia are limited at present. Funds foroverseas study from some previously large donors are declining; it isconcluded that a sustantial program financing overseas study should besupported as a priority project (paras. 3.17, 4.20, 5.06 and 6.27).
6.35 Recommendation. The GOI should evolve a mechanism for expandingoverseas scholarship programs, possibly supported with funds from the Bankor other donors. The program could be managed by an "Overseas Education andTraining Advisory Center" (see para. 6.07) or the Consortium forAgricultural Services, with the possible collaboration of one or more of themajor foundations operating in Indonesia.
Employment Policies of Government and the Private Sector
6.36 Conclusion. Employers of agriculturists stressed the importanceof obtaining higher quality graduates (para. 4.15). This report concludesthat the quality of graduates could be improved through a more selectiveemployment policy by the Government and the private sector (para. 4.15).
6.37 Recommendation. The Government and the private sector shouldplace greater emphasis in their public statements and employment policies ona demand for quality graduates (para. 4.15).
INDONESIATECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL MANPOWER IN AGRICULTURE
EDUCATION STRUCTURE, 1980
University
Legend
School Leaving Examinations
* Sarqana Muda Degree Secondary Teacher Training College (IKIP)
(9 Sariana Degree
0 atrsDge Upper SecondarY School (SMA) Academy(O> Master s Degree
Ph. D k 4i- Ph. D,~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Primnary Tacher Tra n n Schro(SPG)
Other Schools 0
Jr. Secondary School (SMP) S1 (Sarjana) S2 (Pasca Sa,wna) S3 (Ph D )
